Health Risks Linked To The Consumption of Water From Shallow Aquifers in The City of Daloa (Central-Western Ivory Coast)
Health Risks Linked To The Consumption of Water From Shallow Aquifers in The City of Daloa (Central-Western Ivory Coast)
12(12), 993-1006
Article DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/20110
DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/20110
RESEARCH ARTICLE
HEALTH RISKS LINKED TO THE CONSUMPTION OF WATER FROM SHALLOW AQUIFERS IN
THE CITY OF DALOA (CENTRAL-WESTERN IVORY COAST)
Kré Yon Edwige, Kamenan Yiwa Monique, Mangoua Oi Mangoua Jules, Konan Kouakou Séraphin, Eblin
Sampah Georges and Dibi Brou
Environmental Science and Technology Laboratory, Jean Lorougnon Guede University, BP 150 Daloa, Daloa, Côte
d’Ivoire.
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Manuscript Info Abstract
……………………. ………………………………………………………………
Manuscript History The water provided by the public network in the city ofDaloa is
Received: 22 October 2024 rejected by residents because of the disagreeable organoleptic
Final Accepted: 25 November 2024 characteristics. This situation has pushed a large, proportion of the
Published: December 2024 population to exploit the water from resurgent springs and traditional
wells. However, these waters tap into alterite aquifers, which are the
Key words:-
Heavy Metals, Natural Springs, first reservoir to receive seepage water that is often highly laden with
Traditional Wells, Quality Index, Hazard impurities. As a result, these waters could be contaminated by domestic
Quotient and industrial effluents, deteriorating their quality and impacting
consumer health. Hence the need to evaluate the health risk from these
waters. To this end, seasonal analyses of physico-chemical parameters
on 40 waters points have been carried out. Methodological approach
consisted of using the water quality index and the probabilistic risk
method. As a result, these waters are rich in heavy metals whatever the
season, and the quality varies from very poor to good for wells and
from poor to good for springs. Thus, the chromium VI-related health
risk for these waters in both seasons has a hazard quotient greater than
1. The level of carcinogenic risk is also very high, with a value greater
than 10-4. People are therefore exposed to gastrointestinal risks and can
contract cancer when they consume untreated well and spring water.
Copyright, IJAR, 2024,. All rights reserved.
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Introduction:-
The problem of human health, in different parts of the world, is closely associated with environmental and
groundwater pollution (Adimalla et al., 2018 ; Babuji et al., 2023). Speaking of groundwater contamination by
physicochemical substances, it is a very important concern in the current century (Babuji et al., 2023 ; Rajan et al.,
2024). These concerns are widespread throughout the world, because water pollution affects people's health and
well-being. In fact, ingesting contaminated water causes serious problems for human health (Ramos et al., 2023).
This is the case for metals, which have various impacts on health, such as cancers, respiratory diseases,
gastrointestinal disorders and skin allergies (Mawari et al., 2022). And, according to the WHO (2017), more than 1,1
million children under the age of 5 and the elderly, who live where hygiene measures and sanitation systems are
inadequate, die each year from diarrhoeal diseases, of which 90% are due to the poor quality of the drinking water.
This problem affects developing countries enormously, especially urban areas, where rapid population growth, lack
of adequate sanitation, industrial operations and climatic variations influence the quality of groundwater resources
used for human consumption (Mendieta-Mendoza et al., 2021 ; Babuji et al., 2023). Daloa, the area covered by this
study, is not exempt from this problem. In Daloa, the presence of uncontrolled household waste dumps, wastewater
run-off and faulty septic tanks located less than 15 m from water points make us fear the risk of groundwater
contamination and harmful effects on consumer health. However, these water tables, exploited by traditional wells
and natural springs, are often used without appropriate treatment by the majority of the population of Daloa. Faced
with this situation, it is important to assess the possible health risks to the population so as to avert the appearance of
illnesses linked to unsafe water. Thus, this study contributes to points 3 (Good health and well-being) and 6 (Clean
water and sanitation) of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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𝒁𝟐 ×𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
𝒏= (1)
𝒆𝟐
With n the sample size ; z the constant resulting from the normal distribution according to a
selected confidence level ; p the proportion of the population using well and spring water and
e the estimated margin of error.
For the present study, the data used are : z = 1.96 ; p = 70% and e = 0.05. The equation thus becomes :
𝟏.𝟗𝟔𝟐 ×𝟎.𝟕(𝟏−𝟎.𝟕)
𝒏= = 𝟑𝟐𝟐(2)
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟐
However, only 200 of the 322 households agreed to be interviewed. The results will therefore concern the 200
households. The details of the households interviewed are given in Table I in the appendices.
