ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

Principles and practices of drying

Drying is a complex operation involving transient transfer of heat and mass along with several
rate processes, such as physical or chemical transformations, which, in turn may cause changes
in product quality as well as the mechanisms of heat and mass transfer. Physical changes that
may occur include: shrinkage, puffing, crystallization, glass transitions. In some cases, desirable
or undesirable chemical or biochemical reactions may occur leading to changes in color, texture,
odor or other properties of the solid product. In the manufacture of catalysts, for example, drying
conditions can yield significant differences in the activity of the catalyst by changing the internal
surface area. The separation operation of drying converts a solid, semi-solid or liquid feedstock
into a solid product by evaporation of the liquid into a vapor phase via application of heat. In the
special case of freeze drying, which takes place below the triple point of the liquid being
removed, drying occurs by sublimation of the solid phase directly into the vapor phase. This
definition thus excludes conversion of a liquid phase into a concentrated liquid phase
(evaporation), mechanical dewatering operations such as filtration, centrifugation, and
sedimentation, supercritical extraction of water from gels to produce extremely high porosity
aerogels (extraction) or so-called drying of liquids and gases by use of molecular sieves
(adsorption). Phase change and production of a solid phase as end product are essential features
of the drying process. Drying is an essential operation in the chemical, agricultural,
biotechnology, food, polymer, ceramics, pharmaceutical, pulp and paper, mineral processing,
and wood processing industries.

Drying occurs by effecting vaporization of the liquid by supplying heat to the wet feedstock. As
noted earlier, heat may be supplied by convection (direct dryers), by conduction (contact or in
direct dryers), radiation or volumetrically by placing the wet material in a microwave or radio
frequency electromagnetic field. Over 85 percent of industrial dryers are of the convective type
with hot air or direct combustion gases as the drying medium. Over 99 percent of the
applications involve removal of water. All modes except the dielectric (microwave and radio
frequency) supply heat at the boundaries of the drying object so that the heat must diffuse into
the solid primarily by conduction. The liquid must travel to the boundary of the material before it
is transported away by the carrier gas (or by application of vacuum for non-convective dryers).

Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 1

 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

Transport of moisture within the solid may occur by any one or more of the following
mechanisms of mass transfer:
o Liquid diffusion, if the wet solid is at a temperature below the boiling point of the liquid
o Vapor diffusion, if the liquid vaporizes within material
o Knudsen diffusion, if drying takes place at very low temperatures and pressures, e.g., in
freeze drying
o Surface diffusion (possible although not proven)
o Hydrostatic pressure differences, when internal vaporization rates exceed the rate of
vapor transport through the solid to the surroundings.
o Combinations of the above mechanisms
Note that since the physical structure of the drying solid is subject to change during drying the
mechanisms of moisture transfer may also change with elapsed time of drying.
Drying of various feedstocks is needed for one or several of the following reasons:
o Need for easy-to-handle free-flowing solids
o Preservation and storage
o Reduction in cost of transportation
o Achieving desired quality of product, etc.
In many processes, improper drying may lead to irreversible damage to product quality and
hence a non-salable product.
Before proceeding to the basic principles, it is useful to note the following unique features of
drying which make it a fascinating and challenging area for R&D:
o Product size may range from microns to tens of centimeters (in thickness or depth)
o Product porosity may range from zero to 99.9 percent
o Drying times range from 0.25 sec (drying of tissue paper) to five months (for certain
hardwood species)
o Production capacities may range from 0.10 kg/h to 100 t/h
o Product speeds range from zero (stationary) to 2000 m/s (tissue paper)
o Drying temperatures range from below the triple point to above the critical point of the
liquid
o Operating pressure may range from fraction of a millibar to 25 atmospheres

Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 2

 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

o Heat may be transferred continuously or intermittently by convection, conduction,

radiation or electromagnetic fields.

Drying with heated air implies humidification and cooling of the air in a well insulated
(adiabatic) dryer. Thus, hygrothermal properties of humid air are required for the design
calculations of such dryers.
Equilibrium Moisture Content
The moisture content of a wet solid in equilibrium with air of given humidity and temperature is
termed the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). A plot of EMC at a given temperature versus
the relative humidity is termed sorption isotherm. An isotherm obtained by exposing the solid to
air of increasing humidity gives the adsorption isotherm. That obtained by exposing the solid to
air of decreasing humidity is known as the desorption isotherm. Clearly, the latter is of interest in
drying as the moisture content of the solids progressively decreases. Most drying materials
display hysteresis in that the two isotherms are not identical.

Figure 1: Typical sorption isotherms.

