SOILs

SOIL
 Soil is a thin layer of material on the Earth's surface in which plants have
their roots.
 It is made up of many things, such as weathered rock and decayed plant
and animal matter.
 Soil is formed over a long period of time.
 Soil formation takes place when many things interact, such as air, water,
plant life, animal life, rocks, and chemicals.
 Soils can come in black, red, yellow, white, brown, and gray.

 the importance o f soil

1) natural resource (for agriculture, for construction material)
2) soil erosion
3) as a sediment source (via erosion)
4) as a water filter (for water infiltrating the ground)
5) as a contaminant sink
6) as a bearing material (for building on)
FO RMA TI ON
 Soil Formation is affected by 6 factors:
1) climate
2) vegetation
3) soil organisms
4) parent material
5) topography
6) time
 The formation of soil takes about 1000 years or more.
 Soil is formed from the weathering of rocks and minerals and growth of
plants.
 The surface rocks break down into smaller pieces through a process of
weathering and is then mixed with moss and organic matter. Over time this
creates a thin layer of soil.
 Plants help the development of the soil. The plants attract animals, and
when the animals die, their bodies decay.
 Decaying matter makes the soil thick and rich and continues until the soil is
fully formed. The soil then supports many different plants.
 Two types of soil formed are:
 Residual Soil: Soil that remains at the place of formation.
 It is usually formed from chemical or physical weathering and eventually
covers the parent rock.
 The characteristics of residual soil depends on the that of the parent rock.

Stage 1 Stage 2

Stage 3 Stage 4
 Transported Soil: Soil disintegrated, transported and re-deposited by
the following agents
 Water/ glazier
 Wind
 Gravitational force
 Man or any other living organism
 They are very fertile as they consist of minerals from a variety of transported
rocks.
WEATHERING
 Weathering is the process of the breaking down rocks.
 There are two different types of weathering. Physical weathering and
chemical weathering.
 Physical weathering: it breaks down the rocks, but what it's made of stays
the same.
 Chemical weathering: it still breaks down the rocks, but it may change what
it's made of.
 For instance, a hard material may change to a soft material after chemical
weathering.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A CORE / SECTION
O Horizon (Organic matter)- The top,
organic layer of soil, made up mostly of leaf
litter and humus (decomposed organic
matter).
A Horizon (Surface soil)- The layer called
topsoil; it is found below the O horizon and
above the E horizon.
Seeds germinate and plant roots grow in this
dark-colored layer.
It is made up of humus (decomposed
organic matter) mixed with mineral particles.
E Horizon - This eluviations (leaching)
layer is light in color; this layer is beneath the
A Horizon and above the B Horizon.
 It is made up mostly of sand and silt, having
lost most of its minerals and clay as water
CORE o r SECTION drips through the soil (in the process of
eluviation).
 B Horizon (Subsoil) - Also called the
subsoil - this layer is beneath the E Horizon
and above the C Horizon.
It contains clay and mineral deposits (like
iron, aluminum oxides, and calcium
carbonate), that it receives from layers above
it when mineralized water drips from the soil
above.
C Horizon (Substratum) - Also called
regolith: the layer beneath the B Horizon and
above the R Horizon.
It consists of slightly broken-up bedrock.
Plant roots do not penetrate into this layer;
very little organic material is found in this
layer.
R Horizon - The unweathered rock
(bedrock) layer that is beneath all the other
layers.
CORE o r SECTION
C la ss if ic ati o n o f soils
 Climate Classification: based on differences in soil profiles developed in
different climate conditions.
 Tropical - Equatorial: hot and wet.
 severe chemical weathering and leaching.
 soil profile is very deep but is very poor in nutrients.
 Desert Belts: hot and dry
 poorly developed soil profiles because little organic matter and downward
leaching.
 soil horizon develops due to evaporation of soil moisture.
 Temperate mid-Latitude: warm-cool, moderate rainfall
 typical A, B, C soil horizons
 Polar: cold and dry
 little or no soil development because little vegetation and leaching
 Sandy Silty Clayey
Texture Granular & gritty Granular, but if dry- Becomes very heavy
smoother texture and when wet
looks like dark sand.
Formation Disintegration of rocks- Composed of minerals Formed after years of
limestone, granite, like Quartz and fine rock disintegration and
quartz and shale. organic particles. weathering.
Nutrients Rich in organic material Has more nutrients than Poor in nutients
sandy soil
Cultivation Easy to cultivate, but Offers better drainage Organic fertilizers
then it allows drainage. and is much easier to have to be added &
work with. drainage in this soil is
low
Moisture Retains moisture and Holds more moisture Chances of water
retention nutrients. than sandy soil logging is high
 loamy peaty chalky
Texture Gritty Soft and easily very alkaline in nature
compressed and consists of a large
number of stones.
Formation Mixture of sand, silt Accumulation of dead Formed by solid, soft
and clay to some and decayed organic rock which breaks
extent. matter down easily.
Nutrients Nutrient rich and Rich in organic matter fertile, but many of the
humus than sandy soils but the nutrients present nutrients are not
are fewer available for plants.
Cultivation Drainage is well, but is If fertilized well and very free draining &
the ideal for cultivation drainage looked after- poor choice for
and is considered to be can be the ideal for plantation during
the perfect soil. growing plants. summer.
Moisture Retains water very Prone to water logging hold little water and
retention easily dry out easily
Mud
 Wet, soft earth or earthy matter, as found on the,
 ground after rain,
 at the bottom of a pond, or
 along the banks of a river.
 Used for construction of walls - filled with mud and clay.

