CHEM103 General Chemistry 1

C1 Introduction to Chemistry and Applications

Branches of Chemistry:
1. Biochemistry
2. Inorganic chemistry
3. Physical chemistry
4. Organic chemistry
5. Agricultural chemistry
6. Analytical chemistry
7. Medicinal chemistry
etc.

1.7 Measurements
Significant figures or SF is a method of expressing measured numbers properly.

General Rules: Report only as many significant figures in the result as there are in the quantity with the least.

All nonzero digits are significant

Both 23.4 and 234 have 3 SF

Zeros are significant if between two nonzero digits, captive zeros, 20.05 has 4 SF, 407 has 3 SF

Zeros are not significant to the left of nonzero digits. Used to locate a decimal point, leading zeros, 0.0000035
has 2 SF

To the right of all nonzero digits, trailing zeros, must be determined from context so 45.0 has 3 SF but 4500
probably only has 2 SF

Exact Numbers: numbers of people, items, etc. are assumed to have an unlimited number of SF.

In the process of determining the allowed number of significant figures, we must generally also ‘round off’ the
numbers.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 2
C2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions

Introduction to Atomic Theory

Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
1. Elements are made of tiny particles called atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and properties, while atoms of different elements
differ in these characteristics. Note: This has been modified with the discovery of isotopes.
3. Compounds are formed by the combination of atoms from different elements in specific, whole number
ratios.
4. Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms; atoms are neither created nor destroyed.

Laws Governing Atoms and Reactions:

Dalton's theory laid the groundwork for two important laws:
1. Law of Conservation of Mass: This law states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical
reaction. The total mass of the reactants is equal to the total mass of the products.

2. Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in ratios of small whole numbers.
The carbon monoxide/carbon dioxide example illustrates this perfectly.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 3
Structure of the Atom – Subatomic Particles
Atoms, once thought indivisible, are
actually composed of smaller subatomic
particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.
•Protons (p+): Positively charged particles
found in the nucleus.
•Neutrons (n0): Neutral particles found in
the nucleus.
•Electrons (e-): Negatively charged
particles orbiting the nucleus.

Rutherford's gold foil experiment shows that the atom is mostly empty space with a dense, positively charged
nucleus.

Later, Chadwick discovered the neutron, explaining the discrepancy between atomic number and atomic mass.

In 1932, Chadwick made a fundamental discovery in the domain of nuclear science: he proved the existence of
neutrons – elementary particles devoid of any electrical charge
CHEM103 General Chemistry 4
Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes
• Atomic Number Z: The number of protons in an atom's nucleus. This defines the element.
• Mass Number A: The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons different
mass numbers.

Isotopes are represented as ᴬₓX, where X is the element symbol.

Example: How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in ¹4₆C?

6 protons, (14-6) = 8 neutrons, and 6 electrons (since atoms are electrically neutral).

How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in ¹1₆C?

6 protons, (11-6) = 5 neutrons, and 6 electrons (since atoms are electrically neutral).

Molecules, Ions, and Chemical Formulas

Molecule: An aggregate of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Molecules can be diatomic
(two atoms) or polyatomic (more than two atoms).

Molecules

Diatomic Elements
CHEM103 General Chemistry 5

Polyatomic molecules

Ion: An atom or group of atoms with a net positive or negative charge.

Cation: A positively charged ion (formed by loss of electrons).

Anion: A negatively charged ion (formed by gain of electrons).

Chemical Formula: A representation of a substance using chemical symbols. There are molecular formulas and
empirical formulas.

Molecular Formula:
• Definition: The molecular formula of a compound represents the actual number of atoms of each
element in a single molecule of the substance.
• Example: The molecular formula of glucose is C₆H₁₂O₆, which indicates that each molecule of glucose
contains 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms.

Empirical Formula:
• Definition: The empirical formula of a compound represents the simplest whole-number ratio of the
elements in the compound.
• To derive the empirical formula from a molecular formula, you need to find the greatest common
factor (GCF) of the subscripts of the elements in the molecular formula and divide each subscript by
this factor.

