CHEMISTRY LECTURE 6.

Medical Experts– understanding of man’s ailment

and drugs to be used to cure such ailment-
LESSON 1 – INTRODUCTION TO vitamins/vaccines are being discovered.
CHEMISTRY
C. The application of theories in Chemistry produces
CHEMISTRY – study of matter new and better materials.
• deals with Properties of Matter, Composition 1. Housewives use paper bags/plastic bags
(Content) and Structure (Arrangement),
Changes it Undergoes, Energy Involved in any 2. Use of lighter
Transformation of Matter 3. Juices packed in non-breakable, handy and light
BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY aluminum/plastic containers

• Organic Chemistry - scientific study of the 4. effective medicines, biodegradable pesticides and
structure, properties, and reactions of organic better ways of preserving foods.
compounds and organic materials; “science of
carbons”
• Inorganic Chemistry – deals will all other WHAT IS MATTER?
compound except Carbon
Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass
• Analytical Chemistry - concerned with the
detection or identification of substance PROPERTIES OF MATTER
present in a sample
1. Physical Properties – properties that can be
• Physical Chemistry - applies the
observed without changing the composition
mathematical theories and methods of
of the substance
physics to the properties of matter
Examples: Physical Dimensions, Ductility,
• Biochemistry – deals with the chemistry of
Malleability, Elasticity, Density, Temperature
processes in living organisms
• can be classified as intensive, extensive.
• Industrial Chemistry - study of chemical Intensive Property - do not depend on the
processes applied in the industrial amount of matter that is present
manufacture of substances
Example: Boiling Point, Freezing Point,
IMPORTANT USES OF CHEMISTRY Temperature, Color, Luster, Hardness
Extensive Property - depend on the
A. Industry depends on Chemistry amount of matter that is present
1. Industrial Materials Example: Mass, Weight, Length, Size,
Volume
2. Farmers use fertilizers and insecticides 2. Chemical Properties – can only be determined
3. Chemical Laboratories during a change in composition
Examples: Corrosion, Flammability,
B. Many professions and Occupations need some Decomposition, Toxicity, Oxidation States,
knowledge of Chemistry. Heat of Combustion, Chemical Stability,
Reactivity, Coordination Number, Enthalphy of
1. Farmers – chemistry of fertilizers
Formation, Possible Chemical Bonds
2. Salesman – knowledge in composition and
TRANSFORMATION OF MATTER (PHASE CHANGE)
properties of the product

3. Mothers– content of food or detergent

4. Architect/Engineers – choose the best construction

materials

5. Lawyer - effectively argue in court if he knows a

paraffin test
CHANGES IN MATTER

1. Physical Change – change in phase but no HEAT/ENERGY TRANSFER

change in composition
Endothermic Process - energy is absorbed
Examples: Vaporization, Distillation
Sedimentation, Gas Absorption, Exothermic Process – energy is released
Crystallization, Sublimation, Drying
2. Chemical Change - change in composition
thus there is a chemical reaction. LESSON 2 – MEASUREMENTS
Examples: Burning, Fermentation, Digestion
UNIT OF MEASUREMENT - standard which is an exact
quantity used for comparison when measuring.

IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENT

1. Qualitative Measurement - non-numeric form

Qualitativus (Latin) – quality or kind
2. Quantitative – definite form (usually in
numbers)
Quantitativus (Latin) – having quantity as
mass, size, volume, etc.

ACCURACY VS. PRECISION

LAWS

• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS

• You cannot create nor destroy matter
• Mass Input = Mass Output
• LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• You cannot create nor destroy energy it
can only be transformed.
• LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
• A pure compound will always have the
same elements combined in the same
proportion by mass.
• LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
• When two elements combine to form
more than one compound the element
whose mass varies combines with a fixed SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
mass of the second element weights in a
sample whole number ratio. Kinds of Numbers

ENERGY 1. Exact – obtained by counting or from

definitions
TYPES OF ENERGY 2. Non exact – obtained from measurements
1. KINETIC ENERGY – based on motion or Significant Figures – digits believed to be correct by
movements the person who makes a measurement
K.E. = 𝟏⁄𝟐mv2
2. POTENTIAL ENERGY – based on position (at
rest)
P.E = mgh
3. INTERNAL ENERGY – combination of both
E = K.E. + P.E.
Rules for Significant Figures

