Convergence

in physics
ClAss XI

utkarsh 2.0

State Council of Educational Research & Training

Varun Marg, Defence Colony, New Delhi 110024
https://scert.delhi.gov.in
 CONVERGENCE IN PHYSICS (CLASS XI)
ISBN: 978-93-94824-30-0
© SCERT, Delhi
February, 2023
Copies-23,600

Advisors
Mr. Manish Sisodia, Hon'ble Dy. Chief Minister and Education Minsiter of Delhi
Mr. Ashok Kumar, IAS Secretary Education, Govt. of NCT of Delhi
Mr. Himanshu Gupta, Director (Education), Govt. of NCT of Delhi
Sh. Rajanish Kumar Singh, Director, SCERT , Delhi
Dr. Nahar Singh, Joint Director, SCERT, Delhi

Coordinator & Editors

Dr. Sapna Yadav, Sr. Lecturer, SCERT , Delhi & Project Director DIKSHA, Delhi

Assistant Co-ordinator & co-editor

Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta, Lecturer, SCERT

Vetting Experts
Dr. Sapna Yadav, Sr. Lecturer, SCERT, Delhi & Project Director DIKSHA, Delhi
Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta, Lecturer, SCERT
Mr. Pundrikaksh Kaundiyal, Principal, DoE

Contributors
Dr. Sapna Yadav, Sr. Lecturer, SCERT , Delhi & Project Director DIKSHA, Delhi
Dr. Rakesh Kumar Gupta, Lecturer, SCERT
Mr. Manash Kumar, PGT Physics, GD Goenka Public School, Sarita Vihar
Ms. Sarika Grover, PGT Physics, Modern Public School, Shalimar Bagh
Mr. Kanwal, PGT Physics, Modern Public School, Shalimar Bagh

Team SCERT
Dr. Ashok Kumar Tiwari, Lecturer, SCERT, Delhi
Ms. Vinod Bala, Lecturer, SCERT, Delhi
Ms. Aakriti Agrawal, RP, SCERT, Delhi
Dr. Priyanka Bharwaj, Teacher Educator, CRCC, SCERT, Delhi
Ms. Tanvi Maheshwari, RP, SCERT, Delhi

Publication Officer
Dr. Mukesh Yadav, SCERT, Delhi

Publication Team
Mr. Dinesh Kumar Sharma, SCERT, Delhi
Ms. Fouzia (BRP), SCERT Delhi

Published by: State Council of Educational Research & Training, Delhi

Printed at : Educational Stores, Ghaziabad-201009 (U.P.)
 About the Book

“Convergence in Physics”

Physics is an essential and valuable subject within the consortium of science courses.
This is one of the subjects whose significance cannot be emphasized during a student's
academic career. It is critical for every student to have solid basics in physics, especially
those who desire to pursue a career in engineering, whether mechanical, electrical or
computer-related.
Man, haunted by the vagaries and vicissitudes of nature focused on studying nature.
Intrigued by the vast expanse of nature, man started to break down the immensity bit
by bit into the phenomena of nature. This perspicacious saga of quest for understanding
nature was given a term called ‘Physics’. Physics tries to find models to explain
interactions starting from microcosmic to macrocosmic level. Burgeoning its field of
study from the study of stars to developing models for human organs, from creating
techniques to explain fundamental particles to explaining the different phenomena of
evolution-physics has its foothold everywhere.
Elucidating these phenomena in a lucid style, the book ‘Convergence in Physics.’ is an
eclectic mix of theory and problems to enhance the understanding and building of
concepts. To improvise the analytical thinking of students, the teachers of SCERT have
designed in such a way that it is student friendly and the content is to the point. Every
chapter in this book is precise and sufficient for the last minute revision.
Content is as per the syllabus prescribed by CBSE and a variety of numerical for
practice is given to bring out the best in the students.
Students are free to continue to study physics beyond the upper secondary level,
but we consider that the physics thought process will be beneficial in any other area
they choose, whether managing finances, social science, environment, engineering,
technology, biology, or medical. Physics is a somewhat subjective subject that calls for
students to submit precise responses to queries asked to them.
In addition to content and numerical, students will get tips to increase concentration,
follow timetables, and be resilient. A teacher needs to be well prepared to generate
curiosity and interest in students. This book has been developed to facilitate the
teaching process, and it contains all the relevant derivations that are required for an
effective teaching process. The design of questions in this book is according to the
trend adopted by the examination body. The difficulty level has been raised gradually
so that all the students benefit equally and accordingly.
We are thankful to all those who conveyed these inputs and wish readers a happy
journey into the exciting realm of physics.

Dr Sapna Yadav
Senior Lecturer ET
 Content Table

S.No. Chapter Pg.No.

