Thermodynamic systemi, temperature

Thermodynamic system is an entity that contains matter or substance of given amount.

Matter can be in different states (solid, gas, liquid). Examples: brick, balloon, bottle of soft drink,...

The state of thermodynamic system is described using state variables: volume V, pressure p,
temperature T, amount of matter n.

The state of a system changes whenever one variable changes. At the same time other variables can
change too.

Thermodynamic system is

 isolated, if it does not exchange matter or energy with its environment

 closed, if it exchanges only energy with its environment
 open, if it exchanges both matter and energy with its environment

Thermal energy (heat) refers to kinetic energy of independent particles of matter.

Temperature is a consequence of this kinetic energy. It is derived from the average kinetic energy of
particles. Higher kinetic energy causes higher temperature.

Temperature can be mseasured using different scales. In physics one uses the kelvin scale from SI
system which gives rise to absolute temperature scale. Absolute zero is 0 K and freezing point of
water is 273,15 K. In everyday life one uses also the celsius scale which is connected to kelvin scale
by the formula
where T is in kelvins and t in degrees of celcius. So

0K -273,15 °C
273,15 K 0 °C
373,15 K 100 °C
Note that a change in temperature is the same in both scales i.e.

Pressure
Pressure is force exerted F on a surface A or

The unit of pressure is pascal (Pa) and it is defined as

Atmospheric pressure is a consequence of weight of air within atmosphere. Standard atmospheric

pressure is the average pressure at the sea level. It's value is 101 325 Pa.

Pressure can be measured also in bars whence 1 bar = 100 000 Pa.

Liquid's own weight causes hydrostatic pressure. It is computed using the formula

where Pis the pressure of the liquid, g is standard gravity an h is the depth where pressure is to
be measured.
Total pressure at depth h consists of the sum of atmospheric pressure P0 and hydrostatic pressure
ph.

Energy, potential energy, kinetic energy

Energy appears in nature in different forms. The law of conservation of energy states that system's
total energy is conserved but it may change from one form to another.

Moving objects have kinetic energy, which depends on the mass of the object and the velocity

This gives rise to unit of energy joule (J) as

as

Same unit is used for other forms of energy as well.

Objects have also energy due to gravity depending on their vertical position. This potential energy is
calculated as
 ,

where m is the mass of the object, g is standard gravity and h is the height of object from reference
level.

If object's potential energy is considered at two heights h1 and h2 , then the change in potential
energy between these heights is

Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.

Work, power, efficiency

In physics force does work, if it moves an object, object moves to the direction of force.

Work is transfer of energy between an object and its environment.

Work transforms energy from one form to another.

If object's displacement is s, then constant force F does work W as

 , if force is in the direction of motion

Power P is work W done by force in a time interval t or

Unit of power is watt: 1 W = 1 J/s.

Energy consumed is also measured in kilowatthours: 1 kWh = 3,6 MJ.

Efficiency of an engine transforming energy is

,
Heat, quantity of heat, heat energy, laws of thermodynamics

Heat transfers by itself from hot to cold. The energy transferred this way is called the quantity of
heat Q (unit is joule).
Temperature differences in isolated system even out and this phenomenon is called the zeroth law
of thermodynamics.

Energy can transfer between systems in three different ways by

1. convection
o energy transfered by matter
o ocean current, district heating water,...
2. conduction
o energy transfered inside matter
o energy is transfered, matter is not
o matters are categorized as conductors and insulators
3. radiation

o does not need matter

o for example, rays from Sun bring energy to Earth
o all objects radiate

Work and heat change the internal energy of a system. This change appears as change in system's
state (volume, pressure, temperature). Change in internal energy can be computed whereas the
internal energy itself cannot be measured.

First law of thermodynamics: Change in system's internal energy is

Heating gas expands it. Expanding heat does work (e.g. pistol in cylinder) such that internal energy of
gas is reduced by

Second law of thermodynamics: All thermodynamic systems evolve towards equilibrium.

Equilibrium means the most disorganized state of system. Higher disorganization = higher entropy.

Entropy increases in self-progressing processes in nature. For example, when two gases mix.
Heat engines
Heat engines either release or receive energy as a result of work done by force or heat.

Two types of heat engines

4. heat engine (e.g internal combustion engine) transforms energy from fuel to mechanical
work
5. heat pump transfers energy from cold to hot using electricity

In heat engine energy is transfered from hot to cold.

Efficiency is

where W is work done by the engine and Q1 is input quantity of heat. Theoretical upper bound of
efficiency or Carnot efficiency is defined using temperatures as
 .

Remember to use kelvin scale here!

Heat pump requires external energy to transfer energy.

Thermal expansion
Heating an object will expand it and cooling it will shrink it.

Solids have less expansion than gases and liquids. Gases have the highest expansion.
Length change of an object is

where a is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion, is the original length of object

and is the change in temperature (in kelvins). The unit of coefficient of linear

thermal expansion is

Warming/cooling determines the sign of temperature change and gives therefore the correct
result in calculations (length change may be positive or negative)

Since matter expands equally in all directions then area change and volume change are

Energy binding and releasing

Warming object binds energy and cooling object releases it.
The quantity of heat released or bound by matter is

where c is specific heat capacity, m is mass and is change in temperature (in

kelvins). The unit of heat capacity is

For objects (samples of substance) this may be expressed also as

Where C is heat capacity of sample of substance. If the matter of substance is known then
C= cm Note that the unit of heat capacity is

Equations of state for gas

Equation of state for ideal gas is

where p is pressure, V is volume, n is amount of substance, T is temperature and R is gas

constant (see Chapter 1).

Recall that amount of substance satisfies

where m is mass of matter and M is its molar mass.

Real gases are understood here as ideal gases.