1. The digits 1 to 9 are all significant.

Ex. 1.3 = 2 SF .615 = 3 SF 2.3489 = 5 SF
2. Zero between non zero digits are significant.
Ex. 2006 = 4 SF 3.09 = 3 SF 4007 = 4 SF
3. The zero is significant if it is the final digit to
the right of the decimal point and non zero
digits.
Ex. 95.0 = 3 SF 9.50 = 3 SF .950 = 3 SF Base Units for the International System of
4. Zero to the left of the decimal point and non Measurement
zero digits are not significant.
Ex. 0.0020 = 2 SF 0.376 = 3 SF 0.00376 = 3 SF Length
5. The use of bar above zero indicates that the Meter, m, the distance that light travels in a vacuum in
zero is significant. 1/299,792,458 of a second
Ex. = 5 SF = 3 SF = 4 SF
6. When a no. ends in zeros, the zeros are not Mass
significant. Kilogram, kg, the mass of a platinum iridium alloy
Ex. 12000 = 2 SF 12000. = 5 SF 1560000 = 3 SF cylinder in a vault in France
1560000. = 7 SF
7. Scientific Notation (SN): Ex. 48000 = 4.8 x 104- Time
2 SF 0.0048 = 4.8 x 10-3- 2 SF
Second, s, the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of
• In addition and subtraction, the last digit
the radiation emitted in a specified transition between
retained in the sum or difference is
energy levels of Cesium133
determined by the position of the first
doubtful digit. Temperature
• In multiplication and division, an answer
Kelvin, K, 1/273.16 of the temperature difference
contains no more significant figures than
between absolute zero and the triple point
the least number of significant figures
temperature of water
used in the operation.

Value of Measurements

Value – a quantitative description that

includes both a unit and a number

Units – quantities defined by standards that

people agree to use to compare one event or
object to another

Metric, International, and English System

English System – System of measurement that

is used in the United States but has been
replaced in most parts of the world

Metric System – The common system of

reference units used in science

– Has evolved into the International System of

Units (SI units) from the French “Systéme
International d’Unités”.
Mass and Weight Specific Gravity

• Mass – a fixed and unvarying quantity that is • Specific Gravity – Is the ratio of the density of that
independent of the object’s location substance to the density of water at 4 °C

• Weight – the measure of the earth’s gravitational Changing Units of Measurement

attraction for a body
• Unit Factor Method – also known as Dimensional
– Varies in relation to the position of an object on or Analysis
its distance from the earth
– The units must always accompany the numeric
value of a measurement, whether we are writing
about the quantity, talking about it or using it in
calculations.

LESSON 3 – THERMODYNAMICS

Energy is the capacity to do work

• Radiant energy comes from the sun and is earth’s

primary energy source

• Thermal energy is the energy associated with the

random motion of atoms and molecules

• Chemical energy is the energy stored within the

bonds of chemical substances

• Nuclear energy is the energy stored within the

collection of neutrons and protons in the atom

• Potential energy is the energy available by virtue of

an object’s position

Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions

Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two

bodies that are at different temperatures.

Temperature is a measure of the thermal energy.

Temperature ≠ Thermal Energy

Thermochemistry is the study of heat change in

chemical reactions. The system is the specific part of
the universe that is of interest in the study.
Density
Exothermic process is any process that gives off heat
• Density – defined as the mass per unit volume of a – transfers thermal energy from the system to the
material surroundings.

Endothermic process is any process in which heat has

to be supplied to the system from the surroundings.

Thermodynamics

- is the scientific study of the interconversion of

heat and other kinds of energy.
State functions E = H - PV
- are properties that are determined by the H = E + PV
state of the system, regardless of how that
condition was achieved energy, pressure, Enthalpy (H) is used to quantify the heat flow into or
volume, temperature out of a system in a process that occurs at constant
pressure.
E = Efinal - Einitial
H = H (products) – H (reactants)
P = Pfinal - Pinitial
H = heat given off or absorbed during a reaction at
V = Vfinal - Vinitial constant pressure

T = Tfinal - Tinitial Thermochemical Equations

First law of thermodynamics – energy can be • The stoichiometric coefficients always refer to the
converted from one form to another, but cannot be number of moles of a substance
created or destroyed.
H2O (s) H2O (l) H = 6.01 kJ
Esystem + Esurroundings = 0
• If you reverse a reaction, the sign of H changes
Or Esystem = -Esurroundings
H2O (l) H2O (s) H = -6.01 kJ
Another form of the first law for Esystem
• If you multiply both sides of the equation by a factor
E = q + w E n, then H must change by the same factor n.