The figure shows the general shape of the typical sorption isotherms. They are characterized by
three distinct zones, A, B and C, which are indicative of different water binding mechanisms at
individual sites on the solid matrix. In region A, water is tightly bound to the sites and is
unavailable for reaction. In this region, there is essentially monolayer adsorption of water vapor
and no distinction exists between the adsorption and desorption isotherms. In region B, the water
Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 3
 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

is more loosely bound. The vapor pressure depression below the equilibrium vapor pressure of
water at the same temperature is due to its confinement in smaller capillaries. Water in region C
is even more loosely held in larger capillaries. It is available for reactions and as a solvent.
Equilibrium moisture content
Any hygroscopic material (including grain) has its own characteristic balance (or equilibrium)
between the moisture it contains and the water vapour in the air with which it is in contact. This
is known as the equilibrium moisture content (EMC). When food grains containing a certain
amount of moisture are exposed to air, moisture moves from the grain to the air, or vice versa,
until there is a balance between the moisture in the grain and in the air.
Each food grain has a characteristic equilibrium curve obtained by plotting a graph of moisture
content against the relative humidity and temperature of the air. Curves for some common food
grains are given in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Equilibrium moisture content for different crops

These values must be considered only as a guide because the equilibrium values of different
types and varieties of grain vary. The EMC will also vary slightly with temperature. For most
cereals, it will drop by approximately 0.5 percent for every 10 °C temperature rise at the same
percentage relative humidity of the air.

Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 4

 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

Equilibrium moisture content (EMC) values at 27 °C and 70 percent relative humidity

Example: The ambient air at 25°C and 70 percent RH is heated to 45 °C and 24 percent RH.
When passing through the grain, it gains enough moisture to again reach 70 percent
RH while the temperature drops to 30.1 °C. Each kilogram of air would then have
removed (0.023 - 0.0167) = 0.0063 kg of moisture. Whether the air returns to 70
percent RH or to some other level will depend on the air velocity through the grain.
Loss of moisture
As grain dries, it releases its moisture into the drying air and consequently loses weight.
The weight of grain after drying may be found using the following equation:
W1 (M 1 − M 2 )
W2 = W1 −
100 − M 2
Where:
W1 = Weight of undried grain (kg)
W2 = Weight of dried grain (kg)
M1 = Moisture content of undried grain (percent)
M2 = Moisture content of dried grain (percent).
For example, if 200 kg of peas at 32 percent moisture content are dried to 19 percent moisture
content, what is the weight of the dried peas?
200(32 − 19 )
W2 = 200 −
100 − 19
Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 5
 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

= 200 − 32.1 = 167.9kg

When the moisture content of the grain to be dried has been determined, it is possible to check
the progress of the drying process by using the following procedure.

Before drying starts, place a weighed sample of the undried grain in a porous sack and bury it in
the upper layer of the grain in the grain bin. At any time during the drying process, the sack may
be removed, weighed, and returned to the bin. Then, using the initial weight, the initial moisture
content and the newly observed weight in the following equation, the current moisture content at
that specific level may be calculated:
W1 (100 − M 1 )
M 2 = 100 −
W2
Drying systems
The range of systems available for drying grains varies from thin-layer drying in the sun or a
simple maize crib to expensive mechanized systems such as continuous flow dryers. The choice
is governed by a number of factors, including:
Rate of harvest: The capacity of the system must be able to keep pace with the rate at which the
grain arrives at the store on a daily basis. It is essential that loading and drying does not hold up
the harvest.
Total volume to be dried: This may not be the total volume of the crop. If harvesting normally
starts as the rainy season is ending, it may be necessary to dry the early part of the harvest, but
not the later part.
Storage system: In many cases, the storage system and the drying system may be the same
structure. For example a ventilated maize crib (Figure 3), used for drying the crop naturally, is
likely to be used to store the shelled crop in bags later. Some bin-drying systems have a similar
dual purpose.

Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 6

 ABE 421: Farm Structures, Crop storage and storage 2020-21

Figure 3: Ventilated maize crib for drying maize on the cob. The structure has slatted walls and
should be placed with the long wall facing the prevailing wind

Cost: Both capital cost and running cost should be taken into account.
Flexibility: The likelihood of different crops requiring drying should be considered.
Drying systems fall into two main groups:
Natural drying using ambient air temperature and either direct sunlight or natural air movement
through the crop.
Artificial drying using mechanical means (e.g. a fan) to move air through the crop, with the air
being either at ambient temperature or artificially heated.
Additionally, drying can be considered in terms of the thickness of the bed of grain being dried,
i.e. either shallow-layer (or thin-layer) drying or deep bed drying. Natural drying requires the
grain to be in shallow layers, whereas certain fans can push air through grain several metres
deep.

Drying principles – Eng. Kapkwang - UoK Page 7