Example of Deriving Empirical Formula from Molecular Formula:

Ex 1:
◦ Molecular Formula: C₆H₁₂O₆ (Glucose)
◦ Step 1: Find the GCF of the subscripts (6, 12, 6) = 6
◦ Step 2: Divide each subscript by 6:
▪ C₆ ÷ 6 = C₁
▪ H₁₂ ÷ 6 = H₂
▪ O₆ ÷ 6 = O₁
◦ Therefore, the empirical formula of glucose is CH₂O.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 6
Ex 2:
◦ Molecular Formula: H₂O (Water)
◦ Since the subscripts are already in their simplest form, the empirical formula of water is also
H₂O.

Naming Compounds and Ions

Chemical nomenclature is a systematic way of naming chemical compounds. The rules for naming ionic and
molecular compounds differ:

Ionic Compounds: Typically formed from a metal and

a nonmetal. The cation is named first, followed by the
anion, which has the suffix "-ide" added to the
element's root name. For transition metals, Roman
numerals indicate the charge on the metal cation.

Molecular Compounds: Usually formed from two nonmetals. Prefixes are

used to indicate the number of atoms of each element (mono, di, tri, etc.).
The element furthest to the left and bottom of the periodic table is
named first. The second element's name ends in "-ide."

CO₂:
•Chemical Formula: CO₂
•Systematic Name: Carbon Dioxide
SO₃:
•Chemical Formula: SO₃
•Systematic Name: Sulfur Trioxide
N₂O₄:
•Chemical Formula: N₂O₄
•Systematic Name: Dinitrogen Tetroxide

Acids, Bases, and Hydrates

Acids:
• Definition: Acids are substances that yield hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water.
• Example: When hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas dissolves in water, it forms hydrochloric acid (HCl(aq)).
The reaction can be represented as follows:
HCl(g)+H₂O(l)→HCl(aq)

Oxoacids:
• Definition: Oxoacids are acids that contain hydrogen, oxygen, and another element. They are named
based on the polyatomic ion they contain.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 7
Naming Oxoacids:
◦ If the polyatomic ion ends in "-ate," the acid name will end in "-ic acid."
◦ If the polyatomic ion ends in "-ite," the acid name will end in "-ous acid."

Bases:
• Definition: Bases are substances that yield hydroxide ions (OH⁻) when dissolved in water.
• Examples:
◦ Sodium hydroxide: NaOH
◦ Potassium hydroxide: KOH

Hydrates:
• Definition: Hydrates are compounds with a specific number of water molecules attached.
• Examples:
◦ Copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate: CuSO₄•5H₂O
◦ Barium chloride dihydrate: BaCl₂•2H₂O

Dehydration of Copper(II) Sulfate Pentahydrate:

• When copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate (CuSO₄•5H₂O) is heated, it loses its water molecules and forms
anhydrous copper(II) sulfate. The reaction can be represented as follows:

CuSO₄•5H₂O(s)→CuSO₄(s)+5H₂O(g)

This process demonstrates the removal of water molecules from the hydrate, leaving behind the anhydrous
salt.

Common systematic names of compounds

CHEM103 General Chemistry 8

Organic Chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the structure, properties,
composition, reactions, and synthesis of carbon-containing compounds.

C3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions

Chemistry deals with both the microscopic world of atoms and molecules and the
macroscopic world of grams and kilograms. To bridge this gap, we use the atomic
mass unit (amu). By definition, one atom of ¹²C has a mass of exactly 12
amu. This sets the scale for the atomic masses of all other
elements.

The average atomic mass of an element, as listed on the periodic table, takes
into account the natural abundances of its isotopes.

This periodic table showcases the atomic number and average atomic mass of chemical elements
CHEM103 General Chemistry 9
The Mole: A Chemist's Counting Unit
Just as a dozen represents 12 items, the mole (mol) represents a specific number of entities: 6.022 x 10²³
(Avogadro's number, Nₐ). This is an incredibly large number, but it's essential for relating the microscopic
world to the macroscopic.

Molar mass is the mass of one mole of a substance in grams. Importantly, an element's molar mass (in grams)
is numerically equal to its atomic mass (in amu).