- is the change in internal energy of a system q 2H2O (s) 2H2O (l) H = 2 x 6.01 = 12.0 kJ
is the heat exchange between the system and
• The physical states of all reactants and products
the surroundings w is the work done on (or
must be specified in thermochemical equations.
by) the system
H2O (s) H2O (l) H = 6.01 kJ H2O (l) H2O (g) H = 44.0
W = -PV
kJ
- when a gas expands against a constant
The specific heat (s) of a substance is the amount of
external pressure
heat (q) required to raise the temperature of one gram
Work Done On the System of the substance by one degree Celsius.
w=Fxd The heat capacity (C) of a substance is the amount of
heat (q) required to raise the temperature of a given
w = -P V
quantity (m) of the substance by one degree Celsius
𝐹
P x V = 𝑑^2 x d3 = F x d = W C=mxs
w = wfinal - winitial Heat ( q) absorbed or released:

V > 0 q = m x s x t

-PV < 0 q = C x t
wsys < 0 t = tfinal – tinitial
Work is not a state function!

Enthalpy and the First Law of Thermodynamics

E = q + w

At constant pressure:

q = H

and w = -PV
 • Group IA metals are +1, IIA metals are +2 and
fluorine is always –1.
• The sum of the oxidation numbers of all the
atoms in a molecule or ion is equal to the
charge on the molecule or ion.

CHEMICAL CHANGE ---> ELECTRIC CURRENT

● To obtain a useful current, we separate the

oxidizing and reducing agents so that electron
transfer occurs thru an external wire.

LESSON 4 – ELECTROCHEMISTRY This is accomplished in a GALVANIC or VOLTAIC

cell. A group of such cells is called a battery.
Electron Transfer Reactions

●Electron transfer reactions are oxidation reduction or

redox reactions.

●Results in the generation of an electric current

(electricity) or be caused by imposing an electric
current.

●Therefore, this field of chemistry is often called

ELECTROCHEMISTRY.

●OXIDATION—loss of electron(s) by a species;

increase in oxidation number; increase in oxygen.

●REDUCTION—gain of electron(s); decrease in

oxidation number; decrease in oxygen; increase in
hydrogen.

●OXIDIZING AGENT—electron acceptor; species is

reduced. (an agent facilitates something; ex. Travel
agents don’t travel, they facilitate travel)

●REDUCING AGENT—electron donor; species is Galvanic Cells

oxidized.
The difference in electrical potential between the
Review of Oxidation numbers anode and cathode is called:

The charge the atom would have in a molecule (or an ● cell voltage
ionic compound) if electrons were completely
● electromotive force (emf)
transferred.
● cell potential
• Free elements (uncombined state) have an
oxidation number of zero. Standard Electrode Potentials
Na, Be, K, Pb, H2, O2, P4 = 0
Standard reduction potential (E0) is the voltage
• In monatomic ions, the oxidation number is
associated with a reduction reaction at an
equal to the charge on the ion.
electrode when all solutes are 1 M and all gases
Li+, Li = +1; Fe3+, Fe = +3; O2-, O = -2 3.
are at 1 atm.
• The oxidation number of oxygen is usually–2.
In H2O2 and O22- it is –1. ● E0 is for the reaction as written
• The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1
● The more positive E0 the greater the tendency
except when it is bonded to metals in binary
for the substance to be reduced
compounds. In these cases, its oxidation
number is –1.
● The half-cell reactions are reversible

● The sign of E0 changes when the reaction is

reversed

● Changing the stoichiometric coefficients of a

half-cell reaction does not change the value of E0

Charging a Battery

When you charge a battery, you are forcing the

electrons backwards (from the + to the -). To do
this, you will need a higher voltage backwards
than forwards. This is why the ammeter in your
car often goes slightly higher while your battery is
charging, and then returns to normal.

In your car, the battery charger is called an

alternator. If you have a dead battery, it could be
the battery needs to be replaced OR the
alternator is not charging the battery properly.

Battery

Dry cell

Mercury Battery

Lead Storage Battery

Solid State Lithium Battery

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that requires a

continuous supply of reactants to keep functioning