Measurement and Instrumentation

EE-252

(3-0-0-6)

Module-II, Part-2

Disclaimer: Some of the figures have been taken from various books, internet, pdfs etc. Instructor thanks all the authors and
acknowledge the respective authors and creators.

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 ▪ Different Forces in Electromechanical Indicating Instruments
(a) Deflecting force,

(b) controlling force and

(c) damping force

• Construction of Electromechanical Indicating Instruments

• Moving system
• Supporting the moving element
Suspension
Taut Suspension
Pivot and jewel bearings (double).
• Deflecting Torques in Analog Tools

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The main types of instruments used as ammeters and voltmeters are :
❖Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC)
❖Moving iron
❖Electro-dynamometer
❖ Hot wire
❖Thermocouple
❖ Induction
❖Electrostatic
❖Rectifier

Some Facts……………….

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 Construction of a PMMC Instrument

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• The permanent magnet moving
coil instrument is the most
accurate type for d.c.
measurements.

• The general constructional features

of this instrument are shown here:

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• Moving Coil
• Magnet Systems
• Control System
• Damping System

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Moving coil

• The moving coil is wound with many turns

of enameled or silk-covered copper wire.

• The coil is mounted on a rectangular

aluminium former which is pivoted on
jewelled bearings.

• The coils move freely in the field of a

permanent magnet.
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 coiling of a PMMC Voltmeter

• PMMC voltmeter coils are wound on metal

frames to provide the required electro-
magnetic damping.

Note:

Electromagnetic damping is a technique that

uses electromagnetic currents to slow down the
motion of an object without physical contact….
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 coiling of a PMMC Ammeter

• Most ammeter coils are wound on non-

magnetic formers,

• because coil turns are effectively shorted by

the ammeter shunt

• The coil itself, therefore, provides electro-

magnetic damping

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Magnet systems.

• Old style magnet system consist of a relatively

long U-shaped permanent magnets having soft

iron pole pieces.

• Due to the development of materials like

Alcomax and Alnico, which have a high coercive

force, it is possible to use smaller magnet lengths

and high field intensities.

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• The flux densities used in PMMC instruments vary
from 0.1 Wb/m2 to 1 Wb/m2 .
Front
View
• Thus in small instruments it is possible to use a
small coil having a small number of turns and hence
a reduction in volume is achieved.

• Alternatively in instruments having a large scale

length it is possible to increase the air gap length to Top
View
accommodate large number of turns.

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• the angular span of scale is
restricted to 90°.

• To obtain longer movement of

the pointer, a concentric magnet
construction is used as shown
here

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• Since the magnet is concentric

type, it produces a radial flux

pattern which extends over 250° or

more.

• This type of construction is used

for many panel-type instruments

and some portable instruments.

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Control.

• When the coil is supported between two jewel

bearings the control torque is provided by two
phosphor bronze hair springs.

• These springs also serve to lead current in and

out of the coil.
• The control torque is provided by the ribbon
suspension as shown in Fig.

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 Damping

• Damping torque is produced by the

movement of the aluminum former moving
in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet…………..

• Eddy Current Damping…………

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Torque Equation
Let,

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Torque Equation

l x d = A (area)
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Torque Equation

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Torque Equation

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Torque Equation

The spring control provides a restoring

(controlling) torque

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Torque Equation

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Torque Equation

As the deflection is directly proportional to the

current passing through the meter (K and G
being constants) we get a uniform (linear) scale
for the instrument.

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Improvement in Magnet systems

• In recent years, with the development of improved

magnetic materials like Alnico, it has become

feasible to design a magnetic system in which the

magnet itself serves as the core as shown.

• The moving coil moves over the magnet.

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Improvement in Magnet systems: Modern
Scenario
• The active sides of the moving coil are located in
the uniform radial field between pole pieces and the
steel yoke.

• This arrangement has the obvious advantage of

being relatively unaffected by the external magnetic
fields.
• It also eliminates the magnetic shunting effects in
steel panel construction
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Pointer and scale

• The pointer is carried by the spindle and moves over a graduated scale.

• The pointer is of light-weight construction

• apart from those used in some inexpensive instruments has the section over the
scale twisted to form a fine blade.

• This helps to reduce parallax errors in the reading of the scale.

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➢ In micro-ammeters and low range milli-ammeters
upto about 20 mA, the entire current to be
measured is sent through the moving coil.

➢ This is because instrument springs serve as

current leads to the moving coil.

➢ Their current carrying capacity limits the current

which can be safely carried to about 20 mA.

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 ➢ Voltmeters on their own have a range of 0-50 mV or 0-100 mV.

➢ However, voltmeters having higher ranges use a moving coil together with
sufficient series resistance (known as multiplier) to limit the instrument
current to the desired value.

➢ Most d.c. voltmeters are designed to produce full-scale deflection with a

current of 20, 10, 5 or 1 mA. Normally a value of 1 mA is used..

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❖ Thus, excluding low range current measuring instruments, most d.c. ammeters

are actually 50 mV (or 100 mV) millivoltmeters operated with a suitable shunt,

❖ while voltmeters are low-range milli-ammeters operated with a suitable series

resistance.