If amount of substance n stays constant then

(this constant is actually the gas constant R). So if one of the quantities p, V, T changes then
at least one of the two remaining ones changes too. It means that the two states of gas
satisfies
If temperature stays constant then pV is constant or

(pressure-volume law).

If volume stays constant then p/T is constant or

(pressure-temperature law).

If pressure stays constant then V/T is constant or

(volume-temperature law).

There is no agreement on inventors of these laws and hence the names and not refered here.

Phase transitions
The state of matter (solid, liquid, gas) depends on pressure and temperature.

Temperature does not change in phase transitions if pressure remains constant.

Phase of a system is a uniform part of a system. Phase transition means a transition between
phases.

Phase diagram depicts the dependence of a phase on pressure and temperature.

Phase diagram has the following curves of balance:

 melting curve = between solid and liquid

 vaporization curve = between liquid and vapor
 sublimation curve = between solid and vapor

Triple point = conditions, where all three states are in balance i.e. matter can exist
simultaneously in all three phases

Critical point = point specific to mattter where it cannot be distinguished between liquid and
gaseous states

Melting binds and freezing releases energy as

where s is specific latent heat and m is the mass.

Vaporization binds and condensation releases energy as

Energy in society
Our modern society produces and consumes energy in various forms.

Primary energy is unrefined energy before production (oil, natural gas, coal, nuclear energy,
water, wind,...)

Secondary energy is produced in a process (e.g. gasolin from oil). Process can turn only a part
of primary energy into secondary energy.

Developing energy production processes aim to reduce use of fossile fuels and nuclear fuel
and so decrease amount of emissions and waste.

Renewable enery (such as sun, wind, water) are central in this direction.

Greenhous gases prevent radiation from the Sun returning from the Earth back to space (e.g.
water vapour, carbon monoxide, ozone,...)

Aerosol are tiny particles floating in air: sulphur particles, carbon dust, water vapour.

Greenhouse effect i.e. the Sun's warming effect on atmosphere is caused by the fact that part
of the radiation is unable to return to space due to greenhouse gases. This phenomenon is
getting stronger due to increase of greenhouse gases in atmosphere. Climate change is one
consequence of human activity which increases greenhouse gases in atmosphere.

Direct current, voltage

The unit of current I is ampere (A).

Direct current travels in same direction always in circuits (e.g. batteries).

Alternating current changes its direction periodically (e.g. electric grid).

Kirchoff's first law: Junctions in circuit diagram have equal sums of incoming and outgoing
currents.
Having batteries in series by joining ends of opposing signs increases voltage.

If batteries' voltages are the same then joining ends of same sign will cancel out voltage.

Connecting batteries in parallel means joining plus ends with plus ends and minus ends with
minus ends.

Similar batteries in parallel keeps the voltage unchanged.

The unit of voltage U is volt (V). Voltage announces itself as differing charges in the ends of
the battery. Current flow in circuit needs voltage source (typically battery). Voltage is
measured using voltmeter, where meters plus ends is attached to plus end of the voltage
source. Voltmeter allows one to measure the voltage difference of component's ends i.e. the
potential difference.
Ohm's law, resistance
Ohm's law: Voltage difference U in conducting material is (in constant temperature)
proportional to current I or

where R is the resistance of the conductor. The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω=V/A). Hence
resistance is the slope of the graph U(I) when the graph is a line (this holds in constant
temperature).

Resistance is potential difference divided by current or

(this holds even if graph is not a line).

Resistance of the conductor depends on the length l, cross sectional are A and resistivity of
substance P as

Resistivity P is specific to substance and it signifies the ability of the substance to resist
current flow. Its unit is ohmmeter (Ωm). Low resistivity means high conductivity.

Potential, voltage
Potential means potential difference in circuit as compared to reference level (zero potential).
Reference level is located at the point of ground and there the potential is .

Potential is measured using voltmeter by joining minus end to ground. Potential difference to
the point where plus end is joined equals the voltage between these points. In general,
voltage between points B and A equals the potential difference of these points or

When travelling the circuit in the direction of current flow potential increases in batteries and
decreases in lamps and resistors. Conductors' effects on potential is disregarded.

Change of potential along the circuit is illustrated using the potential curve. For example:
Point A is gound. Potential V increases at voltage sources between A and B as well as between
B and C. Potential decreases in lamps between C and D as well as D and A (lamps are not
similar).

Kirchoff's second law: Potential differences in closed circuit cancel each other so they sum up
to zero

(along one full round the circuit potential increases and decreases equally, see figure above).

Resistor combinations

Resistors in series has the total resistance as the sum of the individual resistances.

(resistance increases, current decreases)

Resistors in parallel has the total resistance equal to inverse of the sum of inverse
resistances.
(resistance decreases, current increases)

Electric power
Electric power of an appliance is

where U is the potential difference and I is the current flowing through the appliance. The
unit of power is watt (W=VA).

Joule's law: If the resistance is R, then power (and energy) consumed by the appliance is

If appliance is used at the average electric power P for time duration of t, then amount of
energy transformed is

This has the unit of kilowatthour kWh.

Battery

Battery under no load has the voltage between terminals called electromotive force E.
Battery under load has terminal voltage U.
Electromotive force is greater than terminal voltage due to internal resistance of the battery

R.
These quantities are related via is called the short circuit current.

Internal resistance is the absolute value of the slope of the line. Electromotive force
corresponds to current I=0 A.

where I is the current flowing in circuit. This leads to line with negative slope in I,U -
coordinate system called the load curve.

The extrapolated intersection with I -axis or

Batteries connected

 in series means connecting the terminals of opposing signs in consecutive batteries.