1. Tips 1
2. Basic Mathematics 2
3. Units and Measurement 11
4. Motion in a Straight Line 15
5. Motion in a Plane 27
6. Laws of Motion 34
7. Work, Energy & Power 46
8. System of Particles & Rotational Motion 57
9. Gravitation 74
10. Mechanical Properties of Solids 84
11. Mechanical Properties of Fluids 93
12. Thermal Properties of Matter 107
13. Thermodynamics 115
14. Kinetic Theory 121
15. Oscillations 135
16. Wave Motion 135
17. Sample Question Paper 143
18. Marking Scheme 147
 TIPS FOR CLASS 11 PHYSIC BOARD EXAMINATION

1. Consult the blueprint of CBSE for Physics Examination.

2. Divide the syllabus and then prepare notes of each chapter. Select topics carrying maximum weightage
first.
3. Students are recommended to follow the NCERT class 11 physics book.
4.  tudents should have important formulas at their fingertips so that they can answer the numerical
S
questions quickly.
5. Students must practice each derivation at least thrice so that the exam won’t take much time.
6. The physics paper has a mandatory drawing question either of a graph or a device. Students should pay
attention to the key features of the diagram to score full marks on this question.
7. Students who are weak in maths and solving numerical problems must concentrate on the theory
chapters such as - Motion in a straight line, Motion in a plane, work energy and power. Proterties of
solids, thermal properites of matter and wave.
8. While solving the physics paper, try to utilize question paper reading time and then decide the sequence
of questions to be solved.
9. For application based questions try to interrelate various concept and quantities given in question.
10. In numerical problems first convert all quantities in same system of units.
11. Do not panic if your answer is coming after doing long calculation if you feel you are not able to solve
a particular numerical leave it and do next question so that you can complete your paper on time.
12. Do not leave any question unattempted even if you know the related formula try to solve it.

1
 1 Basic Mathematics
CHAPTER

II. Binomial Theorem

Mathematics is the tool used in physics to get better
understandings of physics relation. According to this theorem,
I. Quadratic Equation and its Solution n(n − 1) 2 n(n − 2) 3
(1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + x + ...........
A second degree equation is called quadratic 2! 3!
equation.
The equation, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is a quadratic Where | x | < 1, n is any integer or any fraction (positive
equation, or negative)
In this equation, a, b and c are constants and x is a If | x | < <1, then the terms containing higher power of
variable quantity. x can be neglected.
The solution of the quadratic equation is
Therefore (1+x)n = 1 + nx.
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
x= Binomial theorem for positive integral index
2a
Illustration: Comparing the given quadratic equation nx n−1a n(n − 1) nx−1 2
( x + a)n = x n + + a + ........ + a n
x2 — 5x + 6 = 0 1! 2!
with the standard form of quadratic equation The total number of terms = n + 1 i.e. one more than
a x2 +b x + c = 0 the index of the power of the Binomial.
We have a = 1, b = -5, c = 6 where n is any positive integer.
Now, we know Example 1: Expand (1+x)-2
−b ± b 2 − 4ac −(−5) ± (−5) 2 − 4 × 1 × 6 Solution: (1+x)-2
x= ⇒
2a 2 ×1 (−2)(−2 − 1) 2
= 1 + (−2) x + x
5 ± 25 − 24 5 ± 1 2!
= = (−2)(−2 − 1)(−2 − 2) 3
2 2 + x + ..........
6 4 3!
x = or 6 24
2 2 = 1 − 2 x + x 2 − x3 + ..........
x = 3 or x = 2 2! 3!
= 1 − 2 x + 3 x − 4 x 3 + ..........
2

Exercise 1.1:
Solve for x comparing with the standard equation Example 2: Evaluate 37 correct up to three
decimal places.
1. x2 − 9x + 14 = 0
Solution:
2. 2x2 + 5x – 12 = 0 1
1 1  1 2 1
3. 3x + 8x + 5 = 0
2 (36 + 1) 2
= (36) 1 + 
2
= 6(1 + 0.028) 2
 36 
4. 4x2 – 4ax + (a2 – b2) = 0

2
  1  1 1  1  3  m
 1 −  −  −   2. loge n = loge m - logen
2  2 2 2  2  2 3
= 6 1 + (0.028) + (0.028) + (0.028) + .......
 2 2! 3! 
  3. loge mn = n loge m
Two Systems of Logarithms
We have neglected the terms containing powers of
0.028. 1. Natural Logarithm. Logarithm of a number
to the base e (e = 2.7182) is called natural logarithm.
∴ 37 = 6[1+ 0.014]
2. Common Logarithm. Logarithm of a
= 6[1+0.014]=6[1.014] number to the base 10 is called common logarithm.
= 6.084 In all practical calculations, we always use common
logarithm.
Exercise: 1.1
Conversion of Natural logarithm to Common
1. Evaluate (126)1/3 logarithm
2. Evaluate 99 Natural logarithms can be converted into common
3. The value of acceleration due to gravity (g) at a logarithms as follows:
height h above the surface of earth is loge N = 2.3026 log10 N
gR 2 ≅ 2.303 log10 N
g'= If h<<R, then prove that
( R + h) 2 Example:
Work done during an isothermal process is
 1 − 2h  V
g' = g 
 R  W = RT log e 2
V1
  This can be written as
 gR 2   h
−2

