Ground Fault analysis:

Here two parts are there.

One during fault what will be the fault current i.e Ifa, Ifb, Ifc. Another was the service continuity, i.e
Phase current variation of Ia, Ib, Ic

1st: Fault current analysis

ETAP calculation is based on fault current analysis Ifa, Ifb and Ifc analysis during a fault. ½ cycle, -Cycle
and 30 cycle. And the summary is that, at I/2 cycle the value shall be not zero for Ifa and Ifb because of
the capacitance effect and also from motor side there shall be some current value due to imbalance and
asynchronous effect might be but after 30 cycle i.e steady state fault, only faulty phase ground haas a
current and other two phase fault current Ifa and Ifb shall be zero.

The analysis is below:

Now what happened to Phase current and voltage shall be discussed later.

480V System 500A resistive earth ETAP analysis:

Fault before Motor Terminal:

1/2 cycle fault 4-Cycle Fault 30-Cycle Fault

Observations:
Fault current seen by Zero sequence CT for ½ cycle is 260A (Vector sum; show link below). Here other
phases current is not zero also. Rest will be contributed through Motor because at the instant of fault
motor will operate as generator and contribute.

Fault current seen by Zero sequence CT for 4 cycle also around 270A (Vector sum; show link below). Here
other phases current is not zero also. Rest will be contributed through Motor because at the instant of
fault motor will operate as generator and contribute.

Fault current seen by Zero sequence CT for 30 cycle shall be 500A. Here other phases currents are zero.
No contribution from motor.

Three phase to Ground Fault: & Double line to Ground fault:

Here, Fault current shall be high and unbalance also high even for 5A resistance earth as phase fault
is there.

Ist one is 3Ph fault and second one is LL-G fault

Link:

https://www.calculators-math.com/complex-number-calculator/

https://ejl.neocities.org/rectangToPolar
2nd: Phase current analysis

In a single phase-to-ground fault on a high resistance grounding system, the current in the remaining
two phases will be essentially unchanged and close to their normal operating current; the fault current is
limited to a very low value by the high resistance grounding resistor, meaning the other phases are not
significantly affected by the fault.

The condition shall be as follows:

Faults occur at motor terminal: Refer Bender 2020 Guideline:

Fault after Motor Terminal: Say Fault current is set to 1A and the CT measure 10-5-1=1A. As the zero
sequence fault not zero, CT will sense a fault. Similarly, for 5A

Fault before motor terminal: Same concept

Hence, for HRG system there will be service continuity but for LRG or Solid ground fault it will not be
there, and we need to trip the system

For HRG, It allows the system to stay in service but it is highly recommended to try and correct the fault
as soon as safely possible due to high voltage system application of two un faulted phases.
During 1Ph to ground fault, the neutral has been shifted. Say fault occurred in Ph-B. Voltage of the R
point Ph-Ground shall be Phase voltage+ Voltage drop across the resistor and it can go up to the line
voltage.
Hence, during ground fault conditions, the voltage to ground on the two unfaulted phases to be
considered is equal to the line-to-line voltage. The equipment rating has to be rated at 173% of their
line-to-neutral voltages.

Hence the disadvantage is: Inability to serve line-to-neutral loads.

For Solid Ground system, it is not actually solid there are some contact resistance of rod and conductor
and the value shall be 1.5 Ohm.
Due to 1.5Ohm resistance the neutral will be shifted and hence the voltage of the healthy phase will go
high. Around 0.8Vline.

LRG System

Low resistance grounding is normally used on medium-voltage to high-voltage systems to limit the
ground return current to a high level, typically 100 A or more. The resistance must be low enough to let
high current flow and allow detection by the protective devices, which in turn trip the circuit offline.

Now, does the Zero sequence CT shows 500A at steady state and value shall be 500:5?

As per Siemens tech topic ZCT rating shall be 50:5 and this CT has a limit to measure 10 times current
with 10% error.

https://www.siemens.com/us/en/products/energy/techtopics/techtopics-98.html
Phasor Diagram of Grounding system

Solid Grounding:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1dQ_vnsn--U

It is now a days called effective grounded system as per IEEE.

Condition:

Now the capacitance will form (stray capacitance) on each phase. Now say B phase is faulty and volage
across this capacitance is 0 hence can be neglected.

Now look the capacitor current is not related to fault and wheather fault occur or not this value will not
change. It will be leading the respective voltage by 90 degrees.

Now fault current is inductive so it will be lagging the voltage.