ADVANTAGES OF M U D CONSTRUCTION
 Easy Availability – Most sustainable material - abundant on the site itself
 Energy efficient, Eco-friendly
 Strong in Compression
 Cost-effective
 Highly plastic - moldable – texture & earthy feel - lends a certain timeless
quality
 Excellent Thermal properties
 Can be used to combine traditional elements in a contemporary context.
DISADVANTAGES OF M U D CONSTRUCTION
 Strong in compression, but weak in tension. Therefore lack of resistance
to bending is compensated by greater width on structure to maintain
stability.
 Load bearing unstablized brick walls are generally massive and thick.
 Week in sustained presence of water.
FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF MUD CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUE
 Cost
Construction cost, Maintenance cost and replacement cost
 Resource Availability
Materials, Transport, Tools and skilled labour
 Climate and Environment
Rainfall, geography, surrounding environment
 Socio – Cultural acceptability
 Legislative and Institutional acceptability
MUD AS A
BUILDING MATERIAL
 Types Description Suitability for
construction
Gravel Small pieces of stone. Size Not good.
varying from that of a pea to
an egg.
Sand Smaller than pea, but each Sand alone- Not
grain still visible to the eye. good, but with clay-
Good
Silt Same as sand, but so fine Silt alone- Not good,
that individual grain is not but with stabilizer-
visible. Good
Clay Soils that are sticky when Clay alone- Not
wet but are very hard, when good, but with sand-
dry. Good
Organic Composed of organic Not good.
soil matter, dark in color and
have a musty smell.
SOIL
A N A LY S I S
SOIL
A N A LY S I S
MANIFESTATIONS OF M U D

Depending on:

- the characteristics of the mud available,

- availability of supporting materials
- technology used

different manifestations of mud are used.

These include:

- Cob
- Adobe o r Sun- dried bricks
- Pise or Rammed e a r t h
- Wa t t l e a n d Daub
- CSEB (Compressed
Stabilized Earth Blocks)
SYSTEMS OF B UI LDI NG