1 amu = 1.66 x 10⁻²⁴ g

Mole Calculations: Converting Between Mass, Moles, and Atoms

We can use the molar mass and Avogadro's number as conversion factors to move between mass, moles, and
the number of atoms.

| Conversion | Relationship
| Mass (g) to Moles (n) | Divide by Molar Mass (M)
| Moles (n) to Mass (g) | Multiply by Molar Mass (M)
| Moles (n) to Atoms | Multiply by Avogadro's Number (Nₐ)
| Atoms to Moles (n) | Divide by Avogadro's Number (Nₐ)
| Mass (g) to Atoms | Divide by Molar Mass (M) and then multiply by Nₐ
| Atoms to Mass (g) | Divide by Nₐ and then multiply by Molar Mass (M)

Example 3.2: How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of He?

Solution: Molar mass of He = 4.003 g/mol
6.46 g He * (1 mol He / 4.003 g He) = 1.61 mol He

Example 3.3: How many grams of Zn are in 0.356 mol of Zn?

Solution: Molar mass of Zn = 65.39 g/mol
0.356 mol Zn * (65.39 g Zn / 1 mol Zn) = 23.3 g Zn

Molecular Mass, Percent Composition, and Empirical Formulas

Molecular mass (or molecular weight) is the sum of the atomic masses in a molecule. Just like with atoms, a
molecule's molar mass (in grams) is numerically equal to its molecular mass (in amu).

Calculating the molecular mass of SO₂:

- Sulfur (S) has an atomic mass of approximately 32.07 g/mol.
- Oxygen (O) has an atomic mass of approximately 16.00 g/mol.
- The molecular formula of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) indicates that it contains one sulfur atom and two oxygen
atoms.
- To find the molecular mass of SO₂, add the atomic masses of each element in the compound.
- Molecular mass of SO₂ = (Atomic mass of S)+2×(Atomic mass of O)
- Molecular mass of SO₂=32.07+2×16.00
- Molecular mass of SO₂=32.07+32.00=64.07g/mol
CHEM103 General Chemistry 10
Percent composition expresses the mass percentage of each element in a compound.
Percent composition of an element in a compound = (Total mass of the element in 1 mole of the compound /
Molar mass of the compound) * 100%

Calculating the percent composition of ethanol (C₂H₆O):

- Find the Atomic Masses:
1. Carbon (C) has an atomic mass of approximately 12.01 g/mol.
2. Hydrogen (H) has an atomic mass of approximately 1.008 g/mol.
3. Oxygen (O) has an atomic mass of approximately 16.00 g/mol.

- Determine the Molecular Formula:

1. The molecular formula of ethanol (C₂H₆O) indicates that it contains two carbon atoms, six hydrogen
atoms, and one oxygen atom.

- Calculate the Molar Mass of Ethanol (C₂H₆O):

1. Molar mass of ethanol (C₂H₆O) = 2(C) + 6(H) + 1(O)
2. Molar mass of ethanol = 2(12.01) + 6(1.008) + 16.00
Molar mass of ethanol = 24.02 + 6.048 + 16.00 = 46.068 g/mol

- Calculate the Percent Composition:

1. Carbon (C):
• Total mass of carbon in 1 mole of ethanol = 2(12.01) = 24.02 g
• Percent composition of carbon = (24.02 / 46.068) * 100%
• Percent composition of carbon = (24.02 / 46.068) * 100% ≈ 52.15%
2. Hydrogen (H):
• Total mass of hydrogen in 1 mole of ethanol = 6(1.008) = 6.048 g
• Percent composition of hydrogen = (6.048 / 46.068) * 100%
• Percent composition of hydrogen = (6.048 / 46.068) * 100% ≈ 13.12%
3. Oxygen (O):
• Total mass of oxygen in 1 mole of ethanol = 1(16.00) = 16.00 g
• Percent composition of oxygen = (16.00 / 46.068) * 100%

Percent composition of oxygen = (16.00 / 46.068) * 100% ≈ 34.73%

The empirical formula gives the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. We can determine the
empirical formula from percent composition data.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 11
Chemical Equations, Stoichiometry, and Limiting Reagents
Chemical equations use symbols to represent chemical reactions. Reactants are on the left, products are on the
right, and an arrow separates them. Coefficients balance the equation, ensuring the same number of each
type of atom on both sides.

