Origin and Formation of Elements in the Universe

1. Definition of Physical Science

• Physical Science
Study of the inorganic world (nonliving things). The four main branches of physical science are
astronomy, physics, chemistry, and the Earth sciences.
• Physics
is the branch of science that deals with the structure of matter and how the fundamental
constituents of the universe interact.
• Astronomy
is the study of objects and phenomena beyond Earth.
• Chemistry
is a science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and with
the changes that they go through.

• Earth Science
study of the Earth's structure, properties, processes, and biotic evolution.

2. Introduction to Elements
• Element
is a fundamental item that can't be easily broken into smaller pieces.
• Atom
Smallest unit of matter that is composed of three subatomic particles.
• There are 7 Periods, 18 groups, and 118 Elements

3. Formation of Light Elements

• Big Bang Theory
Where from one point, it expanded/inflated and created light elements (Hydrogen,
Helium, Lithium, Beryllium)
 • Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis refers to the process of creating new atomic nuclei through nuclear
fusion
• Nuclear Fusion
In this process, the energy and temperature of the universe are extremely high to
cause the neutrons and protons to combine and form certain species of atomic nuclei.

4. Formation of Heavy Elements

• Stellar Nucleosynthesis
The formation of heavy elements by fusion of lighter nuclei in the interior of stars.
Layers near core of stars have very high temperatures enough to nucleosynthesize heavy
elements like silicon and iron
• Supernova(e) Nucleosynthesis
The heavy elements formed in supernova, a massive explosion of a star/ death star
3 Types of Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis - Formation of light elements (Big bang
expansion)
- Through nuclear fusion
Stellar Synthesis - Formation of heavy elements (heat of stars)
- Through fusion of nuclei in the interior of stars
Supernova(e) Nucleosynthesis - Formation of heavy elements (death of stars)
- Through addition of more neutrons

5. Man-made Elements
they have been created by human manipulation through a nuclear reactor, a particle
accelerator, or the explosion of an atomic bomb

• Empedocles
A Sicilian Greek philosopher named Empedocles was the first to propose the four
classical elements as a set: fire, earth, air, and water. He called them the four "roots".

• Aristotle
agreed in the "roots" of matter
 • Alchemist
❖ The idea of changing one substance into another initiated the field of alchemy.
❖ People who practiced it were called alchemists.
❖ They learned the properties of numerous chemical substances. They showed how
certain types of chemicals reacted when combined with other substances.
(chemistry)
❖ Because of possible prosecution, their writings became more secretive; they used
symbols and strange names for substances to keep others from understanding their
notes
❖ Alchemists eventually believed that consuming transmuted gold was the secret to
immortality, calling it the elixir of life or philosopher's stone.

Atom Models
John Dalton In any chemical reaction,
the atoms of the reactants
can be separated, combined,
or rearranged, but never
destroyed, to form new
molecules.
1807
Solid sphere model
Joseph John Thomson Discovered electrons,
deduced that atoms could
be divided further,
disproving Dalton's idea that
atoms are indivisible
(cathode ray experiment)
1897
Plum pudding model
Ernest Rutherford Concluded that Thomson's
model was incorrect.
Implied that atom is mostly
an empty space (thin gold
foil experiment), with
electrons orbiting a
positively charged fixed
nucleus in predictable paths 1911
 Nuclear Model
He suggested that positively
charged particles must be
present in an atom to
neutralize the electrons,
which he called proton
Niels Bhor Electrons assume only
definite orbits around the
nucleus. The orbits are
stationary and stable.

Absorbed or emitted light

corresponds to a specific 1931
color or wavelength of light. Planetary model
Erwin Schrödinger His model conceives of
electrons as undulations of
matter, that is, it describes
the wave behavior of the
electron.