Sampling and analyses
This study required sampling campaigns at high water (march 2022) and low water (november 2022). These
sampling campaigns were carried out at 30 wells and 10 springs throughout the city of Daloa (Figure 1). Two (2)
intakes of water were carried out for each water point in order to determine nutrient salts and heavy metals in the
laboratory. The following procedure was adopted for sampling : firstly, Garmin-type GPS (Global Positioning
System) was used to locate the water points. Next, the water samples were taken in 1 L bottles that had been
sufficiently rinsed with the water to be analysed and labelled. Only water destined for analysis of heavy metals was
acidified with nitric acid (60%). The bottles were filled to reflux and hermetically sealed to ensure that there were no
air bubbles and that the water was not ejected during transport. Finally, five (5) parameters (temperature, pH,
electrical conductivity, dissolved oxygen and redox potential) were measured in situ with the HACH HQ40d
multiparameter. The method used is called potentiometry. To do this, deionised water and the water to be analysed
were used to rinse the various probes before being immersed in the water. The values are read on the screen once
they have stabilised. In the laboratory, nutrient salts, chromium VI and heavy metals were analysed by molecular
absorption spectrometry with the addition of specific reagents and X-ray fluorescence using different standards.
Weighting of parameters
Unit weights wi were assigned to seven parameters that directly influence health (nitrates,nitrites, sulfates,
ammonium, nickel, chromium and lead), four acceptability parameters(calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese) and
three regulatory parameters (temperature,hydrogen potential and electrical conductivity), taking into account their
importance indetermining water quality. Thus, those that have an adverse effect on health have the highest
weights on a scale of 1 to 5 (Ramakrishnaiah et al., 2009 ; WHO, 2017) (Table II in appendices).The relative weight
is then determined according to Srinivas &Nageswararao (2013) :
𝒘𝒊
𝑾𝒊 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒘𝒊(3)
𝒊=𝟏
Wi : relative weight and wi : unit weight of parameter i.
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Hazard identification :
It consisted of inventorying the substances to which people are potentially exposed and identifying their harmful
effects, based on criteria such as the type of substance, its concentration and the ailments it causes in children under
5 and adults. Chromium VI was considered in this study. This substance is likely to cause toxic effects on the
gastrointestinal tract, liver, development and lower respiratory tract in humans and cancer by oral ingestion
(Mohammadi et al., 2019 ; US EPA, 2024).
With ADD : average daily dose (mg/kg/d) ; C : chromium VI concentration (mg/L) ; Q : quantity of water consumed
by day (L/d) ; BW : body weight (kg).
The data used to calculate the average daily dose are given in Table III (Appendices).
Dose-response relationship :
The objective of this step is to define the dose capable of causing a harmful effect. For oral exposure, this is the
reference dose (RfD) (see Table III in appendices).
Risk characterisation :
It consists of estimating the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects of chromium VI on the gastrointestinal tract.
To do this, we determined the hazard quotient (HQ) and the carcinogenic risk (CR) by the oral route.
HQ correspond to the ratio of the average daily dose (ADD) to the reference dose (RfD) (US EPA, 20011)
(Equation7). A hazard quotient greater than 1 indicates a significant risk. On the other hand, when the HQ is less
than 1, this expresses a lesser risk (Wei et al., 2015).
𝑨𝑫𝑫
𝑯𝑸 = (7)
𝑹𝒇𝑫
As for the CR (Equation 8), this involved multiplying the average daily dose by the oral cancer slope factor (OSF)
(Sushila et al., 2024 ; US EPA, 2024). The total lifetime exposure OSF etablished by US EPA (2024) with
application of the age-dependent adjustment factors at constant dose (ADAFs) is 0.27 (mg/kg/day) -1.
𝑪𝑹 = 𝑨𝑫𝑫 × 𝑶𝑪𝑺𝑭(8)
A range of acceptable carcinogenic risk values has been established. When the cancer risk is of 10-6 to 10-4,it is said
to be acceptable (WHO 2017 ; Oni et al., 2022). A cancer risk less than or equal to 10 -6 does not constitute a health
problem for consumers. It is negligible. On the other hand
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24%
18%
9%
3% 4%
Well Springs Public network Well and spring Well, spring and network Others
Treatment applied
For all the households that consume well and spring water (78 %), 32 % state that they do not apply any treatment
and drink the water directly. On the other hand, 30 % inject calcium hypochlorite, commonly known as bleach,
directly into wells and springs. In addition, some households disinfect their water by filtration (13 %), decantation
(13 %) and bleach-filtration (12 %) (Fig 3).
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Diseases detected
Fig 4 shows the various illnesses identified during the direct interviews with households in the city of Daloa. People
stated that when they drink well or spring water, they often experience diarrhoea (46%), cholera (19%) and stomach
pains (16%).
19% 19%
16%
46%
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opposite is true for nitrates, ammonium and iron, where average concentrations exceed WHO (2017) limit values
during the dry season. Regarding the sources, the temperature, sulfates, manganese, calcium, and chromium are high
in the rainy season. In the dry season, however, mean nitrate and ammonium concentrations are high.