Hint: g '   = g 1 +  W = 2.3026

 2
2
h   R
 R 1 + R   V2 V
RT log10 ≈ 2.0303RT log10 2
V1 V1
 2h 
= g 1 − 
 R Expand the following using logarithm formulae.
4. Solve (1 + x)3 using Binomial theorem. 2T
(i) PVγ = K (ii) h=
rpg
III. Logarithms
π Pr 4 l
If ax = m, then x is called the logarithm of m to the (iii) V= (iv) T = 2π
base a and is written as loga m Thus, if ax = m, then 8η l g
loga m = x
IV. Trigonometry
For example A
(i) If 24 = 16 ∴log2 16=4
(ii) 33 = 27 ∴ log3 27=3
(iii) loga 1=0
(iv) loga a = 1.
Standard Formulae of logarithms θ
0 X
1. loge mn = loge m + loge n
Angle: Consider a fixed straight line OX. Let another
straight line OA (called revolving line) be coinciding
3
with OX rotate anticlockwise and takes the position Right angle triangle
OA, The angle is measured by the amount of
revolution that the revolving line OA undergoes in
passing from its initial position to final position.
From Figure given below, angle covered by revolving
line OA is
θ = ∠AOX.
An angle ∠AOX is +ve, if it is traced out in
anticlockwise direction and ∠AOX is –ve, if it is
traced out in clockwise direction.
System of Measurement of an Angle
(i) Sexagesimal System (ii) circular system

(i) Sexagesimal System:

In this system When θ → 900 , b → 0

1 right angle = 90O (degrees) P≈h

1 degree = 60’ (minutes) P

sin θ =
1 minute = 60’’ (seconds) h
Right angle triangle P
sin 900 = [ P = h]
h
h =1
P b
cos900 = [b → 0]
h
0
b =
h
When θ → O, P → O
=0
b ≈ h.
P
P tan 900 =
sin θ = b
h P
0 =
sin θ = = 0 0
h =∞
b
cos θ = Isosceles triangle
h
b1
=
h
[b = h ]
P
tan θ =
b
0
tan θ = = 0
b

4
 P P
sin θ = P tan 300 =
sin θ = h b
h 1 1
sin 450 = 1 =
sin 450 = 2 3
b 2 3
cos θ = b tan 600 =
cos θ = h 1
h 1
cos(450 ) = 1 = 3
cos(450 ) = 2
P 2 Important relations:
tan θ = P
tan θ = b cos ec θ =
1
sec θ =
1
b1 1. 2.
sin θ cosθ
=1
=1
= 11 3. cot θ =
1
4. sin2θ + cos2θ = 1
=1 tan θ
In equalatoral triangle
5. sec2θ = 1 + tan2θ 6. cosec2θ = 1 + cot2θ
Signs of trigonometric ratios
0
30 0
30

2
3 2

600 600
1 1
2
P ADD SUGAR TO COFFEE
sin θ =
h The signs of various trigonometric ratios can be
1 remembered from the above figure.
sin 300 =
2 Trigonometric Ratios of Standard angles
3 The trigonometric ratios of standard angles are
sin 600 = given in the following table:
2
b Angles θ →
00 300 450 600 900 1200 1800
cos θ = trig-ratio ↓
h
1 1 3 3
0 3 sin θ 0 1 0
cos30 = 2 2 2 2
2
1 3 1 1 1
cos600 = cos θ 1 0 − -1
2 2 2 2 2
1
tan θ 0 1 3 ∞ − 3 0
3
5
 Trigonometrical Ratios of Allied Angles

1. (i) sin (-θ) = -sin θ (ii) cos (-θ) = cos θ (iii) tan (-θ) = - tan θ

2. (i) sin (90O-θ) = cos θ (ii) cos (90O-θ) = sin θ (iii) tan (90O-θ) = cot θ

3. (i) sin (90O+θ) = cos θ (ii) cos (90O+θ) = -sin θ (iii) tan (90O+θ) = -cot θ

4. (i) sin (180O-θ) = sin θ (ii) cos (180O-θ) = -cos θ (iii) tan (180O-θ) = - tan θ

5. (i) sin (180O+θ) = -sin θ (ii) cos (180O+θ) = -cos θ (iii) tan (180O+θ) = tan θ

6. (i) sin (270O-θ) = -cos θ (ii) cos (270O-θ) = -sin θ (iii) tan (270O-θ) = cot θ