COB is good for anything except height. It is particularly

good for curved or round walls.
PISE OR RAMMED EARTH is strong and ideal for solid,
squat, single storey houses.
ADOBE or SUN DRIED BRICKS can easily cope with two
storey houses.
WATTLE & DAUB is elegant and fine for Seismic Zones.
CSEB smooth and very strong and can build three storey.
COB W A L L
 Simplest and oldest system of Mud wall.
 Cob soil has low shrinkage & consistency.
 Walls built in layers, with each layer being given time to dry before the next
one. Shuttering used sometimes.
 The exact technique varies according to the quality of the cob mixture, the
weather and local tradition.
COB WA L L M I X T U R E
 Traditionally: COB MIXTURE = CLAY SUBSOIL + STRAW + COWDUNG
(sometimes) .
 To reduce cracking problems during drying.
 Often cattle is used to tread the mixture, so the addition of dung is inevitable.
 Surface Render or coatings
 A coat of quick lime putty + coarse sand + lime wash.
 Traditional coatings have the property of being porous, or "breathable - any
moisture that does get into the cob, via penetrating rain or rising damp, can
evaporate out through the render.
COB W A L L – M e t h o d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
 With only a little water to form a very stiff mud, a large lump is roughly
moulded into the shape of a huge elongated egg.
 The usual size is anything between 12 to 18-inches, (30 to 40-cm) long and
about 6-inches (15-cm) in diameter.
 A row of these cobs of mud are laid neatly side-by-side - preferablysomewhat
pressed together.
 The second layer is laid on the depressions of the first layer.
 When three or four courses have been laid, one above the other, the sides are
smoothed over so that the holes and cracks disappear.
 Openings for doors, and windows are a problem, which can be solved by using
temporary vertical planks or shuttering.
 Another very simple shuttering for openings is to use empty kerosene tins.
COB W A L L – M e t h o d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
TYPICAL COB
WALL SECTION
COB WALL CONSTRUCTION
 ADOBE / SUN DRIED BRICKS
Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in the Middle East, North
Africa, South America, North America & Spain.
Also, the Pueblo people built their adobe structures with handfuls or
basketfuls of adobe, until the Spanish introduced them to the making of bricks.
Adobe brick making was used in Spain already in the Late Bronze Age and
Iron Age, from the eighth century B.C. Its wide use can be attributed to its
simplicity of design and make, and the cheapness thereby in creating it.
 Adobe blocks (natural material) = Sand + Clay + Water + Fibrous or
organic material (sticks, straw, dung)
- shaped into bricks using frames and dried in the sun.
 Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for some of the
oldest existing buildings on the planet
(e.g.) Tell Hassuna in Iraq
 Advantage - In hot climates, compared to wooden buildings - more
comfort due to their greater thermal mass.
 Disadvantage - susceptible to seismic damage in an event of an
earthquake.
ADOBE / SUN DRIED BRICK
ADOBE OR SUN-DRIED BRICKS
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
 Stiff clay - is squashed into a small box or mould of wood or metal and then
turned out to cure and slowly dry.
 Blocks kept covered with air tight polythene sheets for first 48 hrs with relative
humidity up to 100.
 Polythene sheets removed after 48 hrs and the blocks are kept in a shaded
area having enough air circulation.
 Curing - Water sprinkled on blocks
daily for 28 days.
 Date of production written on the
block corners.
 Cover stacks top with coconut
leaves or any other cover to avoid
direct sunlight.
 Principle is that blocks shall not dry
for 4 weeks.
TYPICAL ADOBE WALL
SECTION
R A M M E D EARTH
R A M M E D EARTH
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
 An improvement on the COB - Regularizes the
thickness & is more compressed – for increased
strength.
 Formwork - 2 parallel planks - held firmly apart by
metal rods and clips or bolts, or by small crosspieces
of wood - follow the desired shape of the section of
wall.
 Damp earth is poured to a depth of 100 to 250 mm (4
to 10 in).
 A pneumatically powered backfill tamper (like a hand-
held pogo stick with a flat plate on the bottom) or a
manual tamper(wood or metal ramrod) is then used to
compact the material to 50% of its original height.
 When one section is completed and hard, the two
boards are moved along and the process is repeated.
 The two planks are then raised up and a second
course of rammed earth is repeated over the first.
If wire brushing to add texture to the wall is desired – formwork can be
removed immediately – otherwise – walls become too hard to brush after 60
minutes.
Any exposed walls may be sealed to prevent water damage — there are
several proprietary products specifically designed to seal earth walls.
Walls take some time to dry out completely, but this does not prevent further
work on the project.
 RAMMED EARTH

A single storey rammed earth building

Rammed earth
construction – View of
finished walls in layers
WATTLE A N D D A U B
 Construction done in two stages .
1.Creation of wattles -
interwoven branches, lathes,
cane / split bamboo or rods to
form a tight lattice.
 The wattle can be used to lay the
groundwork for walls both inside
and outside a home, or to fill in
gaps between walls and ceiling
timbers.
2. Wattle covered with daub - a
plaster-like mixture of clays, mud,
plant fibers, and animal dung.
 After the daub sets, many people
whitewash the resulting wattle
and daub wall to make it more
weather resistant and to brighten
it.
WATTLE A N D D A U B
WATTLE AND DAUB

Daub applied
on the
interwoven
wattle fixed
between
supports
STABILIZERS
A great number of substances may be used for soil stabilization.
The commonly used stabilizers are sand, clay, lime, cement, sodium silicate
etc.
In addition to these materials, locally available materials like straw, coconut
oil, cow dung, cattle urine etc are also used for strengthening mud.
Various other indigenous stabilizers include, plant juices, gum arabic, sugar
or molasses, tannic acid, oil.
The stabilization of mud depends on a number of factors that include the
quality of mud, the type of construction it is used for, the climate and the
availability of materials.