700
600
500
400
GQI
300
200
100
P22
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
P16
P17
P18
P19
P20
P21
P23
P24
P25
P26
P27
P28
P29
P30
P8
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P9
WELL
The variation in the chemical quality of spring water according to season is shown in Fig 6. In the rainy season, the
quality of spring water remains poor, with indices ranging from 159 to 198. However, it varies from good to poor in
the dry season. It should be noted that the quality of springs S1, S3, S6 and S9 remains unchanged, regardless of the
season. It was also noted that the S4 spring dried up in the dry season, so the quality was only determined in the
rainy season.
Also, this study showed that 0.02 and 0.03 mg/L are the lowest concentrations that have been obtained in drinking
water and already indicate the presence of a high risk of gastrointestinal illness in children under 5 and adults
respectively (see Table VII in appendices).
Concerning the level of carcinogenic risk linked to ingested chromium VI, the results are presented in Tables V and
VI. It can be seen that there is indeed an increased risk of cancer of the gastrointestinal tract in the populations
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concerned who drink well water and spring water from Daloa. In fact, the CR obtained range from 4.0 x 10 -4 to 5.4 x
10-3. These are all above the threshold range of 10 -6 to 10-4. However, this risk decreases in the dry season for both
adults and children under 5.
300
250
200
GQI
150
100
50
0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
SPRING
Mauvaise Poor
Discussion:-
The survey carried out among households in the city of Daloa enabled us to appreciate the place or proportion that
well water and spring water occupy in their daily habits. Indeed, it shows that 42 % of households use well water
and 3% resurgent springs. These values could be explained by the fact that the majority of concessions in Daloa
have a well. As for springs, these concern the 10 springs found in only a few neighbourhoods. These results
corroborate those obtained by Awomon et al. (2018) and by Konan-Waidhet et al. (2020) at Orly (Daloa) and the
Lobo catchment respectively.Their work highlighted increased use of well water (79.05 % ; 54.94 %). However,
these results differ from those of Kouadio (2021), who conducted a survey of water supply sources in seven (7)
cities, including Daloa, which uses around 55 % of water from the public network to the detriment of well water.
Next, these waters are consumed by everyone (adults, young people and children) and are disinfected by 68 % of
households using either granulated calcium hypochlorite, filtration or decantation. For them, the use of bleach,
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especially for treatment, seems to be effective in killing all the microbes in the water. On the other hand, 32 % stated
that they did not use any treatment at all, as they felt that the organoleptic quality of their water was better than that
of water from the public network. In contrast, the results of Awomon et al. (2018) showed treatment by filtration.
This study therefore made it possible to set up the scenarios (adults and children under 5) for assessing health risks.
The WHO (2017) stipulates that this is a specific sub-population more exposed than the rest of the population to a
given substance in relation to body weight. Following consumption of these waters, illnesses were detected by the
population surveyed. Indeed, cases of diarrhoea (46%), cholera (19%) and stomach ache (16%) were reported,
compared with 19% of people who had not observed any illnesses. These rates indicate that there are certain toxic or
carcinogenic parameters in the water consumed. These results were also highlighted by Traoré (2021) who recorded
52.54% cases of diarrhoea, 15.25% cases of typhoid fever, followed by 11.86% cases of dermatosis in the
Balouzonneighbourhood of Daloa.
From the above, 14 parameters were analysed in well and spring water in the city of Daloa. These were temperature,
hydrogen potential, electrical conductivity, iron, manganese, calcium, magnesium, lead, chromium, nickel,
sulphates, nitrites, nitrates and ammonium. Subsequently, the Mann Whitney test applied revealed that certain
parameters varied significantly over time. Thus, for wells, these are temperature, sulfates, manganese, calcium and
nickel which present high values in the rainy season. This is the opposite case for nitrates, ammonium and iron
where average concentrations exceed limit values during dry season. Regarding the sources, temperature, sulfates,
manganese, calcium, and chromium are high in rainy season. In the dry period, however, mean nitrate and
ammonium concentrations are high. These parameters are governed by climate, geology and human activity. The
variation in these parameters could be explained by the hydrolysis of certain silicate minerals such as quartz, mica,
plagioclase and pyrite (geology of the area), but also by the rainfall of contaminants on the surface and their
infiltration into groundwater. These results differ from those of Kouadio (2019), who found an increase in Fe, SO 42-,
NO3- and a decrease in Ca2+ and Mg2+ during the main rainy season in all the wells studied. Physico-chemical
parameters vary greatly because wells and springs are not very deep, as is the case in Daloa. Indeed, the wells and
springs in Daloa are located in the first layer of alterites called alloterite, with depths ranging from 1.04 m to 20.42
m. The depth determines the distance the pollutant has to travel before reaching the water table (Kouadio 2019). The
higher the water level, the faster the pollutant could reach the water table (Maqsoomet al. 2021 ; Patel et al. 2023).