7. (i) sin (270O+θ) = -cos θ (ii) cos (270O+θ) = sin θ (iii) tan (270O+θ) = -cot θ
Illustrations:
Find the values of
(i) sin 270O (ii) sin 120O 13. cos 2 A = 1 − 2 sin2 A = 2 cos2 A −1
(iii) sin 120O (iv) tan (-30O) 2 tan A
14. tan 2 A =
1 − tan 2 A
Solution:
tan A − tan B
(i) sin 270O = sin (180O + 90O) = − sin 90O = −1 15. tan (A−B) =
1 1 + tan A tan B
(ii) cos 120O = cos (90O + 30O) = − sin 30O = −
2 tan A + tan B
3 16. tan (A+B) =
(iii) sin 120O = sin (90O + 30O) = cos 30O = 1 − tan A tan B
2
1 V. Differentiation
(iv) tan (−30O) = − tan 30O = −
3 Function: If the value of a quantity y (say) depends on
the value of another quantity x, then y is the function
Some important Trigonometric Formulae
of x i.e. y = f(x).
1. sin (A+B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
The quantity y is called dependent variable and the
2. cos (A+B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
quantity x is called independent variable.
3. sin (A−B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
For example, y = 2x2 + 4x + 7 is a function of x
4. cos (A−B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
(i) When x = 1, y = 2(1)2 + 4x1+7 = 13
5. sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A
(ii) When x = 2, y = 2(2)2 +4x2+7 = 23
6. sin (A+B) sin (A−B) = sin2 A − sin2 B
As the value of y depends on the value of x, y is the
7. cos (A+B) cos (A−B) = cos2 A − sin2 B
function of x.
tan A + tan B
8. tan (A+B) = Differential coefficient or derivative of a function
1 − tan A tan B Let y = f(x) …. (1)
A+ B A− B That is, the value of y depends upon the value of x.
9. sin A + sin B = 2 sin cos
2 2 Let Δx be a small increment in x, so that Δy is the
corresponding small increment in y, then
A+ B A− B y + Δy = f(x+Δx) …. (2)
10. sin A−sin B=2 cos sin
2 2 Subtract (1) from (2), we get Δy = f(x+Δx) − f(x)
A+ B A− B Divide both sides by Δx
11. cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos ∆y f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x)
2 2 =
∆x ∆x
A+ B A− B
12. cos A-cos B=−2 sin sin
2 2
6
 ∆y Differential coefficients of Trigonometric
Where is called average rate of change of y w.r.t. Functions
x. ∆x
Let Δx be as small as possible i.e. Δx→0 (read as delta d d d (u )
x tends to zero) 1. (sin x) = cos x; and (sin u) = cos u
dx dx dx
Then differential coefficient or derivative of y w.r.t.
x is u is the function of x
dy f ( x + ∆x) − f ( x) d d d
2. (cos x) = − sin x; (cos u ) = − sin u (u )
∴ = Lt dx dx dx
dx ∆x →0 ∆x
d d d
3. (tan x) = sec 2 x; (tan u ) = sec 2 u (u )
Theorems of Differentiations dx dx dx
dy d
1. If y = C, when C is constant ∴ =0 4. (cot x) = − cos ec 2 x
dx dx
dy d
2. If y = xn, where n is an integer ∴ = nx n −1 5. (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx
3. If y = Cu, where u is the function of x and C is d
6. (cos ec x) = − cos es x cot x.
dy du dx
constant =C
dx dx Example:
4. If y = u ± v ± ω ± ……, where u, v and ω are the Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
function of x (i) sin 2 x (ii) x sin x
dy d d d Solution:
∴ = (u ) ± (v) ± (ω ) ± .......
dx dx dx dx
(i) Let y = sin 2x
5. If y = u v, where u and v are the function of x,
dy dv du
then = u + v. dy d d
dx dx dx ∴ = (sin 2 x) = cos 2 x (2 x) = cos 2 x.2 = 2 cos 2 x
dx dx dx
v
6. If y = , , where u and v are the function of x,
u (ii) Let y = x sin x
dv du dy d d d
u −v ∴ = ( x sin x) = x (sin x) + sin x ( x)
dy dx dx dx dx
then = dx 2 dx
dx u = x cos x + sin x.1
7. If y = un, where u is the function of x then dy
dy du ∴ = x cos x + sin x
= nu n −1 dx
dx dx Exercise 1.3
(i) sin 3x (ii) cos 3x
Exercise 1.2 (iii) tan 4x (iv) sin (ax + b)
1, Find derivative of the functions w.r.t x (v) cos (ax + b)
(i) 4x3+7x2+6x+9
Differential Coefficients of Logarithmic and
x5
5 1 Exponential Functions
(ii) − 2 (iii)
2 x x dy 1 1
(i) (log e x) = log e e = ((Q log e e = 1)
dx x x
1
(iv) d 1 du
x+4 (ii) (log e u ) =
dx u dx

7
 It is the process of finding the function whose
d u du derivative is given.
(iii) (e ) = eu
dx dx Suppose F(x) is the derivative of the function
d x f(x) w.r.t.x. Then we can write
(iv) (e ) = e x log e e = e x d
dx f ( x) = F ( x)
dx
Now, if we are given the derivative F(x) and we
Example:
have to find the function f(x) then this can be done
1. Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.
with the help of Integral Calculus.
(i) (loge x)2 (ii) log (ax+b)
The process of finding the function whose
Solution:
derivative is given is called integration.
(i) Let y = (loge x)2
Definition: If the derivative of a function f(x) is F(x)
dy d d
∴ = (log x) 2 = 2log x (log x) then f(x) is called the integral of F(x) with respect
dx dx dx to x. The integration of a function can be written as
1 2 ∫ F(x)dx = f (x)
= 2log x. = log x
x x The function F(x) whose integral is f(x) is called
Example 3: If S = 2t3 −3t2 + 2, find the position, Integrand.
velocity and acceleration of a particle at the end of
2s. S is measured in metre and t in second. Fundamental Fourmulae of Intergration
Solution:
S = 2t3 −3t2 + 2,  d 
When t = 2s, S = 2 × 8 – 3 × 4 + 2 = 6 m
1. ∫ dx = x ∴ dx ( x) = 1
Now, velocity
dS d x n +1
2. ∫ x dx =
n
v= = (2t 3 − 3t 3 + 2) = 6t 2 − 6t provided n ≠ −1.
dt dt n +1
When t − 2s, v = 6×4−6×2 =12ms−1 1
3. ∫ x dx = ∫ x dx = log e x
−1

