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The effects of engine design and operating parameters on the performance of

a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel blends

Article in Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy · March 2016

DOI: 10.1063/1.4944457

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 The effects of engine design and operating parameters on the performance of a diesel
engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel blends
Guven Gonca and Erinc Dobrucali

Citation: Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016); doi: 10.1063/1.4944457
View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4944457
View Table of Contents: http://scitation.aip.org/content/aip/journal/jrse/8/2?ver=pdfcov
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 JOURNAL OF RENEWABLE AND SUSTAINABLE ENERGY 8, 025702 (2016)

The effects of engine design and operating parameters

on the performance of a diesel engine fueled with
diesel-biodiesel blends
Guven Gonca1,a) and Erinc Dobrucali2
1
Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering Department, Yildiz Technical University,
Besiktas, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Naval Architecture Department, Turkish Naval Academy, Tuzla, Istanbul, Turkey
(Received 20 September 2015; accepted 6 March 2016; published online 22 March 2016)

This paper reports the effects of engine design and operating parameters such as
stroke length, ratio of bore to stroke length, compression ratio, equivalence ratio,
engine load, biodiesel percentage, friction coefficient, engine speed and mean
piston speed on engine performance and energy losses by experiments and a
theoretical model based on the finite-time thermodynamics. In this study, the per-
formance of a single cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection diesel engine fueled
with diesel-biodiesel mixtures has been experimentally and theoretically investi-
gated. The simulation results agree with the experimental data. After model veri-
fication, parametrical studies have been conducted for various conditions. The
results showed that the biodiesel percentage and the cycle pressure ratio affect
positively the engine performance. The friction coefficient has negative influence
on the engine performance. The effective efficiency decreases with the increasing
of the engine load, stroke length, and engine speed but effective power increases
with increasing them. The effective power always increases with the increasing
mean piston speed. However, the effective efficiency decreases at the constant
stroke length condition, as it increases at the constant engine speed condition.
The effective power and the effective efficiency increase with increasing equiva-
lence ratio to a specified value and then begin to decrease for constant bore/stroke
length conditions. The effective efficiency increases with decreasing equivalence
ratio as effective power has an optimum value for constant compression ratio con-
dition. The effects of bore/stroke length change at different conditions. At the
constant compression ratio condition, the engine performance increases with
increasing ratio of bore to stroke length. They are the optimum values which pro-
vide the maximum effective efficiency and maximum effective power at the other
conditions. This study also reports the energy losses as the ratio of fuel energy
and they are classified as friction losses, incomplete combustion losses, heat
transfer losses, and exhaust losses. They are defined with respect to compression
ratio. With the increasing compression ratio, the friction losses are constant for
constant cycle temperature ratio and equivalence ratio, whereas the incomplete
combustion losses increase at a constant cycle temperature ratio condition and are
constant at constant equivalence ratio condition. The heat transfer losses increase
and the exhaust losses decrease for both the conditions. The presented model
could be used to optimize the performance of diesel engines fueled with biodiesel
and it can be developed for all kinds of engines running at different conditions
with various fuels. VC 2016 AIP Publishing LLC.

[http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4944457]

a)
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Electronic mail: [email protected]. Tel.: 90 212 383 2950 Fax:
þ90 212 383 2941.

1941-7012/2016/8(2)/025702/19/$30.00 8, 025702-1 C 2016 AIP Publishing LLC

V

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 025702-2 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

NOMENCLATURE
A heat transfer area (m2)
CP constant pressure specific heat (kJ/kg K)
CV constant volume specific heat (kJ/kg K)
CO carbon monoxide
d bore (m)
F fuel-air ratio
FTT finite-time thermodynamics
htr heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
Hu lower heat value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
l loss
L stroke length (m)
m mass (kg)
m_ time-dependent mass rate (kg/s)
N engine speed (rpm)
P pressure (bar)
Pef effective power (kW)
PM particulate matter
Q_ rate of heat transfer (kW)
r compression ratio
R gas constant (kJ/kg K)
S stroke (m)
P
S mean piston speed (m/s)
T temperature (K)
v specific volume (m3/kg)
V volume (m3)