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Problem

A permanent magnet moving coil instrument has a coil of dimensions

15 mm x 12 mm. The flux density in the air gap is 1.8 x 10-3 Wb/m2 and

the spring constant is 0.14 x IO-6 Nm/rad. Determine the number of

turns required to produce an angular deflection of 90 degrees when a

current of 5 mA is flowing through the coil.

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A moving coil voltmeter with a resistance of 20 Ω gives a full-scale
deflection of 120° when a potential difference of 100 mV is applied across it.
The moving coil has dimensions of 30 mm x 25 mm and is wound with 100
turns. The control spring constant is 0.375 x IO-6 Nm/deg.

Find the flux density in the air gap. Find also the diameter of copper wire of
coil winding if 30 percent of instrument resistance is due to coil winding.
The specific resistance for copper = 1.7 x 10-8 Ωm

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 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⟺ 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙 ⟺ 𝑀𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑖𝑙

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➢ In micro-ammeters and low range milli-ammeters
upto about 20 mA, the entire current to be
measured is sent through the moving coil

➢ This is because instrument springs serve as

current leads to the moving coil.

➢ Their current carrying capacity limits the current

which can be safely carried to about 20 mA.

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 ➢ Voltmeters on their own have a range of 0-50 mV or 0-100 mV.

➢ However, voltmeters having higher ranges use a moving coil together with
sufficient series resistance (known as multiplier) to limit the instrument
current to the desired value.

➢ Most d.c. voltmeters are designed to produce full-scale deflection with a

current of 20, 10, 5 or 1 mA. Normally a value of 1 mA is used..

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❖ Thus, excluding low range current measuring instruments, most d.c. ammeters

are actually 50 mV (or 100 mV) millivoltmeters operated with a suitable shunt

❖ while voltmeters are low-range milli-ammeters operated with a suitable series

resistance.

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➢ For higher currents (usually above 20 mA) the moving coil is shunted to bypass
current around the coil and the spring.

➢ D.C. ammeters are normally designed to have a voltage drop of nearly 50 mV

to 100 mV for full-scale deflection

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❖ Thus, excluding low range current measuring instruments, most d.c. ammeters

are actually 50 mV (or 100 mV) millivoltmeters operated with a suitable shunt,

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• The coil winding of a basic movement is small and light

• It can carry very small currents

• construction of an accurate instrument with a moving coil to carry

currents greater than 100 mA is impracticable owing to the bulk and

weight of the coil that would be required

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• When heavy currents are to be measured,

the major part of the current is bypassed

through a low resistance called a "shunt".

• Figure shows the basic movement (meter)

and its shunt to produce an ammeter.

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The resistance of the shunt can be
calculated using conventional circuit
analysis

Since the shunt resistance is in parallel with

the meter movement, the voltage drops
across shunt and movement must be the
same.

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This ratio of total current to the current
in the movement is called multiplying
power of shunt.

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• The shunt resistance used with the coil
shown in ammeter may consist of a coil of
resistance wire within the case of the
instrument,

• or it may be external shunt having a very

low resistance.

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Construction of Shunts :
(a) The temperature co-efficient of shunt and instrument should be
low and should be as nearly as possibly the same.

(b) The resistance of shunts should not vary with time,

(c) They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise,

(d) They should have a low thermal electromotive force with copper.

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 ▪ 'Manganin' is usually used for shunts of d.c.
instruments

▪ it gives low value of thermal emf with

copper although it is liable to corrosion and
is difficult to solder

Manganin is an alloy of typically 84.2% copper,

12.1% manganese, and 3.7% nickel.

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The temperature error can be eliminated when
the shunt and the moving-coil are made of the
same material and kept at the same temperature

This method is not satisfactory in practice as the temperatures

of the two parts are not likely to change at the same rate.

An additional disadvantage of using copper

shunts is that they are likely to be bulky as the
resistivity of copper is small.
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• a 'swamping resistance' of
manganin (which has a negligible
temperature co-efficient) having a
resistance 20 to 30 times the coil
resistance is connected in series
with the coil

• and a shunt of manganin is

connected across this combination

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 Since copper forms a small fraction of the series
combination, the proportion in which the currents would
divide between the meter and the shunt would not change
appreciably with the change in temperature.

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 Question

1 mA meter movement with an internal resistance of

100Ω is to be converted into a 0-100 mA ammeter.

Calculate the shunt resistance required. What

particulars should Be specified on the shunt ?

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• A PMMC basic meter movement is converted
into a voltmeter by connecting a series
resistance with it.

• This series resistance is known as a

multiplier.

• The combination of the meter movement and

Meter with a multiplier.
the multiplier is put across the circuit whose
voltage is to be measured.

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• The multiplier limits the current
through the meter

• It helps in ensuring that the

current do not exceed the value for
full scale deflection

• this prevents the movement from

being damaged.