Electromotive force and terminal voltage are obtained as the sums
and
 in parallel means connecting terminals of same sign. If the batteries are similar then
the total voltage equals the terminal voltage of an individual battery.

Electric charge, Coulomb's law

Electric charge is a property of particles which is caused by positively charged protons in
atoms' nucleaus and negatively charged electrons surrounding the nucleus. Charge of protons
is and that of electrons is , where is the elementary charge (smalles
observable charge) of size

Here coulomb C is the unit of electric charge Q.

Electric charge causes electric interaction and it further gives rise to electric force.

Electric force F between two pointlike objects increases as the distance between points
decrease or the charges of points increase. This is known as the Coulomb's law

Electric force appearing in Coulomb's law is called the Coulomb's force.

Charges of opposite signs have electric force as attractive force and the forces exerted point
towards each other. Charges of same sign cause repulsive force and forces point away from
each other.

If there is insulation between object then the force between objects is

Electric field, charged particle in

electric field
Electric field surrounding a charged particle is illustrated with field lines which travel from
positively charged particle to negatively charged particle.

Lines indicate the field's direction, shape and magnitude. More closely drawn lines correspond
to stronger electric field. Electric field is

where is the constant appearing in Coulomb's law.

If Q is positive, then electric field points away from the charge.

If Q is negative, then electric field points towards the charge.
Electric field is homogeneous if its direction and magnitude remain the same everywhere. In
this case the graphical illustration field lines all points in same direction and they are equally
densely everywhere. This happens for example between two parallel conductor plates having
opposite charges.
If a positively charged particle is positioned between the plates then the electric force acting
on the particle moves it towards negatively charged plate. This creates electric field potential

where is the distance to reference level and is the electric field. This has the unit
volt (V).

Potential difference or voltage between two points B and A in electric field is

Where is the distance between the points (along same field line).

Charged particle with mass m and charge q receives in homogeneous electric field an

acceleration of

(note vector quantities; force, acceleration and field have both direction and magnitude).

Capacitor, capacitance, energy

Capacitor consists of two closely located conductors with opposite charges (equaling in
absolute value) and which are separated by insulating material.
Electric field is formed between conductors and there is voltage between
conductors.

Capacitor can be charged using voltage source and so capacitor can store energy.

When charging a capacitor occurs then conductors' charges increase and voltage between
conductors increase to match that of voltage source.

The ratio between charge and voltage is called the capacitance

and its unit is farad (F=C/V). Capacitance describes the capacitors ability to store electricity.

Capacitance of parallel-plate capacitor can be computed by the formula

where A is the surface area of plate and d is the distance between plates.
Charged capacitor has the energy

where one has used the capacitance formula twice.

Semiconductors
In terms of electric conductivity, semiconductors take their place between insulators and
conductors.

In semiconducting materials, electric conductivity can be controlled by adding impurities.

Semiconductors lay the foundation for modern electronic appliances by way of components:
transistor, diode, integrated circuit,...

Diodes have current flowing in one direction only and therefore they are used to convert
alternating current to direct current.

Light emitting diode is called led.

Semiconductor types:

 n-type = electrons act as charge carriers

 p-type = positive charges act as charge carriers

Motion along straight line

An object is said to be in motion along straight line if it travels the same distance in sama
time intervals. In this case the velocity of the motion is constant or
Where is the displacement of the position and is the time interval. Using the
displacement we may find the distance traveled in seconds in the form

If the initial time step is then the position of the object at time is

Where is the initial position and is the constant velocity of the object.

Object is said to be in motion with constant acceleration if the change in acceleration in each
time interval

is constant.

In motion with constant acceleration

 object's velocity at time is where is the initial velocity and

is the acceleration (constant).
 object's average velocity is where is the final velocity
 object's position at time is where is the initial
position

In a similar fashion average acceleration is

Instantaneous values for velocity and acceleration are obtained from the slope of the graph
depicting position and velocity at each time instant .

Interaction, force, Newton's laws

Interactions can be divided into two types

 contact interaction (e.g. hitting a baseball with a bat)

 long-range interaction (e.g. gravitation, ball drops eventully to ground)

Force is an interaction on a body. These are called as contact force and long-range force.

Normal force is perpendicular to surface.

Other forces:

 buoyancy, friction, tension, electric force, weight, magnetic force

An interaction between two bodies acts on both bodies simultaneously and with equal
magnitude. Hence interaction is always concerned with two forces

 force acting on body of interest

 counter force acting on the second body of the interaction

This appear always in pairs.

Newton's III law: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts a force in
opposite direction on a body A

Newton's I law: If a body is not in an interaction with any other body then it either stays in
rest or moves with constant velocity.

Newton's II law: Acceleration of a body is the ratio between the total force exerted on

the body and its mass or

(hence acceleration is in same direction with the total force).

Weight exerted on a body is where is the mass of the body and is the
standard acceleration.

Total force consists of all forces exerted on a body.

If two forces and are perpendicular to each other their superposition or resultant
is

and the direction of the force is found from

Forces not acting perpendicularly can be divided into components parallel to coordinate axis
as

These can be used to write the force as the sum of its components which

gives the magnitude of the force as

Friction
Friction is contact force between surfaces of bodies which tries to prevent or slow down
bodies sliding with respect to each other. Magnitude of friction is dependent on surface
material and smoothness, but not the surface area itself.

Friction can be divided into following types:

  static friction = prevents body from moving
 kinetic friction = prevents body from sliding
 maximum static friction = largest value of static friction

Friction force is proportional to normal force of the body.

Kinetic friction force is where coefficient of kinetic friction is specific to

surface materials in contact.

Maximum static friction is where coefficient of static frictrion is

specific to surface materials in contact.

Buoyant force

Fluids and gases exert force on body called buoyancy.