Greek

a cycle temperature ratio, atomic number of carbon

b pressure ratio, atomic number of hydrogen
c atomic number of oxygen
d atomic number of nitrogen
gC Isentropic efficiency of compression
gE Isentropic efficiency of expansion
k cycle pressure ratio
l friction coefficient (Ns/m)
q density (kg/m3)
/ equivalence ratio
w cut-off ratio

Subscripts

a air
c combustion, clearance
cyl cylinder
ef effective
ex exhaust
f fuel
fr friction
ht heat transfer
i initial condition
in input
l loss

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 025702-3 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

max maximum
me mean
min minimum
out output
s stroke, isentropic condition
st stoichiometric
t total
w cylinder walls
1 at the beginning of the compression process

I. INTRODUCTION
Due to the depletion of petroleum based fuels, new energy resources must be found. In
recent years, renewable energy resources have been alternatively proposed instead of petroleum
based fuels. Biodiesel, derived from vegetable oils or animal fat, is considered as an alternative
renewable fuel that can be used in diesel engines.1–5 Being a sustainable and renewable source
of fuel, biodiesel will dominate the rest in the transportation sector. The properties of biodiesel
are not different from those of diesel. However, the variation in the biodiesel’s properties
causes variation in the nature of the emission and the performance of the diesel engine. Diesel
engines are widely used as the power source for in-sea and on-land transportation vehicles.
However, the emissions are considered as a major source of air pollution and are seriously
threatening the environment and human health. Some researchers have studied the environmen-
tal effects of the biodiesel fuels and their blends. In these studies, it has been smoothly seen
that some emissions like particulate matter (PM), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocar-
bon (UHC), and sulfur levels are clearly less than those of conventional diesel.6–15 Recently,
there has been a considerable increase in biodiesel because of the decreasing PM, CO, THC
(total hydrocarbon), and SO2 (sulfur dioxide) emissions from the diesel engines with the use of
diesel-biodiesel blends. Behçet et al.16 carried out a study on the performance and exhaust
emissions of the diesel engine using the fuels called fish oil methyl ester and cooking oil
methyl ester produced from waste fish and cooking oils using the transesterification method.
In a study conducted by Liu et al.,17 the emissions and combustion of n-butanol/biodiesel
dual-fuel injection were studied on simulations and experiments. In the investigation by Chang
et al.,18 a water-containing acetone-butanol-ethanol (ABE) solution, which simulates products that
were produced from biomass fermentation without dehydration processing, was investigated as a
biodiesel-diesel blend. As a result of their tests, ABE-biodiesel-diesel blends reduced the energy
consumption and lowered the pollutant emissions. Ong et al.19 investigated the engine perform-
ance and emissions produced from Jatropha curcas, Ceiba pentandra and Calophyllum inophyllum
biodiesel in the diesel engine. According to their tests, the biodiesel blends have shown the best
engine performance in terms of engine torque, engine power, fuel consumption, brake thermal ef-
ficiency, and a distinct reduction in CO2, CO, and smoke opacity in spite of a slight increase in
NOX emissions. Lahane et al.20 studied to reduce NOX emission of the engine at source level and
chance of wall impingement using the modified nozzle configuration. Pullen et al.21 examined the
effects of changing the feedstock oil and alcohol type used in the biodiesel production on engine
performance and exhaust emissions (O2, CO, CO2, and NO). Jena et al.22 carried out a study
regarding the analyses including heat release analysis on a natural aspirated diesel engine fuelled
separately with palm biodiesel, karanja biodiesel, and petro diesel using the experimental data.
How et al.23 conducted an experimental investigation on engine performance, emissions, combus-
tion, and vibration characteristics with coconut biodiesel in a high-pressure common-rail diesel
engine under five different loads. Barrios et al.24 evaluated the influence of the animal fat based
biodiesel/diesel fuel blends in comparison with pure diesel and soybean biodiesel blends over the
engine performance, specific fuel consumption and emissions, especially on the particle emissions
in size and number distribution of a diesel engine. Mohsin et al.25 carried out a study on the
engine performance and exhaust emission of a diesel engine, fuelled by diesel, biodiesel,
diesel–CNG (Compressed Natural Gas), and biodiesel–CNG. Zhang et al.26 examined the