This is a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane (CH₄) in oxygen (O₂) to produce carbon
dioxide (CO₂) and water (H₂O):

CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O

When you "read" a balanced chemical equation in terms of atoms, molecules, moles, and mass, you can consider
the following aspects:
1. Atoms: The numbers in front of the chemical formulas represent the number of atoms of each element
involved in the reaction. For example, in the combustion of methane equation above, 1 atom of carbon
(C), 4 atoms of hydrogen (H), and 4 atoms of oxygen (O) are present on both sides of the equation.
2. Molecules: Each chemical formula represents a molecule or compound. In this equation, one molecule of
methane reacts with two molecules of oxygen to produce one molecule of carbon dioxide and two
molecules of water.
3. Moles: The coefficients in the balanced equation indicate the mole ratios of the reactants and
products. In this case, 1 mole of methane reacts with 2 moles of oxygen to produce 1 mole of carbon
dioxide and 2 moles of water.
4. Mass: The molar masses of the substances involved in the reaction can be used to relate the number
of moles to mass. For example, the molar mass of methane (CH₄) is approximately 16.04 g/mol.
Therefore, 1 mole of methane has a mass of 16.04 grams.

Stoichiometry uses balanced equations to calculate the amounts of reactants and products
involved in a reaction. The limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed first,
limiting the amount of product formed.

2NO + O₂ → 2NO₂
NO is the limiting reagent
O₂ is the excess reagent

Reaction Yield: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent

In chemical reactions, the amount of product we actually obtain is often less than the maximum
amount possible. This difference is accounted for by the concept of reaction yield.
• Theoretical Yield: The maximum amount of product that can be formed from the limiting reagent, assuming
the reaction goes to completion. This is a calculated value based on stoichiometry.
• Actual Yield: The amount of product actually obtained in a chemical reaction. This is a measured value
determined experimentally. Losses can occur due to incomplete reactions, side reactions, or product loss
during purification.
• Percent Yield: The ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, expressed as a percentage. It tells us how
efficient the reaction is.
Percent Yield = (Actual Yield / Theoretical Yield) × 100%
CHEM103 General Chemistry 12
C4 Reactions In Aqueous Solutions

Introduction to Aqueous Solutions and Electrolytes

Many chemical reactions occur in aqueous solutions, where water is the solvent. A solution is a homogeneous
mixture of two or more substances. The solute is the substance present in a smaller amount, while
the solvent is the substance present in a larger amount.

A key property of aqueous solutions is their ability to conduct electricity. Electrolytes are substances that,
when dissolved in water, produce ions and thus conduct electricity. Non-electrolytes dissolve but do not
produce ions, so their solutions don't conduct electricity.

Lightbulb apparatus testing conductivity for non-electrolytes, weak electrolytes, and strong electrolytes

Strong and Weak Electrolytes: Dissociation and Ionization

Strong electrolytes dissociate completely into ions in water, while weak electrolytes only partially dissociate.
This difference is reflected in their conductivity: strong electrolyte solutions conduct electricity well, while
weak electrolyte solutions conduct poorly.

Equations showing the dissociation of sodium chloride (NaCl) as a strong electrolyte and the ionization of
acetic acid (CH₃COOH) as a weak electrolyte:
1. Dissociation of NaCl (Strong Electrolyte):
• NaCl (s) → Na⁺ (aq) + Cl⁻ (aq)
• In this process, solid NaCl completely dissociates into its constituent ions (Na⁺ and Cl⁻) in aqueous solution.
The single arrow (→) represents a complete dissociation where all of the NaCl molecules break apart into
ions.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 13
2. Ionization of Acetic Acid (Weak Electrolyte):
• CH₃COOH (aq) CH₃COO⁻ (aq) + H⁺ (aq)
• This equation represents the ionization of acetic acid in water. The double arrow ( ) indicates a
reversible reaction. Acetic acid only partially ionizes in solution, producing acetate ions (CH₃COO⁻) and
hydrogen ions (H⁺) along with the undissociated acetic acid molecules. The reaction can proceed in both
directions - some ions can recombine to form molecules.

In a reversible reaction, the reaction can proceed in both the forward and reverse directions. In the case of
weak electrolyte ionization, such as the ionization of acetic acid, the equilibrium between the ions and the
undissociated molecules is established.

Some of the acetic acid molecules dissociate into ions, while some ions can recombine to form undissociated
molecules, maintaining a dynamic equilibrium.

The double arrow indicates that the reaction is reversible and that the forward and reverse reactions are
both occurring simultaneously.

In the case of weak electrolytes, the extent of ionization is relatively low compared to strong electrolytes,
where virtually all molecules dissociate into ions in solution.