Concerning the physico-chemical quality of well and spring water, it varies from one season to another. Indeed,
water of poor, very poor and inappropriate quality is obtained in the rainy season and of good and poor quality in the
dry season. This variation in water quality is attributable to the presence of heavy metals, which are present in high
concentrations in the water. These results differ from those of Kouadio (2019) and Kamenan (2021), who worked in
the same environment. This difference is probably linked to the number and types of parameters considered. In the
present study, 14 parameters were used, which is not the case for these authors, who used 12 and 11 parameters
respectively.
As a result of the water quality assessment, the people of Daloa are exposed to gastrointestinal diseases. Indeed, the
hazard quotient (HQ) values obtained for the different scenarios are very high for both well water and spring water
during the rainy and dry seasons, with HQs vastly higher than 1. However, children under the age of 5 are the most
vulnerable when they consume spring water (5.08 < HQ < 22.13) and well water (4.96 < HQ < 5.93).
Therefore, low concentrations of heavy metals have been shown to be just as harmful to humans (Sanou et al.,
2022). In fact, this study showed that 0.02 and 0.03 mg/L are the lowest concentrations that have been obtained in
drinking water and already indicate the presence of a high risk of gastrointestinal illness in children under 5 and
adults respectively. It could therefore be said that for concentrations of CrVI (above 7% of total chromium) there is
a high risk of gastrointestinal disease. These results differ from those of Adeyemi &Ojekunle (2021), Shi et al.
(2022) and Below et al. (2024) who carried out their research in countries such as Nigeria, China and Ethiopia. They
all found HQ values of less than 1. This difference is thought to be linked to the quantity of water, the body weights
of adults and children and the RfD. In fact, these authors used ingestion rates ranging from 2 to 2.8 L/d and 70 kg
body weight for adults and 0.64 to 1.8 L/d and 10 to 30 kg body weight for children. The RfD used is 0.003 mg/kg/j.
In addition, drinking Daloa water can lead to cancer of the gastrointestinal tract in children and adults with body
weights of 10 and 60 kg respectively. In fact, the carcinogenic risk values are all greater than 10 -4 with a slight
decrease in the dry season. This reduction could be explained by the fact that it does not rain enough in the dry
season. As a result, rainfall and the infiltration of chromium and chromium VI are limited. This would favour a
reduction in the chromium VI content and an increase in Cr III, which is essential for humans, in the water. These
results were obtained by Oni et al. (2022) who worked on well water in Nigeria. Although they used 0.5 (mg/kg/d) -
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1
as the oral slope factor, they found CR values greater than 10 -4 (0,000330 and 0,000155 for children and adults
respectively). However, this is not what was observed in the work of Saber et al. (2024) in Egypt. They obtained CR
values that are 9.43528 x10-8 and that are below 10-6. This difference is probably linked to the very low
concentrations of chromium analysed in spring water.
Conclusion:-
This study aimed to estimate the potential health risk linked to the consumption of well and spring water in Daloa.
Therefore, it necessitated first determining the quality of the water and then estimating the health risk associated
with chromiumVI using the probabilistic method. To do this, analyses were carried out on 30 well water samples
and 10 spring water samples, depending on the season. After analysis, it was found that the well and spring water
contained low values of nutrient salts but high contents of metals, particularly total chromium. Most of the chemical
quality parameters are below the WHO standard for drinking water, with the exception of heavy metals, and vary
from season to season. As a result, the quality index obtained on the basis of the 14 parameters considered revealed
seasonal variations in water quality. In fact, during the rainy season, well and spring water quality ranges from poor
to inappropriate. In the dry season, the quality becomes good and poor. These waters are therefore subject to natural
and man-made pollution. Consequently, the consumption of well and spring water would have harmful effects on
the health of children under 5 and adults, because the probability of these effects occurring is very high (HQ > 1). In
addition, drinking Daloa water can lead to cancer of the gastrointestinal tract in children and adults with body
weights of 10 and 60 kg respectively. In fact, the carcinogenic risk values are all greater than 10 -4 with a slight
decrease in the dry season. Although this study has produced some interesting results, it could be supplemented by
other investigations, a microbiological study. The precarious sewage system that exists in Daloa could encourage the
infiltration of wastewater containing bacteria into the groundwater.
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Appendices:-
Table I:-Characteristics of households surveyed.
Characteristics n = 200 households Percent (%)
Gender
Femme 108 54
Homme 92 46
Number of residents per household
< 10 67 33.5
10-30 106 53
> 30 27 13.5
Consumers under 5 years old
Oui 113 56.5
Non 87 43.5
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