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 025702-4 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

potential impact of diesel–biodiesel–butanol blends on engine performance, particulate emissions

of a stationary diesel engine at a constant engine speed and at three different engine loads. Awad
et al.27 performed experimental studies to investigate the effects of biodiesel from animal fat resi-
dues on the combustion, performance, and pollutant emissions of a direct injection diesel engine.
In the study of Ogunkoya et al.,28 eight fuels were investigated including diesel, jet fuel, a tradi-
tional biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester: FAME), and five next generation biofuels. They focused
on the effect of newly developed renewable fuels on engine performance, combustion, and emis-
sions. Tomic et al.29 determined the possibility of using biodiesel for the improvement of lubrica-
tion properties of fossil diesel with low sulfur content instead of standard additives. They showed
that the lubrication properties were significantly improved by adding biodiesel. Saravanan et al.30
explored the possibility of simultaneous reduction of NOX and smoke of a stationary compression
ignition engine fuelled with biodiesel blend. Gonca31,32 investigated the effects of steam injection
on the performance and NO emission of a diesel engine fueled with ethanol and biofuels.
Gonca69 investigated the effects of steam injection on the performance and NO emission of a
diesel engine fueled with hydrogen. Researches regarding fuel economy and exhaust emissions in
internal combustion engines continue to increase as a challenge. Many valuable researches have
been conducted on the effect of biodiesel on the performance and the exhaust emission charac-
teristics of diesel engines.33–38
Many investigations based on combustion simulations and thermodynamics have been car-
ried out to optimize the performance of the diesel engines and their cycles which are classical
diesel cycle, dual cycle (DC) and Miller cycle. Chen et al.39 performed a thermo dynamical
performance analysis of an air-standard dual cycle by taking into account the heat-transfer and
friction-like loss terms. Ozsoysal40 determined the combustion efficiency of a dual cycle as a
percentage of the fuel’s chemical energy. Ebrahimi41 studied on the performance analysis of an
air standard dual cycle based on the finite-time thermodynamics (FTT). Ust et al.42 examined
the impacts of heat transfer losses and combustion on the work output, mean effective pressure,
and thermal efficiency of an air-standard irreversible dual cycle by using the combustion and
heat transfer constants. Gonca et al.43–52,70,71 applied the Miller cycle into a diesel engine com-
putationally and experimentally to abate the NO emissions and increase the effective efficiency.
Wang et al.53 achieved the reduction of NOx emissions by experimentally applying the Miller
cycle into a diesel engine. Sarkhi et al.54–56 investigated the impacts of the variable specific
heats of the working fluid on the performance of an air standard reversible Miller cycle54 and
irreversible Miller cycle.55 In another study, Sarkhi et al.56 analyzed the cycle performance by
using the maximum power density criterion. Zhao and Chen57 conducted a performance analy-
sis for an air standard irreversible Miller cycle with respect to the change of the pressure ratios.
Ebrahimi58,59 analyzed an air standard reversible Miller cycle with respect to the variation of
engine speed and variable specific heat ratio of working fluid and an air standard irreversible
Miller cycle with respect to the variation of relative air–fuel ratio and stroke length. Zhang
et al.60 studied that an ORC (organic Rankine cycle) system prototype was assembled and
investigated for waste heat recovery from diesel engine exhaust. Lin et al.61 analyzed the per-
formance of an irreversible air standard Miller cycle in a four-stroke free-piston engine by
using FTT.
As can be observed from the previous studies presented above, the studies related to bio-
diesels in the literature are mostly experimental based. Theoretical studies are more cheaper
and need less time to predict engine performance. However, numerical and parametrical studies
in the literature are related to theoretical studies and conventional diesel fuel. There is a defi-
ciency in the studies about the diesel engines running on biodiesel fuels and there is no compre-
hensive study that includes experimental verification and parametrical investigation on the
biodiesel-fuelled engines together. In this study, a comprehensive study that combines the ex-
perimental validation and parametrical evaluations of the biodiesel-fuelled diesel engine is first
presented. Apart from the previous studies, a theoretical model based on the FTT has been
developed and the performance has been predicted for a diesel engine running with diesel-
biodiesel blends for the first time. The results obtained from the theoretical model have been
compared with the experimental data and a good agreement has been obtained. Also, the effects