From the phasor diagram we can see that Icf and If are opposite and nullyfying the effect of capacitive
current and hence there will no arching ground for solidly grounded system

Advantages of a solidly grounded system:

• Personnel safety
• Ability to serve line-to-neutral loads
• Transient overvoltages are avoided
• The ability to isolate the ground fault by tripping a breaker open

Disadvantages of a grounded system:

• The breaker opens after initial ground fault (no service continuity)
• During a fault, a large current may pass through equipment and cause equipment damage
• Finding the location of the ground fault can become a tedious endeavor
Resistance Grounding:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtiZqZCKjvA

Advantages of high resistance grounding:

• Personnel safety and equipment protection
• Service continuity: the ground return current is limited to a low magnitude value that does not require
taking the system offline
• Avoidance of large transient overvoltages that can result in restrikes and cause additional ground
faults
• Possible arc flash risk reduction by limit the ground fault current by 5A. [Can’t reduce directly Ph-Ph
Arc fault]
• Ground fault location easier to find
• Arching ground can be completely eliminated

Disadvantages of high resistance grounding:

• Inability to serve line-to-neutral loads
[An arc fault occurs when electricity "jumps" between two conductors due to damaged insulation, loose connections, or other
compromised wiring, creating a spark that can generate significant heat and potentially ignite nearby materials; essentially, it's
an unintended electrical arc that happens when current flows through an unplanned path, often caused by worn or damaged
wires. Arc flash calculations are based on the arc flash current, time, distance and bolted fault data. There is no way that the
grounding system can reduce the arc flash hazard analysis. The only thing a high-resistance grounding system can do is limit the
fault current of a single phase to ground fault. Now that the fault current is limited to 5 A., the probability of that fault
escalating to a phase to phase fault or a three phase fault is greatly reduced.]

Reactance Grounding:

For greater than 33KV as ICF (Capacitive resultant current) can be is very high.
Fault current in resister shall be If-Icf

If the system capacitive current requirement is more, say for Synchronous condenser, long cable, cap
bank, transmission line without transformer etc. Capacitive component will be more. Hence the
requirement of If sin fy will be more and automatically IF requirement will be more .

So fault through the NGR shall be 200A but IF shall be high, say 500A.
If the capacitive current is more we need to go with reactance grounding.
As per IEEE it means grounding through impedance. So, it is not an ideal inductor but some resistance
can be present.

By phasor diagram, no sign components are there and Capacitive current is completely eliminating by IF
fault current. Weather resistive case sine Fy component is eliminating. This vector diagram is like Solid
ground. It is used when the capacitive currents are more.

Disadvantage is that due to lightning strick the inductor will be open circuited and the entire wave will
be reflected back. So the switching surges will be high.

Voltage is greater than>0.8VL

Value of IF shall be equal to capacitive resultant current.

High resistance ground system:

System Components(i Gard) :

The Sigma 3 is used with voltage and current sensors to
monitor the system.
 The NGRS-## sensing resistor is used to sense
the voltage over the NGR.
 The zero sequence current sensor, which is used
to sense the current through the NGR, is an i
Gard type T2A, T3A, TxA or any Rx-yA zero
sequence current sensor.
 In addition, the Sigma 3 operates in injection
mode when the current through the NGR is low,
whereby a high frequency signal is injected into
the system to measure the zero sequence
impedance. A filter is used in conjunction with
the high frequency injection signal called the
NGRX. Combination NGRS / NGRX are also
available, called NGRXS-##.
Ground Fault Detection(i Gard)
The Sigma 3 monitor detects ground faults by measuring
the current through the NGR using the zero sequence
current sensor (TxA or Rx-yA sensors). When the
measured value exceeds the set-point the GND FLT LED
illuminates, the GND FLT form-C contact energizes, and
the trip relays energize.
The Sigma 3’s NGR let-through current setting is set by DIP switch to match the rating of the NGR. The
trip level is DIP switch selectable as a percentage of the NGR let-through current setting and can be set
as: 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, and 50%.
The ground fault trip delay setting defines the length of time that a ground fault must persist before the
fault is qualified as such. This setting is DIP switch selectable from its minimum setting of 60 milliseconds
to 3.15 seconds.
NGR Monitoring(i Gard)
The Sigma 3 monitor relay also monitors the health of the NGR to ensure that it does not become open
or short circuit. If the Sigma 3 determines that the NGR is not healthy the NGR FLT LED illuminates, the
NGR FLT form-C contact energizes, and the trip relays energize.
The Sigma 3 monitor relay monitors the NGR using one of two methods: measurement mode and
injection mode.
 If the leakage current through the NGR is over 5% of the rated let-through current, the Sigma 3
operates in measurement mode. In measurement mode, the leakage current through the NGR is
measured by the ZSCS and the voltage across the NGR is measured by the NGRS. The Sigma 3
uses these values to calculate the apparent resistance of the NGR. If this calculated value is
determined to be over 150% of the nominal value or less than 66% of the nominal value, the
Sigma 3 annunciates an NGR fault.
 If the leakage current through the NGR is below 5% of the rated let-through current, the Sigma 3
operates in injection mode. In injection mode, a high frequency signal is injected into the system
through a band-pass filter (NGRX). The Sigma 3 uses the current and voltage of the high
frequency signal to calculate the apparent resistance of the NGR. If this calculated value is
 determined to be over 150% of the nominal value or less than 66% of the nominal value, the
Sigma 3 annunciates an NGR fault. NGRx is optional
 Combination of NGRS and NGRX is possible, called NGRXS