Now, acceleration,
dv d 4.
a= = (6r 2 − 6t ) = 12t − 6 ∫ e dx = e
x x
dt dt
When t = 2s, a =12×2 − 6 =18ms−2 e ax e ax
∫ e dx =
ax
=
d a
5. (ax)
Exercise 1.4 dx
1. The area of a blot of ink is growing such that
ax
t ∫ a dx =
x
after t second A = 3r + + 7 Calculate the rate of 6.
2
log e a
5
increase of area after 5 s.
7. ∫ sin xdx = − cos x
2. If the motion of a particle is represented by
S = t3 + t2 − t + 2, find the position, velocity and − cos ax − cos ax
acceleration of the particle after 2 s. ∫ sin axdx = d
=
a
7A. (ax)
dx
3. A particle starts rotating from rest and its angular
t2 t
8. ∫ cos xdx = sin x
displacement is given by θ = + Calculate the sin ax
40 5 8A. ∫ cos axdx = a
angular velocity at the end of 10 s.
∫ sec
2
9. xdx = tan x
VI. Integration
Integration is an inverse process of differentiation.
8
 Exercise 1.6
∫ cosec xdx = − cot x
2
10.
Solve the following
x=R π /2
GMm
11. ∫ sec x tan xdx = sec x (i) ∫x=∞ x 2 dx (ii) ∫ cos x dx
0

∫ cosec x cot xdx = −cosec x 2 v

12.
(iii) ∫x
3
dx (iv) ∫ mvdv
u
1
sin x − sin x
13. ∫ tan xdx =∫ cos xdx = −∫ cos x dx = − log e cos x π /2

(v) ∫/2 sin x d x

cos x dx − π
14. ∫ cot x dx =∫ sin x = log e sin x
dx Exercise 1.7
∫ 1 − x 2 = sin x;| x |< 1
−1
15. Solve the following
π /2

dx (i) ∫ cos x d x
∫ x x2 − 1
−1
16. = sec x;| x |> 1 −π /2

Q
dx q
17. ∫ 1 + x2 = tan −1
x (ii) ∫
0
C
dq, where C is a constant

Theorems of Integration θ
dθ
First Theorem: The integral of the product of a (iii) ∫θ (θ − θ0 ) , where, θ0 is a constant IV.
constant and a function is equal to the product of the 1

constant and integral of the function.

i.e. ∫ c u d x = c∫ u d x, where c is constant. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS
Second Theorem: The integral of the sum or 1.1 Basic Mathematics For Physics
difference of a number of functions is given by Answer
∫ (u ± v ±ω ± ........) dx = ∫ udx ± ∫ v d x ±∫ω d x ± ......... Exercise 1.2
(i) 12x2 + 14x + 6 (ii) (5/2)x4 -5/2x3
Exercise 1.5
Integrate the following functions w.r.t .x, 1 1
(iii) (iv) −
1 2x 3/2 ( x + 4) 2
(i) x3 (ii) x2 +
x
Exercise 1.3
2
 1 (i) 3 cos 3x (ii) -3 sin 3x
(iii) e3x (iv) x− 
 x (iii) 4sec2 4x (iv) a cos (ax + b)
1
(v) (vi) 4e5x Exercise 1.4
x
(i) 30.2 (ii) 12, 15, 10
Definite integral (iii) 0.7
If Exercise 1.5
∫ F(x)dx = f (x) + c Answers.
b
x4 x3
Then ∫ F ( x)dx = f (b) − f (a)
a
(i)
4
(ii)
3
+ log e x

Where a and b are called the upper and lower limits x3 x x3 1

of x (iii) (iv) − 2x −
3 3 x
Definite integral is illustrated with the following
examples.

9
 4 5x
(v) 2 x (vi) e (v)
5 π /2
 π 
Exercise 1.6 ∫ sin x dx = − [cos x]π−π/2/2 = − cos − cos(−π / 2)  = 0
 2 
Solution: − π
/2

(i)
R
GMm
R
1
R
 x −1 
R
Exercise 1.7
∫ x2 ∫ x2 ∫
−2
dx = GMm dx = GMm x = GMm  −1  Q2
∞ ∞ ∞  ∞ (i) 2 (ii)
R
2C
1 1 1
= −GMm   = −GMm  −  θ2 − θ0
 x ∞ R ∞ (iii) log
θ1 − θ 0
GMm 1 
=− because  = 0 
R ∞ 

 π 
∫
π /2
(ii) 0 cos x dx = [sin x]π0 /2 = sin − sin 0  = 1 − 0
 2 
2
 x 4  (2) 4 (1) 4 16 1 15
(iii) ∫ x dx =  4  = 4 − 4 = 4 − 4 = 4
3

1  
v v v
 v2   v2 
(iv) ∫ m v d v = m ∫ v d v = m  2  = m  2 
u u  u  
m
= (v 2 − u 2 )
2