1926
Quantum model
A. The Periodic Table and Formula Writing and Nomenclature
• The Periodic Table
is the arrangement of elements by increasing atomic number and similar properties.
Subatomic Particles
Electrons Protons Neutrons
Negatively Charged Particle Positively Charged Particle Neutral Charged Particle
(-) (+) (0)

Element

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals

-Iron -Silicon -Carbon
-Silver -Germanium -Sulphur
-Gold -Ansenic -Red Phosphorus
Lustrous, malleable are good Could be shiny or dull, Dull and poor conductors of
conductors of heat and semiconductors of heat and heat and electricity
electricity electricity

18 Groups of the Periodic Table

Akali Metals • Elements in Group 1 (not including Hydrogen).
• Very reactive metals. Always combine with something else in nature.
• Salt an Alkali Metal, Sodium, and another element, Chlorine,
combined.
Alkaline Earth • Elements in Group 2
Metals • Reactive Metals that are always combined with non-metals in
nature.
• Several of these elements are important mineral nutrients, like
Calcium.
Transition Metals • Elements in Group 3-12
• Less reactive, harder metals.
• Includes metals used in jewelry, money and construction.
Boron Family • Elements in Group 13
• Boron has properties of both metals and nonmetals.
• The rest of the elements in this group are metals.
Carbon Family • Elements in Group 14
• Contains elements important to life and computers.
• Carbon is the basic element in all organic compounds.
• Silicon and Germanium are important semiconductors.
Nitrogen Family • Elements in Group 15
• Nitrogen makes up more than 3/4 of our atmosphere.
• The red tip of matches is made of phosphorous.
Oxygen Family • Elements in Group 16
(Chalcogens) • Oxygen is necessary for respiration.
• Many things that have a bad odor contain sulfur
Halogens • Elements in Group 17
• Very reactive, diatomic nonmetals.
• Always found combined with other elements in nature.
• Chlorine is used to keep bacteria out of swimming pool
Noble Gases • Elements in Group 18
• VERY reactive gases.
• Used in lighted neon signs.
• Helium is used to make party balloons float.

• Ions
- lons are atoms, or groups of atoms, with a charge (positive or negative)
- They have different numbers of protons and electrons.
- Only electrons can move (share), and ions are made by gaining or losing electrons.

• Anion
- A negative ion.
- Has gained electrons.
- Nonmetals can gain electrons.
- Charge is written as a superscript on the right.
Has gained one
electron (-ide is new
ending = fluoride)

Gained two electrons

(oxide)

• Canion
- A positive ion.
- Formed by losing electrons.
- More protons than electrons.
 - Metals can lose electrons
Has lost one electron
(no name change for
positive ions)

Has lost two electrons

“You are gaining when you share. You are losing when you
are greedy”
Anion Vs Cation
Negative Ion Positive Ion
Nonmetals Metals
Gained electrons Lost electrons

B. Chemical Bonding In Molecules

• Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding happens when one atom gives away its electrons to another atom. This
creates a strong attraction between them, like magnets sticking together. Usually, a
metal atom loses electrons and becomes positive, while a nonmetal atom gains those
electrons and becomes negative. These opposite charges pull them together, forming
a bond.

• Metallic Bond
Metallic bonding holds metal atoms together using a "sea of electrons" that move
freely. This gives metals their shine, flexibility, and ability to conduct heat and
electricity. When heated, the bonds weaken, allowing the metal to melt, but they fully
break only at the boiling point. Metallic bonding occurs in both pure metals and
metal alloys.

• Covalent Bond
A covalent bond happens when two nonmetal atoms share electrons to stay together.
This type of bonding is common in compounds that contain carbon, called organic
compounds. The atoms can be from the same element (like oxygen gas, O₂) or
different elements (like water, H₂O). Covalent bonds help form many important
molecules in nature and living things.
• Hydrogen Bond
Hydrogen bonding is weaker than ionic and covalent bonds. It happens when hydrogen,
which has a slight positive charge, is attracted to a nearby negatively charged atom, like
oxygen. This happens because oxygen pulls electrons closer to itself, making hydrogen
slightly positive. Hydrogen bonds are important in many substances, especially water, and
they help give water its unique properties, like surface tension and the ability to dissolve
many things.
Summary of Chemical Bond
Ionic Bond Metallic Bond Covalent Bond Hydrogen Bond
-Positive and -Same metal or -Nonmetal to -Bonded with
Negative ions two metals nonmetal hydrogen
-Metal to Nonmetal