Soil stabilizers
 When the available soil is not suitable enough for construction it can be used
by manipulating its composition by adding suitable stabilizers.
 Stabilizing –
 Enhances the given property of the soil type.
 Increases Tensile and Shear strength.
 Reduces shrinkage.
NEED FOR STABILIZATION
Every material has its own inherent drawbacks that do not allow it’s ideal use
in all situations.
As far as mud is concerned, its drawback is its susceptibility to moisture and
termites. With the advancement of technology in these modern times, it is
possible to combat this problem effectively to arrive at a practical solution.
Nearly all types of mud can be made into excellent building materials by a
process known as Stabilization.

STABILIZATION
Stabilization helps in cementing the particles of mud together, thereby
increasing its strength.
The quality of mud can be remarkably increased by means of stabilization.
Nearly any soil can be made into a better building material by the addition of the
correct stabilizer.
 This is done by adding sand, cement, etc to mud.
 It also helps in decreasing its susceptibility to moisture.
 Furthermore, stabilization reduces the shrinking and swelling of mud.
Soil stabilizers assist in strengthening soil and increasing its water
resistance.This allows the soil to be used later as a durable building material.
The use of soil stabilizers is quite beneficial, because it reduces movement,
thereby eliminating or reducing the need for additional support for slabs or fill
materials when building.
The Ancient Romans were the first to experiment with mixing lime with sub-
grade foundation soil for use as soil stabilizers. These Ancient Roman soil
stabilizers failed, however, because the lime only improved the surface.
There are three primary ways to use soil
stabilizers to improve soil.

1. To strengthen existing soil, which

enhances its load-bearing capacity.
2. To control dust by preventing it or
eliminating it altogether.
3. Waterproofing soil stabilizers assist in
preserving the natural or constructed
strength of the soil by protecting the
surface from water.
C O M P R E S S E D STABILIZED E A R T H BLOCKS - CSEB
 MAKING

 Stage 1- Ascertaining the suitability of soil

 The suitability of the soil is checked by various tests such as:

•Sedimentation test,
•Compaction test,
•Ribbon test,
•Box test etc.

Stage 2- Mixing of stabilizer and selected soil and enough quantity of

water
The stabilizer should be mixed thoroughly with the selected soil, which has
been previously sieved and tested for organic matter and clumps.

Add just enough water to make it workable.

 Stage 3- Mechanical process of compression
 The prepared earth is loaded into the mould box and the mix is compressed.
 The finished product is ejected and gently removed.
 It is then placed on edge on the curing site.

 Stage 4- Curing and Stacking

The proper curing of stabilized mud blocks is important for its stability. The
blocks should dry out in shaded area as slowly as possible to avoid cracks etc.

 Cement stabilized blocks should be sprinkled with water during the first few
days. Curing time is around two weeks.

After that the bricks should be stacked in such a way that maximum air
circulation is facilitated. Dry storage should last at least two weeks.
Stabilized m u d
b l o c k s –f e a t u r e s :
1. Environmentally sustainable
and eco-friendly material
2. Cost – effective
3. Energy efficient material
4. 20-30% cheaper than fired
bricks
5. Good stability
6. Good resistance to hurricane
and rain
7. Suitable for all climates
8. Low skill needed
9. The technology involved is
interesting and based on the
self-help method
PROTECTION FROM WATER
-OVERHANG: Traditional method is to provide a overhanging roof.

-LOW HEIGHT WALL: Traditional foundations and plinth walls can

be protected by constructing a low height wall of burnt bricks
around the house.

- APRON: Additional provision of an outwardly sloping rammed

earth around mud house will further help in protecting foundation
and plinth.

- DAMP PROOF COURSE: Rising dampness reduces the strength of

mud wall in superstructure and creates moist and unhygienic
conditions in the interior.
-A course of 25mm thick non erodable mud mortar, having 3kg of
bitumen and 0.6kg kerosene oil per cubic foot of dry soil may be
applied as damp proof course.
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