Buoyant force is a consequence of difference in hydrostatic pressure on body's top and

bottom (pressure increases the deeper the body is). Buoyant force is computed as

Where is part of the volume under liquid/gas and is the density of the liquid/gas.
So buoyant force does not depend on the material of the body.

Body floats, when part of it is under water. In this case the buoyant force equals the weight
of the body. Body sinksi if and body raises to surface when
Torque, equilibrium conditions
Torque means forces causing rotational motion.

Force applies torque about axis of rotation A as

where is the perpendicular distance from line of action to axis of rotation.

If is important to notice here that the distance must be perpendicular. If the force is not
applied perpendicularly then the distance can be calculated using trigonometry. For example,
in the figure below it is

(line of action is continued with dashed line)

Torque is positive when rotated counter-clockwise.

A body is called rigid if its shape does not change as a result of forces applied to it.

Rigid body is in equilibrium

with respect to acceleration if the total force applied to it is zero or

with respect to rotation if torques about any point cancel each other or

The latter two equations are called the equilibrium conditions of rigid body.

Work, energy
Work is force acting on moving body. Its formula is
where the force s applied to the direction of body's motion and the displacement
in the direction of motion. Unit of work is Nm=J.

So work is done only by the component of the force which is in the direction of motion.

Work might be negative if it is applied to opposite direction of motion.

Work can be determined graphically by computing the area between the graph and
-axis.

Average power of work is

Where is work done by force and is time duration of the work. Unit of power is
watt (W).

Body's

 kinetic energy is , where is the body's mass and is its

velocity.
 potential energy is , where is standard gravity and is the
vertical distance of the body from the reference level.
 mechanical energy is the sum

Work and energy are closely related to each other. More precisely:

or work equals the change is body's kinetic energy. Moreover, work done by force lifting the
body equals the change in potential energy or

Conservation of mechanical energy means that body's mechanical energy is conserved or

In other words: , where subindex 0 refers to initial state and

subindex 1 to final state.

Collision, impulse, momentum

Collision means short interaction between two bodies.

Collision is said to be

 elastic, if the bodies do not stick together in the collision and their shapes return to
original forms after the collision
  inelastic, if the kinetic energy of bodies is not conserved in the collision
 completely inelastic, if bodies stick together in the collision

Impulse is force acting on body over short time interval. Its formula is

Where is the force applied and is the time interval of the action. Note that as a
vector quantity impulse has the same direction as the force. Unit of impulse is Ns.

Impulse can be determined graphically by finding the area between the graph and
-axis.

Momentum is the product between mass and velocity or

Direction of momentum is the same as direction of velocity. Unit of momentum is kgm/s.

Impulse and momentum are related to each other via impulse-momentum principle

Where is the change in momentum.

Conservation of momentum means that the total momentum of bodies remains the same
before and after the interaction or

Where and are bodies' masses, and are bodies' velocities before
interaction and and are their velocities after interaction.

Momentum is conserved in isolated systems or

Summarizing table:

total momentum shape changes

collision kinetic energy

elastic conserved conserved return back

inelastic conserved not conserved do not return back

Rotational motion, circular motion

Rotational motion changes the orientation of a body.

Rotation takes place around an axis of rotation (real or fictional).

Velocity of rotation is
Where is the number of rotations and is the duration of rotation. Unit of velocity
of rotation is 1/s ("times per second").

Angle of rotation is the ratio between circular arc and radius or

Unit of angle of rotation is radian (rad). One whole rotation correspond to angle of rotation
Hence the relation between degrees and radians is

Or

Change in angle of rotation is measure in angular velocity

Unit of angular velocity is rad/s ("radians per second"). If angular velocity is constant then the
motion is called uniform circular motion.

Angular velocity and velocity of rotation are related by

Circular motion means motion along circular path. Circular motion does not change the
orientation of the body, only position is changed.

Velocity (or orbital velocity) means the velocity of a body moving along circular path.

If magnitude of velocity is constant, then the motion is called uniform circular motion. But the
direction of velocity changes.

In uniform circular motion body has acceleration which is directed towards the center of
the circular path and its magnitude is

Where s the velocity and is the radius of the path.

Gravitation
Kepler formulated laws concerning motion of the planets.

I law: planets orbits' are ellipses, whose other focal point is the Sun.

II law: line segment joining planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal time
intervals. In other words if , then . It means that the planet has slower
velocity the farther it is from the Sun.
III law: the square of the orbital period is proportional to cube of the median distance

to Sun or
Therefore planets further from the Sun have longer orbital period.

There is gravitational interaction between planet and the Sun. The gravitational force acting
on the planet is directed towards the Sun. Two bodies have gravitational interaction which
gives rise to gravitational force of equal magnitude but of opposite sign.

Newton's law of gravitation: If the centers of two pointlike bodies are at a distance from

each other then the bodies attract each other by a force

Where and are the mases of the bodies and

is gravitational constant. This force is called the gravitational force and it is a long-range
force.

The velocity and distance to Earth of a body orbiting the Earth (satellite, planet,...)

can be determined using Newton's law in the form

Where is the mass of the Earth.

Gravitational field is used to model gravitational interaction. Two bodies have their own
gravitational fields which the other body experiences as a force. Forces are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

The magnitude of Earth's gravitational field at a distance of from the center of Earth is
Where is the mass of the Earth. Radius of Earth is

A body in gravitational field has potential energy at a distance from the body causing the
field as

Where is the mass of the body and is the mass of the body causing the field.
Body in gravitational field conserves its mechanical energy or

Where is the (orbital) velocity of the body.

Harmonic motion and oscillating

motion
Harmonic force is directed towards the equilibrium of the body and is proportional to the
distance to the equilibrium position.