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 025702-5 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

of engine design and operating parameters on engine performance have been examined by using
presented model. In the literature, there is no such study that examines the effects of engine
design and operating parameters on the performance by experiments and FTT model together.
Therefore, this study has a considerable originality and novelty.

II. THEORETICAL MODEL

In this section, a new FTT model72 has been used for the diesel engine running with the
diesel-biodiesel blends by considering temperature-dependent variable specific heats, heat trans-
fer, and friction effects. This model has been developed by synthesizing the studies of Zhao
and Chen,57 Ebrahimi,58,59,62 and Ge et al.63,64 and by applying new assumptions. In this study,
DC (shown in Fig. 1) is used to carry out a realistic analysis. Fuel properties are given in Table
I. In the present model, the effective power and efficiency are given as below:72
Pef
Pef ¼ Q_ in  Q_ out  Pl ; gef ¼ ; (1)
Q_ f

where the total heat addition ðQ_ in Þ at constant volume (process 2–3) and constant pressure
(process 3–4), the total heat rejection ðQ_ out Þ at constant volume (process 5–1) and loss power
by friction ðPl Þ46,63 could be written as below:
"ð ð T4 #
T3
Q_ in ¼Q_ f ;c Q_ ht ¼m_ t CV dTþ CP dT
T2 T3
220 13T3 3
3 2:5 2 1:5
T T T T
66B2:5061011 þ1:454107 4:246107 þ3:162105 C7 7
66B 3 2:5 2 1:5 C7 7
66B    C 7 7
64@ T 0:5
T 2 A5 7
6 þ1:0433T1:51210  4 5ð 1 Þ
þ3:06310 T 2:21210  7 7
6 7
6 0:5 2 T2 7
¼m_ t 6
6 20 1 3 7 ; (2)
T4 7
6 T 3
T 2:5
T 2
T 1:5 7
6 6B 2:5061011 þ1:454107 4:246107 þ3:162105 C7 7
6 6B 7 7
6þ6B
6 4@
3   2:5 2 1:5 C C7 7
0:5 2 A5 7
4 T T 5
þ1:3301T1:512104  þ3:063105 ðT 1 Þ2:212107 
0:5 2 T3

FIG. 1. P-v and T-s schematic diagrams for DC.

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 025702-6 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

TABLE I. Fuel properties.

Chemical formula Density (g/cm3 at 20  C) Lower heat value (kJ/kg) Cetane number

Diesel66 C14.4H24.9 0.84 42 500 45

Biodiesel C18.74H34.43O2 0.88 39 735 51
(Soybean methyl ester)8

ð T5
Q_ out ¼ m_ t CV dT
T1
20 13T5
3 2:5 2 1:5
11 T 7 T 7 T 5 T
6B 2:506  10 þ 1:454  10  4:246  10 þ 3:162  10 C7
6B 3  2:5
 2 1:5
 C 7
¼ m_ t 6B C7 ; (3)
4@ T 0:5
T 2 A 5
þ1:0433T  1:512  104  þ 3:063  105 ðT 1 Þ  2:212  107 
0:5 2 T1
   
N  2
Z þ 48 þ 0:4S P Vs N
1000
Pl ¼ lSP 2 ¼ ; (4)
1200

where Z is a constant relation to friction46 and its minimum value is taken as 75, l is the coef-
ficient of friction which considers the global losses, SP is the mean piston velocity which is
given as

p ¼ L  N ;
S (5)
30

where L and N are stroke length (m) and engine speed (rpm), respectively. Q_ f is the total heat
potential of the injected fuel and it is given as below:

Q_ f ¼ m_ f Hu ; (6)

where Hu is the lower heat value (LHV). It is 42 500 kJ/kg for pure diesel fuel and 39 735 kJ/kg
for pure biodiesel produced from soybean oil. Hu was experimentally measured and determined
as below:

Hu ¼ 0:034B% 2  31:221B% þ 42500; (7)

where B% is the percentage of biodiesel mass. m_ f the is time-dependent fuel mass and it can
be expressed as follows:
mf N
m_ f ¼ ; (8)
120
where mf is the fuel mass per cycle (kg). Q_ f ;c is the heat released by combustion and Q_ ht is the
heat loss by heat transfer into cylinder wall and they are given as below:

Q_ f ;c ¼ gc m_ f Hu ; (9)
 
T2 þ T4
Q_ ht ¼ htr Acyl ðTme  TW Þ ¼ htr Acyl  TW ; (10)
2

where gc is the combustion efficiency. In this study, it is derived with regression method by
considering biodiesel percentage, equivalence ratio, and engine load for the test engine used as
follows:

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 025702-7 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

gc ¼ 1:139468 þ 0:00004395744B%  0:995479964/ þ 0:003675398L% ; (11)

where L% is the engine load. It depends on the equivalence ratio and increases with increasing
engine load. The minimum and maximum equivalence ratios have been measured as 0.3 and
0.86 at 25% and 100% of the engine load, respectively. The relation between the engine load
and the equivalence ratio has been derived from the experimental studies by using regression
method as below:

L% ¼ 154:02/2 þ 313:24/  54:794; (12)

where / is the equivalence ratio and it is expressed as below:

 
mf =ma
/¼ ; (13)
Fst
where ma is air mass per cycle (kg) and Fst is stoichiometric fuel-air ratio and they are given
as follows:

ma ¼ q a VT ; (14)

ðVs rÞ
VT ¼ Vs þVc ¼ ; (15)
r1
VT pd 2 L 1
Vc ¼ ¼ ; (16)
r 4 r1
e  ð12:01  a þ 1:008  b þ 16  c þ 14:01  dÞ
Fst ¼ ; (17)
28:85
qa ¼ f ðT1 ; P1 Þ; (18)

where VT , Vs , and Vc are total cylinder volume, stroke volume, and clearance volume, respec-
tively. The compression ratio (r) is given as

r ¼ V1 =V2 ; (19)

qa is air density and f stands for function. The functional expressions are obtained by using
EES software.65 T1 and P1 are in-cylinder temperature and pressure at the beginning of com-
pression process, where subscript “1” stands for the condition before the compression process.
a; b; c; d are the atomic numbers of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen in fuel, respec-
tively. e is the molar fuel-air ratio66

0; 21
e¼ ; (20)
c b
a þ
2 4

where htr is the heat transfer coefficient and it is stated as

2m_ t B
htr ¼ (21)
Acyl

where B is a constant related to heat transfer 57–59,62–64 and m_ t and Acyl are flow rates of total
fluid (kg/s) and total heat transfer area, respectively, and they are given as
 
Fst
m_ t ¼ m_ f 1þ ¼ m_ a þ m_ f ; (22)
/

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 025702-8 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 2. Comparison of theoretical results and experimental data for effective power.72

ma N m_ f Fst
m_ a ¼ ¼ ; (23)
120 /

r pd2
Acyl ¼ pdL þ ; (24)
r1 2

where d and r are cylinder bore (m) and compression ratio, respectively.
Tme and TW are mean combustion temperature and cylinder wall temperature. CP and CV
are constant pressure and constant volume specific heats, and they could be written as below:63

CP ¼ 2:506  1011 T 2 þ 1:454  107 T 1:5  4:246  107 T þ 3:162  105 T 0:5
þ1:3301  1:512  104 T 1:5 þ 3:063  105 T 2  2:212  107 T 3 ; (25)

CV ¼ CP  R; (26)

where R is the gas constant, and it is taken as 0.287 kJ/kg K. The equations for reversible adia-
batic processes (1–2s) and (3–4s) are, respectively, as follows:67

FIG. 3. Comparison of theoretical results and experimental data for effective efficiency.72

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 025702-9 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 4. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to biodiesel percentage for different engine loads.