10
 2 Units and
CHAPTER
Measurement

Physical quantity:- Any quantity which can be A complete set of units, both fundamental and derived
measured and follows certain laws is known as for all kinds of physical quantities is called system of
Physical quantity. units.
Ex:- mass. length, time, temperature, current 1. CGS System
2. MKS System
Measurement :- Comparison with standard quantity
or unit. 3. FPS System

MKS
Physical Quantity Unit FPS System CGS System
System
1.Fundamental or Base quantities
Physical quantity which can't be expressed in terms length Foot cm Meter
of other quantities. mass Pound Gram Kg
2.Derived quantities Time Second Second Second
Physical quantity which can be expressed in terms of
a combination of fundamental quantities. S.I System
Ex:- Area → [L2] It is known as International system of units. There
speed → m/s = [LT-1] are seven fundamental quantities in the system.
Quantity Name of Dimension S.I unit
Unit:- Unit is a standard measurement- of a quantity
units
which is used for Comparison.
Ex:- length (m) Length Meter [L] m
mass (kg) Mass Kilogram [M] kg
Time Second [T] s
Properties of Unit Electric Ampere [A] A
• It must be practically or suitable on the basis of Current
our daily life uses. Temperature Kelvin [K] K
• It should be accurately defined Amount of Mole [mol] Mol
• It must be easily accessible to every one. substance.
• Easily reproducible. Luminous Candela [Cd] Cd
• Shouldn't change with time, pressure, tempera- Intensity
ture. DIMENSIONS
• International acceptance. Dimensional formula: Expression for a physical
quantity in terms of the base quantities is called
Relation between quantity and measurement dimensional formula.
Q = n.U
Here,n = number of times Principle of Homogeneity: All the terms should be
U = unit same in a physical expression.
Q = quantity The physical quantities separated by the mathemat-
ical operators like +, -,=, >, <, etc have the same
dimensions.
11
 Important Dimensions Used In Physics 27. Time period (T) Second [M0L0T1]
S.N. Quantity Unit Dimension 28. Frequency (n) Hz [M0L0T-1]
1. Velocity or Speed (ν) m/s [M0L1T-1]
2. Acceleration (a) m/s2 [M0LT-2] Few More Dimensions
3. Momentum (P) kg.m/s [M1L1T-1] S.N. Quantity Unit Dimension
4. Impulse (P) Newton. [M1L1T-1] 1. Temperature (T) Kelvin M0L0T0K1]
sec 2. Heat (Q) Joule [ML2T-2]
5. Force (F) Newton [M1L1T-2] 3. Specific Heat (c) Joule/ [M0L2T-2K-1]
6. Pressure (P) Pascal [M1L-1T-2] Kg-K
7. Kinetic energy (Ek) Joule [M1L2T-2] 4. Thermal capacity Joule/K [M1L2T-2K-1]
8. Power (P) Watt or [M1L2T-3] 5. Latent heat (L) Joule/ [M0L2T-2]
Joule/s kg
9. Density (d) kg/m3 [M1L-3T0] 6. Gas constant (R) Joule/ [M1L2T-
10. Angular Radian [M0L0T0] mol-K 2mol-1K-1]
displacement (θ) (rad.) 7. Boltzmann constant Joule/K [M1L2T-2K-1]
11. Angular velocity (ω) Radian/ [M0L0T-1] (k)
sec 8. Coefficient Joule/ [M1L1T-3K-1]
12. Angular Acceleration Radian/ [M0L0T-2] of thermal M-s-K
(α) sec2 conductivity (K)
13. Moment of inertia (I) kg.m2 [ML2T0] 9. Stefan's constant (σ) Watt [M1L0T-3K-4]
Newton [ML2T-2] m2-K4
14. Torque (τ)
-meter 10. Wien's constant (b) Meter [M0L1T0K1]
K
15. Angular momentum Joule sec [ML2T-1]
(L) 11. Planck's constant Joule s [M1L2T-1]
(h)
16. Force constant or New- [M1L0T-2]
spring constant (k) ton/m 12. Coefficient of Kelvin-1 [M0L0T0K-1]
Linear Expansion
17. Gravitational N-m2/ [M-1L3T-2]
constant (G) kg2 13. Mechanical eq. of Joule/ [M0L0T0]
Heat (J) calorie
18. Intensity of N/kg [M0L1T-2]
gravitational field 14. Vander wall's Newton [M1L5T-2]
(Eg) constant (α) m4
19. Gravitational Joule/kg [M0L2T-2] 15. Vander wall's m3 [M0L3T0]
potential (Vg) constant (b)
20. Surface tension (T) N/m or [M1L0T-2]
Joule/m2 Quantities Having Same Dimensions
21. Velocity gradient Second-1 [M0L0T-1] S.N. Dimension Quantity
(Vg) 1. [M0L0T-1] Frequency, angular
22. Coefficient of kg/m s [M1L-1T-1] frequency, angular velocity,
viscosity (η) velicity gradient and decay
constant
23. Stress N/m2 [M1L-1T-2]
2. [M1L2T-2] Work, internal energy,
24. Strain No unit [M0L0T0]
potential energy, kinetic
25. Modulus of elasticity N/m2 [M0L-1T-2] energy, torque, moment of
(E) force
26. Poission Ratio (σ) No unit [M0L0T0]