An example of harmonic motion is spring force whose formula is

where the spring constant describes the stiffness of the spring; unit is N/m and is
the displacement from the equilibrium position.
Oscillation is periodic motion around the equilibrium position where same phases reoccur in
steady time intervals.

Motion caused by harmonic force is called harmonic oscillation.

Period is time duration between consecutive oscillations.

Inverse of period is called the frequencey or Unit of frequency is hertz (Hz=1/s).

Amplitude is the largest displacement from the equilibrium position. Distance between
two extreme positions is therefore
When a spring is in harmonic oscillating motion as a result from body then period satisfies

where is the mass of the body and is the spring constant.

Wave motion
echanical waves require medium (water, air,...) in order to travel.

Mechanical wave is a disturbance which propagates in a medium periodically.

Pulse is an individual disturbance propagating in medium. Pulse keeps its shape and site
unless oscillators are exerted outside damping forces.

Harmonic force creates a wave motion whose shape is that of sine curve.

Wave length is the distance between two consecutive peaks (or valleys). Figure below
shows also the amplitude Propagating velocity of a wave is

where is the frequency. This basic equation holds for all waves.
Reflection, refraction
The angle between wave front and normal to the surface is called angle of incidence.

The angle between the reflected wave and normal to the surface is called the angle of
reflection.

Normal to the surface is line perpendicular to the surface.

Law of reflection: angles of incidence and reflection are equal or

Refraction occurs at the interface of two materials so that the direction and wave length
change.
Let the angle of incidence be The angle between refracted wave and normal to the
surface is called the angle of refraction. Refraction may happen towards the normal or away
from the normal. This depends on the velocity of the wave inside the two materials:

If the velocity of the wave when passing through the interface

 decreases, then refraction occurs towards the normal and wave length decreases
 increases, then refraction occurs away from the norm and wave length increases.

Material where wave propagates

 faster is called optically less dens

 slower is called optically denser

Wave travels along the same path if its direction is reverser. Also then the same rule for
refraction holds with respect to normal. Figure above does not present the reflected wave.

Quantities appearing in the figure obey the law of refraction

The ratio

Interference, diffraction
Two waves coexisting in same part of the space is called interference.

Interference is called

 constructive, if the waves' displacements from equilibrium position are in same

direction
 destructive, fi the displacements are in opposite directions.

Interference amounts to superposition of wave or adding the displacements up.

Animation on destructive pulses: (waves cancel each other in the middle)

Animation on constructive pulses: (wave amplify each other in the middle)

ine waves

 cause constructive interference when their path difference is an integral multiple of

wave length or (peaks align)
 cause destructive interference when their path difference is or one
waves' peak aligns with other waves' valley.

 Diffraction is the change in waves' shape when it encounters a slit or an obstacle. In
figure below wave propagates from upper left hand corner and meets an obstacle with
small slit. Propagating
Standing wave
Standing wave is created when string is attached from both ends and it starts to oscillate
transversally.

In figure below red dots are called nodes and between them wave motion forms antinodes.

Length of string is here , since nodes are half a wave length apart.

For two nodes there is one antinode. Then the string osciillates at the fundamental frequency
; this is called harmonic oscillation. Increasing antinodes increases also frequency which
corresponds to overtones. There are always one more node than antinode

Sound wave, Doppler effect, beats

Sound is longitudinal wave motion originating from an oscillating body causing pressure
fluctuations to the medium.

Longitudinal wave motion means propagating compression or rarefactions in the medium.

Sound does not propagate without medium.

Sound waves have the same basic properties as other longitudinal waves:

 basic equation i.e velocity = frequency times wave length

 sounds reflects and refracts according to law of refraction, total internal reflection
holds too
 interference, absorbance, diffraction
 transports energy

Echo means sound reflecting from a surface. Diffraction allows sound to propagate past
obstacles.

Speed of sound depends on the medium. Speed is greater in solid materials (glass, steel) and
smaller in gases (air).

In gases speed of sound depends also on temperature by the formula

where is speed of sound at temperature and is speed of sound at

temperature (in kelvins!).

Speed of sound in air at temperature is 331,4 m/s.

When a source of sound is moving relative to a listener then the frequency of the sound is
observed to be different as when the source is not moving. This is called the Doppler effect.
Observed frequency can be calculated by the formulas

 if source of sound is moving relative to listener at velocity and sound frequency

is , then the frequency observed by the listener is , where then the
frequency observed by the listener is , where is the speed of
sound
 if source of sound is stationary and listener moves at velocity , then

One choose here upper signs if source of sound and listener approach each other, otherwise
lower signs.

Tube containing air makes sound wave and its reflected wave form standing waves made of
nodes and antinodes. Antinodes occur at open ends of the pipe and nodes occur at closed end
of the pipe. Therefore one distinguishes three separate cases which are illustrated below in a

pipe of length Both ends closed: wave length can be

One end open: wave length can be
Both ends open: wave length as in first case

Beats means interference between two sound waves of differing frequencies. The superposed
wave changes magnitude periodically. The beats frequence of superposed wave is

where and are the frequencies of the original sound waves.

Sound intensity, intensity level

Sound intensity is power per surface area or

where is the power of sound arriving on surface and is the perpendicular surface
area. Unit of intensity is W/m^2.
It is natural for intensity to decrease at greater distances. More precisely, inversely
proportional relationship holds

where is the intensity at distance and is the intensity at distance

Sound intensity level better suited for human hearing is

where is logarithm in base 10, is intensity and is reference

intensity (threshold of human hearing; sound that can be barely heard).

Humans' audible range is between infrasound 20 Hz and ultrasound 20 kHz.

Light
Light is electromagnetic wave motion or radiation.

As opposed to mechanical wave motion light does not need medium in order to propagate.