Pulsing Ground Detection System:

A typical ground detection system for a high-resistance

grounded system is illustrated in figure 6-12. The ground
resistor is shown with a tap between two resistor sections R1
and R2. When a ground fault occurs, relay 59 (the ANSI
standard for an overvoltage relay, as discussed later in this
guide) detects the increased voltage across the resistor. It
sends a signal to the control circuitry to initiate a ground fault
alarm by energizing the “alarm” indicator.
When the operator turns the pulse control selector to the
“ON” position, the control circuit causes pulsing contact P to
close and re-open approximately once per second. When P
closes R2 is shorted and the “pulse” indicator is energized. R1 and R2 are sized so that approximately 5-7
times the resistor continuous ground fault current flows when R2 is shorted. The result is a pulsing
ground fault current that can be detected using a clamp-on ammeter (an analog ammeter is most
convenient). By tracing the circuit with the ammeter, the ground fault location can be determined. Once
the ground fault has been removed from the system pressing the “alarm reset” button will de-energize
the “alarm” indicator.
This type of system is known as a pulsing ground detection system and is very effective in locating
ground faults, but is generally more expensive than the ungrounded system ground fault indicator in
figure 6-10.
Pulsing (i Gard)
Pulsing is a technique that is employed in high resistance
grounded systems to locate a ground fault. The NGR is divided
into a non-pulsing section and a pulsing section that includes a
contactor. The pulsing section can be inserted into the system
by the operation the contactor. This cycles the let-through
current of the NGR between different values (usually from 50%
to 100% of the rated let-through current) and this signature can
be used to trace the location of the ground fault. Various pulse
arrangements are shown in Figure 3.3 below.
Pulse signals are available from the Sigma 3 that can be used to create the signature by driving an NO
solid state relay that is used as the pulsing contactor. These are available at terminals 19, 20, and 21. If
using pulse down signals use terminals 19 and 21. If using pulse up signals use terminals 20 and 21.
Terminals 19-21 are normally energized with +12VDC and terminals 20-21 are normally de-energized.
When pulsing is enabled by closing terminals 25-26 or by enabling at the Sigma3-TDM touchscreen HMI,
the pulse signals cycle at a frequency of 1Hz.
The cycle frequency can be changed using the Sigma3-TDM touchscreen HMI.
 Application: Refer Lesson & Learnt season 4.6, For LSIG protection. Here setting "G" is
0.2xIn; Min In=10A. so setting available 2A minimum and time 0.8sec. It can be EKIP
DIP or LSIG. Now, normally if NGR is there then fault current shall be 5A for LV. Hence
LSIG shall not be applicable for >25A feeder but using pulsing system 7 times of fault
current can flow. So, 35A. 35/.2=175A. So up to 150A rated MCCB we can use
 without GF relay and feeder. Only we need to know if LSIG protection, G can be use
for indication, not tripping

Zig Zag Grounding System:

If there is a long distance in between transformer and switchgear during fault the fault current will
travel to remote earth. We can avoid by placing the Zig Zag or open delta

Application and Zig Zag transformer can be found here

Open Delta Grounding System:

If there is a long distance in between transformer and switchgear during fault the
fault current will travel to remote earth. We can avoid by placing the Zig Zag or
open delta

Here the current shall be limited by the resistance of transformer. Calculation shall
be like zig Zag
Broken Delta Grounding System:

If there is a long distance in between transformer and switchgear during fault the fault current will
travel to remote earth. We can avoid by placing the Zig Zag or open delta

The best way to ground an ungrounded delta system (existing or new) is to derive a neutral point
through grounding transformers as shown in figure above. The resistor inserted in the “broken delta” leg
is reflected to the primary underground fault conditions and limits the current to a nominal value as
dictated by its design.
VFD Grounding:
Normal GFR can’t measure unbalance due to HRG system as lea than30% unbalance it shouldn’t trip.
Moreover at OG is not sinusoidal and hence normal GFR can’t measure. Dtartco EL731 can measure as
they demand. Even if CT can placed at output of VFD.

My preferences is to measure Ground fault for VFD by pulsing NGR.