12
3. [M1L-1T-2] Pressure, stress, Young's 1. Conversion of units :
modulus, bulk modulus, This is based on the fact that the product of the
modulus of rigidity, energy numerical value (n) and its corresponding unit (u) is
density a constant, i.e.,
n[u] = constant
4. [M1L1T-1] Momentum, impulse
or n1[u1] = n2[u2]
5. [M0L1T-2] Acceleration due to gravity,
gravitational field intensity Suppose the dimensions of a physical quantity are a
6. [M1L1T-2] Thrust, force, weight, energy in mass, b in length and c in time. If the fundamental
gradient units in one system are M1, L1, and T1, and in the
7. [M1L2T-1] Angular momentum and other system are M2, L2 and T2 respectively. Then we
Planck's constant can write.
8. [M1L0T-2] Surface tension, Surface n1[ M 1a L1bT1c ] = n2 [ M 2a Lb2T2c ] ...........(ii )
energy (energy per unit area)
9. [M0L0T0] Strain, refractive index, Q.The SI and CGS units of energy are joule and erg
relative density, angle, solid respectively. How many ergs are equal to one joule ?
angle, distance gradient, Dimensionally, Energy=mass (velocity)2
2
relative permittivity  length  2 −2
= mass ×   = ML T
(dielectric constant), relative  time 
permeability etc.
Thus, 1 Joule = (1kg) (1m)2 (1s)-2
10. [M0L2T-2] Latent heat and gravitational and , 1 erg = (1 g) (1cm)2 (1 s)-2
potential 2 2
11. [M L T K ]
0 0 -2 -1
Thermal capacity, gas con-
1 Joule  1kg   1m   1s 
    
stant, Boltzmann constant erg  1g   1cm   1s 
and entropy 2
 1000 g  100cm 
12. [M L T ]
0 0 1      1000  10000  10
7
l / g, m / k, R / g  1g   1cm 
g = acceleration due to so 1 Joule  107 erg .
gravity, m = mass, k = spring
constant
2. To check the dimensional correctness of a given
13. [M0L0T1] L/R, LC , RC wher L = physical equation
inductance, R = resistance, C
= capacitance Every physical equation should be dimensionally
14. [ML T ]
2 -2 2
q balanced. This is called the 'Principle of Homogene-
V2
I2Rt, t , Vlt, qV, LI2, , ity'. The dimensions of each term on both sides of
R C
an equation must be the same. On this basis we can
CV2 where I = current, judge whether a given equation is correct or not. A
t = time, q = charge, L = dimensionally correct equation may or may not be
inductance, C = capacitance, physically correct.
R = resistance Eg:-
Show that the expression of the time period T of a
USE OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
simple pendulum of length 1 given by T = 2π l is
Dimensional formula: Expression for a physical g
dimensionally correct.
quantity in terms of power raise to the fundamental
physical quantity.

13
 Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:
l 1. If dimensions are given, physical quantity may
T = 2π
g not be unique. (Two physical quantities may
have same dimensions)
[ L] 2. Numerical constant having no dimensions, can-
Dimensionally [T ] = = [T ]
[ LT −2 ] not be deduced by the methods of dimensions.
As in the above equation, the dimensions of both 3. The method of dimensions can not be used to
sides are same. The given formula is dimen- derive relations other than product of power
sionally correct. functions. For example, s = ut +(1/2) at² or y = a
sin (w t).
3. To establish the relation among various physical 4. The method of dimensions cannot be applied to
quantities: derive formula consisting of more than 3 physical
quantities.
If we know the factors on which a given physical
quantity may depend, we can find a formula related SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
to the quantity with those factors. The number of significant digits in an answer to a
Consider an example calculation will depend on the number of significant
The frequency (n) of a stretched string depends digits in the given data.
upon the tension F (dimensions of force), length Non-zero digits are always significant. Thus, 22 has
I of the string and the mass per unit length µ of two significant digits, and 22.3 has three significant
string. Derive the formula for frequency. digits.
Suppose, that the frequency ν depends on the tension Rules to find significant digit with zeroes:
raised to the power a, length raised to the power b a. Zeroes placed before other digits are not signifi-
and mass per unit length raised to the power c. Then. cant; 0.046 has two significant digits.
b. Zeroes placed between other digits are always sig-
ν ∝ [ F ]a [l ]b [µ ]c
nificant; 4009 kg has four significant digits.
or ν ∝ [ F ]a [l ]b [µ ]c c. Zeroes placed after other digits but behind a
Here, k is a dimensionless constant. Thus, decimal point are significant; 7.90 has three
ν ∝ [ F ]0 [l ]b [µ ]c significant digits.
d. Zeroes at the end of a number are significant only
or [ M 0 L0T −1 ] = [ MLT −2 ]a [ ML−1 ]c [ L]b if they are behind a decimal point as in (c).
or [ M 0 L0T −1 ] = [ M a + c La +b−cT −2 a ] Otherwise, it is impossible to tell if they are
For dimensional balance, the dimension on both significant. For example, in the number 8200,
sides should be same. it is not clear if the zeroes are significant or
Thus, a+c =0 .........(ii ) not. The number of significant digits in 8200
is at least two, but could be three or four. To
a+b−c = 0 .........(iii )
avoid uncertainty, use scientific notation to
and −2a = −1 .........(iv) place significant zeroes behind a decimal
Solving these three equations, we get point:
1 1 8.200 × 103 has four significant digits
a = , c = − and b = −1 8.20 × 103 has three significant digits
2 2
8.2 × 103 has two significant digits
Substituting these values in Eq. (i), ew get
1
ν = k ( F ) 2 (l ) −1 (µ ) −1/2
k F
or ν=
l µ