     
 T2s   T4s   
CV1  ln  ¼ Rlnjrj ; CV2  ln  ¼ R  ln w ; (27)
T1  T3  r

where

CV1 ¼ 2:506  1011 T2s1 2 þ 1:454  107 T2s1 1:5  4:246  107 T2s1 þ 3:162  105 T2s1 0:5
þ1:0433  1:512  104 T2s1 1:5 þ 3:063  105 T2s1 2  2:212  107 T2s1 3 ;
(28)

CV2 ¼ 2:506  1011 T4s3 2 þ 1:454  107 T4s3 1:5  4:246  107 T4s3 þ 3:162  105 T4s3 0:5
þ1:0433  1:512  104 T4s3 1:5 þ 3:063  105 T4s3 2  2:212  107 T4s3 3 ; (29)

FIG. 5. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to equivalence ratio for different friction
coefficients.

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 025702-10 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

T2s  T1 T4s  T3
T2s1 ¼ ; T4s3 ¼ ; (30)
T2s T4s
ln ln
T1 T3

w ¼ v3 =v2 ¼ T3 =T2 ; (31)

w is named as the cut-off ratio. For irreversible conditions, T2 and T4 could be written as
below:

T2S þ T1 ðgC  1Þ
T2 ¼ ; (32)
gC

T5 ¼ T4 þ gE ðT5S  T4 Þ; (33)

where gC and gE are isentropic efficiencies for the compression and expansion processes,
respectively. In this study, the other dimensionless engine design parameters used in the analy-
sis are cycle temperature ratio (rT ) and cycle pressure ratio (k). They may be expressed, respec-
tively, as
" #
Tmax T3 k r k1  1
rT ¼ ¼ ¼w ¼w 1þ ; (34)
Tmin T1 r gC

k ¼ Pmax =Pmin ¼ P2 =P1 ¼ P3 =P1 : (35)

Experimental data and simulation results have been compared for 100% pure diesel fuel (STD),
50% biodiesel (B50), and 100% biodiesel (B100), and a good approximation has been obtained.
After validation, parametrical examinations have been carried out. In the literature, energy
losses could be stated as percentage of fuel’s energy.68 In this study, similar approach is used
to obtain the energy losses dependent on heat transfer to cylinder wall, exhaust, friction, and
incomplete combustion as below:

Q_ ht Q_ out Pu
Lht ¼  100; Lex ¼  100; Lf r ¼  100; Lic ¼ ð1  gc Þ  100: (36)
Q_ f uel Q_ f uel Q_ f uel

FIG. 6. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to equivalence ratio for different engine speeds.

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 025702-11 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figs. 2 and 3 show the experimental and theoretical results of effective power and effective
efficiency with respect to change of engine load for different engine modes. The effective
power increases with increasing engine load and it reaches the maximum value at 100% load.
The maximum effective power is obtained at STD condition as 11.32 kW. The effective effi-
ciency increases up to 75% load and then starts to decrease. Its peak value is 25.53% which is
obtained at B50 condition. It is clear that the experimental data and simulation results are close
to each other and the maximum difference is less than 6%.
Fig. 4 demonstrates the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to
the biodiesel percentage and engine load. Effective power and effective efficiency slightly
change with changing biodiesel percentage. Effective power increases with increasing engine
load. However, effective efficiency increases to 75% of engine load and then decreases.
Fig. 5 illustrates the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to
the compression ratio for different friction coefficients. As expected, engine performance
decreases with increasing friction coefficient. These results have been validated with previous
studies as similar results were obtained in Refs. 57–59 and 62–64.