But light is dependent on its wave length which is also expressed as the basic equation

where speed of light in vacuum is a universal physical constant,

is frequency and is light's wave length
Light does behave like a mechanical wave (see preceding Chapter):

 reflection, refraction
 interference, diffraction

Since the speed of light remains constant then higher frequency means smaller wave length
and vice versa.

That we can see objects is based on the fact that our eyes receive light reflected or sent by
objects.

Light intensity on a surface is quantified with illuminance

where is the luminous flux incident to surface (unit is lumen, lm) and is the surface
area. Unit of illuminance is lux (lx=lm/m^2). If luminous flux is uniform in all directions when
illuminance at distance from the light source is

so it is inversely proportional to square of the distance.

Light obeys the same law of reflection at other waves: angle of incidence = angle of reflection
(see previous chapter).

Also law of refreaction holds for light and it is based on the fact that speed of light varies in
different materials.

In conjunction of light one speaks about material's index of refraction

where is speed of light in vauum and is speed of light in material. Air is

approximated here as vacuum so its index of refraction is 1,00. Therefore law of refraction
can be stated in many forms:
Here is the ration between indeces of refraction, is angle of incidence,
angle of refraction, speed of light in material 1, speed of light in material 2,
wave length in material 1, wave length in material 2, index of refraction in
material 1 and index of refraction in material 2.

Critical angle of total internal reflection is solved from the equation

where , so that total internal reflection is possible.

White light contains all wave lengths of visible light and it originates from the Sun. Different
wave lengths are caused by dispersion which means that index of refraction depends on the
wave length.

Monocromatic light contains only one wave length.

Diffraction from single slit is the effect of light beam spreading out after passing through the
slit. Bright spots (or intensity maximums) appear on the screen when the relation

holds. Here is the width of the slit, is the angle between the perpendicular to the
slit and a line from the center of the slit to screen, is wave length and is
the order of the bright spot. For example, means second order spot (intensity
maxima).

Magnetic field
Electric and magnetic properties of materials cause electromagnetic interactions.

Interaction is either attractive or repulsive.

Magnetic interaction is long-range interaction which appears without contact.

Magnet has two poles:

 north pole or N-pole turns towards geographic north in Earth's magnetic field
 south pole or S-pole turns towards geographic south
 like poles repel each other
 opposite poles attract

The force appearing in magnetic interaction is called the magnetic force.

Magnetic field describes the effect of magnet. Field is three-dimensional and it is illustrated
with field lines. Lines indicate the direction of the field and they are always closed curves.
Lines are denser in areas where the field is stronger. Shape of the field depends on the shape
of the magnet.

Around magnet field lines travel from N-pole to S-pole.

Magnetic field is denoted by . This vector quantity points towards tangent of the field.
Unit of magnetic field is tesla (T).

Magnetic flux is

where is the surface area (perpendicular to the field) and is the magnetic field.
Magnetic flux indicates the number of field lines passing through the surface perpendicularly.
Unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).

So Wb= Tm^2. ("tesla square meters", not tera).

When a conductor carries current it causes a magnetic field around the conductor.

The direction of the field depends on the direction of the current as follows:

When grabbing the conductor with right hand so that thumb points in the direction of current
then other fingers point in the direction of magnetic field.
In two-dimensional illustrations magnetic field perpendicular to viewer is indicated with
crosses and dots.

In figure below the field is directed

 towards the viewer on the left

 away from the viewer on the right

Coils consist of electric conductor looped around several times. There is a magnetic field
inside a coil and the direction of the field is also obtained from the right-hand rule: if other
fingers point in the direction of current I then thumb points in the direction of magnetic north
pole inside the coil.
Particles in magnetic field
Charged particles (e.g. electrons) have their own electric field and magnetic field.

Magnets and moving charged particles are interacting via their fields.

If the particle moves in different direction than the direction of the magnetic field then a
magnetic force is exerted on the particle. Magnitude of the force depends on the charge,
velocity and direction of the motion.

entän.

If the particle moves perpendicular to magnetic field then the magnitude of the magnetic
force is

where is the absolute value of particle's charge, is the magnitude of particle's

velocity and is the magnitude of the magnetic field.

Direction of the magnetic force for positively charged particle follows the right-hand rule:

 thumb points in the direction of magnetic force

 index finger points in the direction of velocity of charged particle
 middle finger points in the direction of magnetic field
For negatively charged particle magnetic force points in the opposite direction (opposite to
thumb).

If the vectors and are not perpendicular to each other then one must use the
orthogonal component in the form

where is the angle between vectors and

If particle moves parallel to magnetic field then or , so magnetic force

is zero.

Magnetic force described above does no work. Particle moves around circular orbit since the
magnetic force is all the time perpendicular to velocity vector of the particle. This keeps the
velocity of the particle constant.

Magnetic force, Newton's second law and acceleration allow us to find that
so radius of the orbit is and angular velocity is In other words angular
velocity and period do not depend on the particle's velocity or radius of the orbit.

Conductor in magnetic field

Straight conductor carrying current causes a magnetic field at distance as

where is permeability in vacuum and is the current flowing

in the conductor.

( is the radius of the circles in figure below). This formula is known as the Biot-Savart law.

If conductor is brought into external magnetic field perpendicular to the conductor (

in figure below) then the field exerts a force to the conductor with magnitude

where is the current in conductor and is the length of the part of the conductor
within the magnetic field. Direction of force follows from right-hand rule as in figure below.
(conductor is parallal to current , magnetic field is in the direction of vector ,
is the angle between them).