Understanding reversible reactions is crucial in explaining the behavior of weak electrolytes and how they
differ from strong electrolytes in terms of ionization in solution.

The Role of Water: Hydration and Non-electrolyte Behavior

Water plays a crucial role in dissolving ionic compounds. Hydration is the process
where water molecules surround and stabilize ions in solution.

Non-electrolytes dissolve in water but don't ionize. They remain as intact molecules in solution, which explains
their lack of conductivity.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 14

Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Insoluble Solids

Precipitation reactions occur when two soluble ionic compounds react to form an insoluble product, called
a precipitate.

In the precipitation reaction between lead(II) nitrate (Pb(NO₃)₂) and potassium iodide (KI) to form lead(II)
iodide (PbI₂), the molecular, ionic, and net ionic equations can be shown as follows:
Molecular Equation:
This equation represents the reaction in terms of the complete formulas of the reactants and products.
Pb(NO₃)₂(aq) + 2KI(aq) → PbI₂(s) + 2KNO₃(aq)

Ionic Equation:
This equation shows all the ions involved in the reaction, whether they are aqueous or solid substances, but
does not include spectator ions.

Pb₂+(aq)+2NO₃− (aq)+2K+(aq)+2I−(aq)→PbI₂ (s)+2K+(aq)+2NO₃− (aq)

Net Ionic Equation:

The net ionic equation focuses only on the ions that participate in the reaction, excluding the spectator ions
that do not take part in the actual precipitation process.

Pb₂+(aq)+2I−(aq)→PbI₂ (s)

In this reaction, the spectator ions are 2K+ (aq) and 2NO₃- (aq). These ions appear on both sides of the
complete ionic equation but do not participate in the actual formation of the precipitate, lead(II) iodide.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 15
Solubility Rules and Predicting Precipitation Reactions
Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve in a given quantity of solvent at a specific
temperature. Solubility rules help predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur.

Example 4.1: Classify the following ionic compounds as soluble or insoluble: (a) Ag₂SO₄, (b) CaCO₃, (c) Na₃PO₄.
Solution: (a) Insoluble (sulfates are generally soluble, but Ag₂SO₄ is an exception), (b) Insoluble (carbonates
are generally insoluble, and Ca is not an alkali metal or ammonium ion), (c) Soluble (alkali metal compounds
are soluble).

Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions

Acids and bases are important classes of
compounds with distinct properties. Acids taste
sour, change the color of indicators, react with
certain metals to produce hydrogen gas, and
react with carbonates and bicarbonates to
produce carbon dioxide gas. Bases taste bitter,
feel slippery, change the color of indicators, and
conduct electricity in aqueous solutions.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 16
Neutralization, Redox Reactions, and Solution Stoichiometry
• Neutralization Reactions:
- Occur when an acid reacts with a base.
- Products are a salt and water.
- Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l)
- Net ionic equation for strong acid/strong base reactions: H⁺(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → H₂O(l)
- Reactions with weak acids also form a salt and water, but the weak acid does not fully dissociate in the
net ionic equation. Example: HCN(aq) + OH⁻(aq) → CN⁻(aq) + H₂O(l)
- Reactions with carbonates or bicarbonates also produce CO₂ gas.
- Example: 2HCl(aq) + Na₂CO₃(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)

• Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions:

- Involve the transfer of electrons between species.
- Oxidation: Loss of electrons (increase in oxidation number).
- Reduction: Gain of electrons (decrease in oxidation number).
- Oxidizing Agent: The substance that is reduced (accepts electrons).
- Reducing Agent: The substance that is oxidized (donates electrons).
- Example: 2Mg(s) + O₂(g) → 2MgO(s) (Mg is oxidized, O₂ is reduced)

• Oxidation Numbers:
- Used to track electron transfer in redox reactions.
- Rules for assigning oxidation numbers (summarize key rules from the textbook).
- Example: In HNO₃, H = +1, O = -2, and N = +5.

• Solution Stoichiometry:
- Deals with reactions in solution where concentrations are expressed in molarity.
- Molarity (M): Moles of solute per liter of solution (M = mol/L).
- Used to convert between volume, molarity, and moles.

• Dilution:
- Preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated stock solution by adding solvent.
- Equation: M₁V₁ = M₂V₂ (where 1 = initial, 2 = final).