FIG. 7. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to equivalence ratio for different mean piston
speeds at (a) constant engine speed and (b) constant stroke length.

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 025702-12 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 8. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to equivalence ratio for different stroke lengths.

Fig. 6 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the
equivalence ratio for different engine speeds. It is obviously seen from the figures that effective
efficiency decreases, while effective power increases with increasing engine speed.
Fig. 7 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the
equivalence ratio for different mean piston speeds at constant engine speed and at constant
stroke length. At constant engine speed, effective efficiency and effective power increase to-
gether with increasing mean piston speed as stroke length and cylinder diameter increase.
Increasing engine dimensions affect positively the engine performance. However, effective effi-
ciency decreases and effective power increases with increasing mean piston speed at constant
stroke length, because engine speed and friction losses increase with increasing mean piston
speed.
Fig. 8 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the
equivalence ratio for different stroke lengths. It is clear that effective efficiency decreases and

FIG. 9. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to engine speed for different cycle temperature
ratios.

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 025702-13 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

effective power increases with increasing stroke length. This result is similar to that of previous
figure. Their trends are same for both of them in terms of performance change as friction losses
increase with increasing engine speed and stroke length.
Fig. 9 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the
engine speed for different cycle pressure ratios. Increase of cycle pressure ratio positively
affects the engine performance. However, the effective efficiency decreases with increasing
engine speed as the effective power increases. The main reason of this result is the increase of
friction losses. Equivalence ratio and injected fuel increase with increasing engine speed, and
hence, effective power increases but effective efficiency decreases due to increasing friction
losses. It should be noted that the increase rate of fuel energy is higher than that of effective
power. Therefore, these results are observed.
Fig. 10 illustrates the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to
the equivalence ratio for different ratios of cylinder diameter (bore) to stroke length (d/L). Heat
transfer losses increase with increasing cylinder diameter and friction losses increase with
increasing engine speed and stroke length. As it can be seen from the figures, engine perform-
ance increases with increasing cylinder diameter and so engine dimensions for constant engine

FIG. 10. (a) Effective power-equivalence ratio; effective efficiency-equivalence ratio and (b) effective power-effective effi-
ciency with respect to equivalence ratio for different ratios of bore to stroke length.

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 025702-14 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 11. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to engine speed (N) for different equivalence
ratios.

speed and stroke length. The increase rate of heat transfer loss is lower than that of the effec-
tive power and effective efficiency, therefore total performance increases. Another important
point is that the maximum values of effective power and effective efficiency are seen at differ-
ent equivalence ratios. The optimum value for effective efficiency is between 0.4 and 0.6,
whereas it is between 0.8 and 1 for effective power. Also, the maximum effective power and
corresponding effective efficiency and the maximum effective efficiency and corresponding
effective power are given in Fig. 10(b). It is clear that the maximum effective efficiency is
higher than the effective efficiency at the maximum effective power and it is valid for effective
power.
Fig. 11 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the
engine speed (N). The effective efficiency increases to 0.5 and effective power increases to 0.9
of equivalence ratio and then decreases with increasing equivalence ratio. It should be pointed
out that the effective efficiency decreases and the effective power increases with increasing
engine speed as the energy losses and equivalence ratio increase.
Fig. 12 shows the variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to d/L.
The effects of d/L on the engine performance are investigated for three different conditions
which are constant stroke length-cycle temperature ratio (condition 1), constant stroke length-
equivalence ratio (condition 2) and constant stroke length-compression ratio (condition 3). For
conditions 1 and 2, engine performance increases to specified values and then starts to decrease.
The optimum values of effective power and effective efficiency are obtained between 0.95 and
1 of d/L values. However, higher results for engine performance are seen at condition 1 com-
pared to condition 2. For both the conditions, compression ratio increases with increasing d/L
and there is an optimum value of compression ratio which provides the maximum effective effi-
ciency and effective power. If we investigate condition 3, we see different results. For constant
compression ratio and equivalence ratio, while d/L increases, L decreases and d increases.
Therefore, the friction losses decrease as heat transfer losses increase. However, engine per-
formance increases since total losses decrease with increasing d/L.
Fig. 13 shows the variation of energy loss as percentage of injected fuel with respect to
compression ratio at constant cycle temperature ratio and equivalence ratio. Two conditions are
determined to investigate the energy losses. At the first condition, the energy losses are investi-
gated for constant cycle temperature ratio. The second condition is carried out at the constant
equivalence ratio. It is clear that the friction losses (Lfr) and incomplete combustion losses (Lic)
are constant for both the conditions since engine speed and engine dimensions are also constant.
The change of Lic depends on the biodiesel percentage and equivalence ratio. Therefore, it is