In figure below magnetic field points towards the viewer and blue area is the conductor.
Figure depicts also the directions of magnetic force and current.
If current is not perpendicular to magnetic field then the magnitude of the magnetic force is

(we have switched to orthogonal component). If conductor is parallel to magnetic field then
the formula yields

Induction
Electromagnetic induction means the effect where moving magnetic field induces a voltage to
conductor. This causes closed circuit to have current.

These terms are called induced voltage and induced current

The direction of induced current is determined so that effects of current resist the change in
induction.

When a straight conductor moves at constant velocity perpendicularly to homogeneous

magnetic field, then voltage is induced between ends of the conductor and its magnitude is

where is the length of the part of the conductor within magnetic field

Moving the conductor on top of conducting rails changes the area formed by the conductors.
Changing magnetic flux causes an average induced voltage as
where is the change in magnetic flux and is the time duration of the change.

(figure shows also the directions of magnetic force and current in conducting circuit)

Instantenous induced voltage is the time derivative

i.e. the slope of the tangent of graph at any time instant.

Generator
Generator produces electricity by using mechanical energy.

By moving coils one can change the magnetic flux which causes alternating voltage to be
induced to the coil (induction). Moving can be done using e.g. falling water, hot steam or
moving air (wind).
Alternating voltage induced to coil rotating in homogeneous magnetic field is

where is the peak alternating voltage, when the coil has loops of
surface are and is the magnitude of the magnetic field. Here is
loop's angular velocity when is the frequency of the alternating voltage.

In closed circuit alternating voltage causes the alternating current

where is the total resistance of the circuit and is the peak value of the
current.

Effective value of alternating current means the value of direct current which produces equal
amount of heat energy in resistor as the alternating current in question. The corresponding
voltage is called the effective value of alternating voltage. They have the formulas

where and are the peak values of alternating current and voltage.

Impedance of alternating current circuit

describes the resistance that circuit causes to alternating current.

Transformer
Transformers are used to lower the voltage of electricity grid to be more suitable for
appliances.

Transformer consists of primary winding (coil) and secondary winding around iron core.
Primary winding uses alternating current and iron core to induce changing magnetic field,
which passes secondary winding and finally secondary winding induces alternating voltage.

The ratio of the transformer is

where and are effective values of voltages in primary and secondary winding and
and are the number of turns in windings.

For ideal transformer (no power loss) ratio can be expressed also in form

where and are the effective values of currents for windings.

LC -circuits
LC-circuit consists of capasitor C and coil L
By charging the capacitor one can bring energy to the circuit. The value of the energy equals
the energy of the electric field of capacitor

Closing the circuit makes capacitor discharge and circuit's current increases. When capacitor
is fully discharged then the energy of the circuit equals the energy of the magnetic field of
coil

Voltage induced to coil resists current from changing and it allows to circuit to keep current
even after the capacitor has fully discharged. This effect is called inductance and its unit is
henry (H).

The maximum value for current in LC-circuit is achieved at the resonance frequency

where is the inductance of the coil and is the capacitance of the capacitor.

Light, quanta
Electromagnetic radiation emitted by bodies is called heat radiation because it depends on
the temperature of the body.

Bodies radiate at all wave lengths.

Blackbody does not reflect any radiation as it absorbs all radiation. Spectrum of blackbody
radiation depends only on the temperature of the body.
Planck's quantum hypothesis states that matter receives and releases electromagnetic
radiation only at small packages of energy, called photons or quanta.

Energy of quantum is

Where is the frequency of the radiation and is Planck's

constant. Here one may use also electronvolts as units, where

Then

Electromagnetic radiation's particle like parts are called photons. Photons have no mass and
they travel at speed of light . Energy and momentum of photon are

where is the wave length.

Photoelectric effect, Compton

scattering
Photoelectric effect is is about material (metal) emitting electrons from its surface are when
illuminated with light (electromagnetic radiation).

Smallest energy required to remove an electron from material is called the work function. Its
value is specific to material.

If the energy of photon exceeds the work function , then excess energy is
electron's kinetic energy i.e.

Largest possible kinetic energy of emitted electron is

Threshold frequency of the photoelectric effect

is the smallest frequency which makes the electron emit. Then

In Compton scattering photon collides with electron. In collision direction of photon changes
and part of its energy is transferred to electron's kinetic energy. Energy of photon decreases
i.e. wave length increases. Kinetic energy of electron is

where is the frequency of the incident radiation (photon) and is the frequency of
the scattered photon

Light's dual nature

All electromagnetic radiation (including light) has both wave like and particle like aspects.

This is seen in De Broglie laws

where frequency and wave length are related to wave like behaviour and energy and
momentum relate to particle like behaviour.

Particle like behaviour is seen in Compton scattering and photoelectric effect.

Wave like behaviour is seen in refraction, reflection and interference of light (see Chapter 6).
Particle and wave are only models which are used to explain phenomena occuring in nature.
Both models are needed and they complement each other.

In electron's diffraction electrons scattered from material produce an interference pattern.

This is evidence of wave nature of electrons.

Structure of atom, energy levels

Bohr's atomic model

 electrons orbit small positively charged nucleus along circular paths due to attractive
electric force
 electron's orbit correspond to atom's energy levels where
 electron can jump from one allowed orbit to another when atom emits or absorbs a
photon with energy , which is positive. Here is the
frequency of the photon
 only certain energy levels are possible for an atom. For example there are no allowed
levels between and . This is called the quantum effect.
 is ground state, other states are excited states.

Energy level diagram is used to illustrate atom's energy levels and transitions from one level
to another.

When an atom is excited it absorbs energy and transitions from lower energy level to upper
(upward arrow).

De-excitation is indicated with a downward arrow and it means that atom emits a photon
when transitioning from upper level to lower.
Spectrum, x-ray radiation
Spectrum is the dependence of intensity of electromagnetic radiation emitted by matter on
the frequency/wavelength.