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The value of a multiplier, required to extend the
voltage range, is calculated as

For the circuit of Fig

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We can also express the result in terms of
multiplying factor of multiplier.

Multiplying factor for multiplier,

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 Hence for the measurement of voltage m times
the voltage range of the instrument, the series
multiplying resistance should be (m-1) times the
meter resistance.

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Construction of Multipliers

The essential requirements of multipliers are :

(a) Their resistance should not change with time,

(b) The change in their resistance with temperature should be small,

(c) They should be non-inductively wound for a.c. meters.

The resistance materials used for multipliers are manganin and

constantan.

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Effect of Temperature Changes in Voltmeters

• The multiplier resistance used in series with the moving coil is

usually made of manganin having a negligible resistance
temperature coefficient.
• Since the series resistance of the multiplier is very much greater
than the coil resistance (which is of copper), the variations of
resistance of R due to temperature changes are 'swamped' by the
resistance Rs of the multiplier.

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 Moving Iron Instruments

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• The most common ammeters and voltmeters for laboratory or
switch-board used at power frequencies are the moving iron
instruments.

• These instruments can be constructed to measure current and

voltage to an accuracy needed in most engineering works

• and still be cheap as compared with any other type of a.c.

instrument of same accuracy and ruggedness.

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• A plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms
the moving element of the system.

Hard iron is an iron which retains their

magnetism and is difficult to magnetize. Soft
iron is iron that is easily magnetized and
demagnetized with a small change of magnetic
field.

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• This iron vane is so situated that it can
move in a magnetic field produced by a
stationary coil.

• The coil is excited by the current or voltage

under measurement.

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• When the coil is excited, it becomes an electromagnet

• and the iron vane moves in such a way so as to increase the flux of the
electromagnet.

• This is because the vane tries to occupy a position of minimum reluctance.

Note: Reluctance is found by dividing the length of the

magnetic path l by the permeability times the cross-
sectional area A
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• Thus the force produced is always in such a direction so as to increase the
inductance of the coil

• (this is because inductance is inversely proportional to the reluctance of the

magnetic circuit of the coil).

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 Moving iron instruments are of two types :

(a) Attraction type

(b) Repulsion type

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 Moving iron instruments are of two types :

(a) Attraction type

(b) Repulsion type

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M.I. Instrument - Moving Iron

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Attraction type

• The coil is flat and has a narrow slot

like opening

• The moving iron is a flat disc or a

sector eccentrically mounted.

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Attraction type

• When the current flows through the

coil, a magnetic field is produced

• the moving iron moves from the

weaker field outside the coil to the

stronger field inside it

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Attraction type

• or in other words, the moving iron is

attracted in.

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• The controlling torque is provided by
springs

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• Damping is provided by air friction with
the help of a light aluminium piston
(attached to the moving system)

• This piston moves in a fixed chamber

closed at one end

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Repulsion type

➢ In the repulsion type, there are two vanes inside the

coil
• one fixed and
• other movable.

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Repulsion type

➢ These are similarly magnetised when the current

flows through the coil

➢ there is a force of repulsion between the two vanes

➢ This results in the movement of the moving vane

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 Repulsion type:

Two different designs are used

1. Radial Vane Type

2. Co-axial Vane Type

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Radial Vane Type

• In this type, the vanes are radial strips of

iron.

• The strips are placed within the coil as shown

in Fig.

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Radial Vane Type

• The fixed vane is attached to the coil

• and the movable one to the spindle of the

instrument.

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Co-axial Vane Type

In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving

vanes are sections of co-axial cylinders

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Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments

• Consider a small increment in current

supplied to the coil of the instrument.

• due to this current, let dθ be the deflection

under the deflecting torque Td.

• Due to such deflection, some mechanical

work will be done.

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• There will be a change in the energy stored in the magnetic
field due to the change in inductance.

• This is because the vane tries to occupy the position of

minimum reluctance.
• The inductance is inversely proportional to the reluctance of
the magnetic circuit of coil.

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• Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument
inductance is L and the deflection 𝜃.

• If the current increases by dI then the deflection

changes by d𝜃 and the inductance by dL.

• To affect an increment dI in the current there must be

an increase in the applied voltage given by

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The electrical energy supplied

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 The stored energy changes from

Hence the change in stored energy,

Neglecting second and higher order terms in small quantities this becomes

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From the principle of the conservation of energy,

The energy supplied is nothing but an increase

in stored energy plus the energy required for
mechanical work done.

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The moving system is provided with control springs.
the deflecting torque Td is balanced by the controlling torque

where K = control spring constant ; Nm/rad,

𝜃 - deflection ; rad

At equilibrium (or final steady ) position

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 • Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the
rms value of the operating current.

• The deflecting torque is, therefore, unidirectional

(acts in the same direction) whatever may be the
polarity of the current

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The inductance of a moving iron instrument is given
by :
L = (10 + 5𝜃-𝜃 2 )𝜇H
where 𝜃 is the deflection in radian from zero position.
The spring constant is 12×10-6 N, m/rad.

Estimate the deflection for a current of 5 A.

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 Thank You

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