Ex: Preparing a Dilute Solution of Hydrochloric Acid

You have a stock solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) with a concentration of 6.0 M. You need to prepare 500
mL of a 1.5 M HCl solution. How much of the stock solution do you need to dilute?

(6.0 M)(V₁) = (1.5 M)(0.500 L)

V₁ = (1.5 M * 0.500 L) / 6.0 M
V₁ = 0.125 L
CHEM103 General Chemistry 17
C9 Chemical Bonding

Introduction to Chemical Bonding and Valence Electrons

Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atoms together in molecules and compounds. Understanding these
forces is fundamental to explaining the properties of matter. The key players in chemical bonding are valence
electrons, the outermost electrons of an atom. These electrons participate in chemical reactions and bond
formation. The number of valence electrons an atom has is determined by its group number in the periodic
table.

Lewis Dot Symbols for Elements and Noble Gases

CHEM103 General Chemistry 18
✦ Why Atoms Bond: Atoms bond to achieve greater stability, typically by attaining a full outermost electron
shell (like the noble gases).
✦ Valence Electrons:
- The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom.
- Determine the chemical properties of an element.
- Directly involved in chemical bonding.
✦ Determining Valence Electrons:
- For main group elements (groups 1A-8A), the group number corresponds to the number of valence
electrons.
- Example: Oxygen (Group 6A) has 6 valence electrons.
✦ Electron Configurations and Valence Electrons: The electron configuration shows the distribution of
electrons in an atom's shells and subshells. The valence electrons occupy the highest principal energy level
(n).
✦ Lewis Dot Symbols:
- A convenient way to represent valence electrons.
- The element symbol represents the nucleus and inner electrons.
- Dots around the symbol represent valence electrons.

The Ionic Bond: Electrostatic Attraction

Ionic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. These bonds typically
form between a metal (which tends to lose electrons and form cations) and a nonmetal (which tends to gain
electrons and form anions).

✦ Formation of Ions:
- Metals tend to lose valence electrons to form positively charged ions (cations).
- Nonmetals tend to gain valence electrons to form negatively charged ions (anions).
✦ Electrostatic Attraction:
- The force of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
- This attraction forms the ionic bond.
✦ Noble Gas Configurations:
- By gaining or losing electrons, ions achieve a stable electron configuration like that of a noble gas.
- Example: Na⁺ has the same electron configuration as Ne.

LiF, the transfer of an electron and the resulting ions with their
noble gas configurations

This transfer of electrons leads to the formation of ions that

achieve stable, noble gas configurations.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 19
The Covalent Bond: Sharing Electrons
- Sharing Electrons: In covalent bonds, atoms share electrons to achieve a full outer shell.
- The Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve 8 valence electrons (an octet). (Note
exceptions later).
- Single Covalent Bonds: Sharing of one electron pair between two atoms.
- Lewis Structures for Covalent Compounds:

• Dots represent unshared electrons (lone pairs).

• Lines represent shared electron pairs (bonding pairs).
- Example: F₂
Multiple Bonds and Bond Properties
- Double Bonds: Sharing of two electron pairs.
- Triple Bonds: Sharing of three electron pairs.
- Bond Length:
• The distance between the nuclei of bonded atoms.
• Triple bonds < Double bonds < Single bonds (in length). Explain why.
- Bond Strength (or Bond Enthalpy):
• The energy required to break a bond.
• Single bonds < Double bonds < Triple bonds (in strength).
- Examples: H₂O (single), CO₂ (double), N₂ (triple)
CHEM103 General Chemistry 20
Comparing Ionic and Covalent Compounds
- Melting and Boiling Points: Explain the trends and why they occur.
- Solubility: General trends for ionic and covalent compounds.
- Electrical Conductivity: Explain why ionic compounds conduct when molten or dissolved but not as solids.
- Other Properties: Brittleness, ductility, etc.
- Example Comparison: NaCl vs. CCl₄

Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity

- Unequal Sharing of Electrons: Occurs when atoms have different electronegativities.
- Partial Charges: δ⁺ (partial positive) and δ⁻ (partial negative).
- Electronegativity:
• The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a bond.
• Fluorine (F) is the most electronegative element.
- Electronegativity Trends: Increases across a period, decreases down a group. Explain why.
- Electron Affinity vs. Electronegativity: Define and differentiate.
- Example: HF
CHEM103 General Chemistry 21
Electronegativity & Bond Classification
• Electronegativity Difference and Bond Type:
Nonpolar Covalent: Small or zero electronegativity difference (electrons shared equally).
Polar Covalent: Intermediate electronegativity difference (electrons shared unequally).
Ionic: Large electronegativity difference (electrons transferred).
• Electronegativity Table and Graph:

Variation of electronegativity with Atomic Number

CHEM103 General Chemistry 22
Writing Lewis Structures: A Step-by-Step Process
- Step 1: Skeletal Structure:
• Connect atoms with single bonds.
• Least electronegative atom is usually central.
- Step 2: Count Valence Electrons:
• Add up valence electrons for all atoms.
• Adjust for charge (add for negative, subtract for positive).
- Step 3: Complete Octets:
• Distribute remaining electrons as lone pairs to fulfill octets.
• Start with outer atoms.
- Step 4: Multiple Bonds (if needed):
• If central atom doesn't have an octet, form double or triple bonds.
- Examples: NF₃, HNO₃, CO₃²⁻
CHEM103 General Chemistry 23
Formal Charge, Resonance, and Exceptions
- Formal Charge:
• Formula: FC = Valence electrons - (Lone pair electrons + 1/2 Bonding electrons)
• Helps determine the most plausible Lewis structure.
- Resonance Structures:
• Occur when more than one valid Lewis structure can be drawn.
• The actual molecule is a hybrid of the resonance structures.

Exceptions to the Octet Rule:

1. Incomplete Octets (e.g., BF₃):
In molecules like Boron Trifluoride (BF₃), Boron has only six electrons in its valence shell, making it an example
of an incomplete octet.
Explanation:
• Boron, with atomic number 5, has only three electrons to share, leading to the formation of three
covalent bonds with fluorine atoms.
• As a result, Boron ends up with only six electrons in its valence shell, which is fewer than the octet rule
suggests.

2. Expanded Octets (e.g., SF₆):

In molecules like Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF₆), the central atom (Sulfur) exceeds the octet rule by having more
than eight electrons in its valence shell.
Explanation:
• Sulfur, with atomic number 16, can accommodate more than eight electrons due to the availability of
empty d orbitals.
• In SF₆, Sulfur forms six covalent bonds with Fluorine, resulting in twelve electrons around Sulfur
(expanded octet).
CHEM103 General Chemistry 24

3. Odd-Electron Molecules (e.g., NO):

In molecules like Nitric Oxide (NO), an odd number of valence electrons leads to the presence of unpaired
electrons.
Explanation:
• Nitrogen and Oxygen in NO share an odd number of electrons, resulting in the molecule having one
unpaired electron.
• This unpaired electron does not allow for the formation of a stable octet for either Nitrogen or
Oxygen.
CHEM103 General Chemistry 25
Bond Enthalpy and Enthalpy Changes in Reactions
- Bond Enthalpy (BE):
• The energy required to break a particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecules.
• Always a positive value (endothermic process).
• Varies depending on the type of bond (single, double, triple).
• Generally, triple bonds > double bonds > single bonds (in bond enthalpy).
- Average Bond Enthalpies: For polyatomic molecules, we often use average bond enthalpies since bond
enthalpies can vary slightly depending on the specific molecule.
- Estimating Enthalpy Changes of Reactions (ΔH°):
• Bond enthalpies can be used to estimate the overall enthalpy change of a reaction.
• Conceptual Approach: Imagine the reaction proceeding by breaking all bonds in the reactants (requiring
energy input) and then forming all bonds in the products (releasing energy).
• Equation: ΔH° = ΣBE(reactants) - ΣBE(products)
• If ΔH° is negative (exothermic), the reaction releases heat.
• If ΔH° is positive (endothermic), the reaction absorbs heat.

Example: Calculating ΔH° for the reaction C3H8 +H2 →C2H6 +CH4

Limitations of Using Bond Enthalpies:

- Bond enthalpies are average values, so the calculated ΔH° is an estimate.
- Bond enthalpies are for gaseous species; adjustments may be needed for other phases.
- More accurate ΔH° values can be obtained using heats of formation (ΔH°f), if available.