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 025702-15 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 12. Variation of effective power and effective efficiency with respect to the ratio of the bore to stroke length for (a)
constant stroke length and cycle temperature ratio, (b) constant stroke length and equivalence ratio, and (c) constant com-
pression ratio and equivalence ratio.

constant for both the conditions. The heat transfer losses (Lht) increase and exhaust losses (Lex)
decrease with increasing compression ratio for both the conditions. The change of both losses
depends on engine dimensions, engine speed, equivalence ratio, and compression ratio; thus,
both of them change with changing parameters.

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 025702-16 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

FIG. 13. Variation of energy loss as percentage of injected fuel with respect to the compression ratio (a) at constant cycle
temperature ratio and (b) at constant equivalence ratio.

IV. CONCLUSION
In this study, the effects of engine design and operating parameters such as stroke length,
ratio of bore to stroke length, compression ratio, equivalence ratio, engine load, biodiesel per-
centage, friction coefficient, engine speed and mean piston speed on engine performance and
energy losses have been investigated. First, theoretical results have been verified against the ex-
perimental data and then parametrical studies have been performed for different conditions. The
results show that biodiesel percentage affects slightly the engine performance. Effective effi-
ciency increases to 75% of engine load with increasing engine load, while it affects negatively
the effective efficiency at high engine loads but effective power increases with increasing
engine load. The friction coefficient has negative influence on the engine performance. The
effective power increases as the effective efficiency decreases with increasing engine speed.
The effective power always increases with increasing mean piston speed. However, the effec-
tive efficiency decreases at the constant stroke length condition, as it increases at the constant
engine speed condition. When we examine the effects of changing stroke length on the per-
formance, we see the same trend as that in the engine speed figure. The effective efficiency
decreases whilst the effective power increases. Cycle pressure ratio affects positively the engine
performance. The effective efficiency and effective power increase together with increasing

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 025702-17 G. Gonca and E. Dobrucali J. Renewable Sustainable Energy 8, 025702 (2016)

cycle pressure ratio. The effective power and the effective efficiency increase with increasing
equivalence ratio to a specified value and then begin to decrease for constant d/L conditions.
Therefore, there are optimum points which give maximum effective efficiency and maximum
effective power. However, the equivalence ratio at the maximum effective efficiency is different
from that at the maximum effective power. For constant compression ratio condition, the effec-
tive efficiency increases with decreasing equivalence ratio as effective power has optimum
value. The effects of the ratio of bore to stroke length change at different conditions. At con-
stant compression ratio condition, the engine performance increases with increasing ratio of
bore to stroke length. At the other conditions, they are optimum values which provide the maxi-
mum effective efficiency and maximum effective power. The engine performance increases
with increasing ratio of bore to stroke length to a determined value and then starts to decrease.
In this study, energy losses have been determined as fuel’s energy percentage. The friction
losses (Lfr) and incomplete combustion losses (Lic) are constant for constant cycle temperature
ratio and equivalence ratio conditions. The heat transfer losses (Lht) increase and exhaust losses
(Lex) decrease for both the conditions. The results obtained could be used to determine optimal
values of engine design and operating parameters and they can be a good guide for designers
of diesel engines running with the biodiesels as this model can be developed and used for all
types of biodiesels.
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