Spectrum can be continuous or line spectrum.

Materials can be distinguished based on their spectrum.

Emission spectrum = spectrum caused by atom transitioning from higher energy state to
lower

Absorption spectrum = spectrum caused by gases absorbing electromagnetic radiation when

transitioning to excited state

X-ray radiation has wavelength of 0,01...10 nm.

Spectrum of x-ray radiation consists of continuous part added with peaks of characteristic
radiation.

Radiating a crystal with x-rays having wave length causes reflected rays to interfere
constructively when the path difference of the rays is integer multiple of wave length or

where is the order of diffraction, is angle of incidence and is the

distance between atomic levels. This is called Bragg's law.

Nucleus of atom
Nucleus consists of nucleons i.e. protons and neutrons. The force between them is called the
nuclear force.

Nucleon consists of quarks and the interaction between quarks is called the strong
interaction. Nuclear force is caused by strong interaction.

The formation of nucleus of protons and neutrons is indicated in the notation

where is the symbol of the chemical element, is atomic number i.e. number of
protons and is the mass number i.e. total number of protons and neutrons. Number of
neutrons is expressed as the neutron number

The unified atomic mass unit is

Mass defect of the nucleus is the difference between total mass of nucleus' constituent parts
and nucleus mass or

where mass of the atom contains mass of electrons.

Energy corresponding to mass defect is called the binding energy of the nucleus. It
indicates the energy needed to separate the nucleus to nucleons. Same amount of energy is
released if nucleons form a nucleus. Formula for the binding energy is

Binding energy per nucleon is

Nuclear radiationy, radioactive
decay, reaction energy
Nucleus is called radioactive if it can decay and emit radiation (nuclear radiation) by itself.

Nuclear radiation has various types:

 alpha radiation
 beta radiation
 gamma radiation
 neutron radiation

Alpha radiation means that original parent nuclide emits an alpha particle and changes
to daughter nuclide . Decay equation is

Beta radiation means that nucleus emits either electrons or positrons:

In -decay neutron changes to proton and electron and antineutrino are emitted.
Decay equations are

And

In decay proton changes to neutron and positron and neutrino are emitted.
Decay equations are

And
Electron capture: electron captured to nucleus combines with proton in the nucleus and forms
a neutron and neutrino. Decay equations are

And

In gamma radiation nucleus transitions from higher excited state to lower excited state or
ground state and emits electromagnetic radiation with short wave length. In gamma radiation
chemical element is not changed to another chemical element. Gamma radiation interacts
with matter in photoelectric effect, Compton scattering and pair production, where radiation
energy changes to matter by forming electron-positron pair:

Decay reaction release energy. In alpha and beta decay it is

where is mass defect of the decay and is speed of light in vacuum.

Alpha decay conserves energy and momentum i.e.

And

where are the mass and velocity of daughter nuclide.

Activity, half-life
Activity of radioactive material is the number of decays per second.

Activity decreases as function of time since the number of nucleus decreases in decay
processes.
Average activity is number of decays in time interval or

where is the change in number of nucleus and is the time duration of decays.
Unit of activity is becquerel (Bq=decays/s).

Instanteneous activity is

where is decay constant having unit 1/s.

Comparing average and instanteneous activity one finds that number of nucleus at time
instant is

where is the number of nucleus at Activity at time instant is

where is activity at

Half-life

is the time required for the number of radioactive nuclei to decrease to one-half the original
number.
Fission, fusion
In fission process heavy nucleus splits into two fragments (medium nuclei) and emits
neutrons.

Energy released in fission process is the kinetic energy of resulting fragments.

Neutrons emitted in fission cause new fission processes and this leads to chain reaction.

In fusion process two light nuclei form a larger nucleus. Energy is released also in fusion.

Applications of radiation
Different types of radiation have different penetration capabilities

 beta particles penetrate more than alpha particles

 gamma radiation penetrates the most and it is harmful for tissue

Intensity of gamma radiation is

where is the incident intensity of gamma radiation on material surfacei, is the

thickness of the material from incident surface and is absorption coefficient specific to
material having unit 1/m.

Half-value thickness

is thickness of the material at which the intensity is reduced to one-half.

Radiation's effective dose measure the health effect to humans; unit is sievert (Sv).

Dose rate tells how much radiation one gets in certain amount of time. Unit is e.g. mSv/h i.e.
millisievert per hour.
Radiation can be used in many practical applications e.g. in health care (imaging, therapies):

 x-ray imagina and computerized tomography are based on the fact that x-ray intensity
decreases in different tissues at different rates
 magnetic resonance imaging can identify easily parts of body containg plenty of water
 PET-imaging uses radioactive markers whose movement in body can be observed
 radiation therapy and proton treatment can be used to kill tumor cells

Origin of matter
Chemical elements appearing in nature (94 in total) were formed in the early times of the
universe.

 hydrogen and helium are the earliest elements

 elements up to iron and nickel were formed in stars
 heaviest elements in explosions of supernovas

Hydrogen fuses into helium in nuclear reactions in the Sun, the so called proton-proton chain.
Simultaneously energy is released as a form of electromagnetic radtion.

Carbon cycle (or carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle) means the proces of hydrogen turning into

helium with the help of carbon isotope .

The big bang theorezied to occur 13,8 billion years ago explains

 expanding galaxies
 cosmic background radiation
 ratios of light elements

Cosmic inflation means the rapid and massive expansion of the universe during the first
fractions of second.

Dark matter

 does not emit electromagnetic radiation

 can be observed using telescopes
 experienced via gravitational interaction
 accounts for 26 % of all energy and mass, regular matter accounts for 5 %
 unknown composition
 dark energy causes expansion of the universe to accelerate. Nature is not known.