14
 3 Motion in a
CHAPTER Straight Line

Observer/frame of reference
• For every event an observer must be there.
• If observer is not specified in the question.
• Consider you as "I am the observer" A (5, 3)
• Observer stands at origin generally.
• From where we start measurement is known as
frame of reference or origin or reference point B (6, 1)

Rest and Motion

• According to observer if the position of particle uuur
OA = 5$i + 3 $j
does not change with respect to time then it is uuur
said to be at rest. OB = 6$i + $j
• According to observer if particle changes its uuur
position with respect to time then it is said to be (ii) Displacement vector AB
in motion. uuur uuur uuur
OA + AB = OB
uuur uuur uuur
A (x1, y1) AB = OB − OA
= (6 − 5)$i + (1 − 3) $j
B (x2, y2)
O = $i − 2 $j
uuur
Position of A (x1, y1) (iii) Displacement vector BA = −$i + 2 $j
Position of B (x2, y2) uuur
ur uuur
(iv) length of vector AB = (1) 2 + (−2) 2
Position vector of A = OA = x1 $i + y1 $j
ur uuur = 5
Position vector of B = OB = x2 $i + y2 $j Displacement Distance
• According to triangle law of vector additoin. Change in position = Actual path covered be
uuur uuur uuur
OA + AB = OB final position - initial the particle
uuur uuur ur position
AB = OB − O A Vector quantity scalar quantity
uuur
AB = ( x2 − x1 )$i + ( y2 − y1 ) $j Shortest path distance ≥ displacement
can be zero, negative or only zero or positive
Change in postion vector positive
= final postion - initial postion
= displacement vector For the given figure find.
Q. For the given figure, find.
Q. (-20, 0) (+20, 0)

(i) Position vector of A and B B 0 A

15
 Q. A man is walking on a given track. Find distance
ur ur ur and displacement of the man if he is moving from
(i) Position vector of A & B O A = 20$i A to B.
uuur
OB = −20 $j
A B
(ii) Displacement vector from E 4r F
a C 2r D b a+b
(a) A to B AB  (

a = 2m
b = 3m
(b) O to A 11
r= m
(c ) O to B π
(d ) B to A Distance : a + π (r ) + b + π (2r ) + a + b
= 2a + 2b + 3π r
Q. A man is walking on the circumference of
a circle of r = 10m as shown. Find distance and  11
= 2(2) + 2(3) + 3π  
displacement if it is moving from:- π
1. A to B N = 43m
Displacement
B
2. A to D
3. B to D a + 2r + b + 4r + a + b
4. C to B W C O A E
uuur = 2a + 2b + 6r
OA = 10$i D
uuur 11
OB = 10 $j = 2× 2+ 2×3+ 6×
π
S
uuur
OC = −10$i 3
uuur 66
OD = −10 $j = 10 + × 7 = 10 + 21
22
= 31m
Displacement Distance Q. A man is walking 20m towards east 30m
uuur uuur uuur
(i) AB = OB − OA 2π r π r towards south 40m towards west. Find distance
= and displacement from origin
= 10 $j − 10$i 4 2
= 10 2m NW O 20m
A

(ii) uuur uuur uuur

AD = OD − OA 3
πr 30m

= −10 $j − 10$i 2
C 40m B
uuur uuur uuur πr
(iii) BD = OD − OB Net Displacement
= −10 $j − 10 $j = −20 $j
uuur uuur uuur
uuur uuur uuur
(iv) CB = OB − OC
OA + AB + BC
3
πr
= 10 $j − (−10$i ) 2
20$i + 30( $j ) + 40(− $j )
= 10$i + 10 $j
= −20$i − 30 $j
Magnitude = (20) 2 + (30) 2 = 400 + 900
16 = 1300m
= 10 13m
3
20$i + 30( $j ) + 40(− $j )
= −20$i − 30 $j
uuur uuur uuur
2
Magnitude = (20) + (30) = 400 + 900 2 AB = OB − OA
30 $ $ 30 $ $
= 1300m = ( −i + j ) − (i + j )
2 2
= 10 13m
30
3 = (−2$i ) = −30 2 $i
and tan α = 2
2 Q. On the given circular track 3 friends start
 3 walking from point A to B. Find the ratio of the
= tan −1   south of west distance travelled by them.
 2
Important unit vectors (direction) P

1. East = $i A
Q

2. West = −$i R
3. North = $j N
B
4. South = − $j NW P Q R
NE
$i + $j 2r
3 1
0
sin 45
5. NE = (2π r ) (2Πr )
2 W 45
0

4 4
−$i + $j
0
cos 45 E
6π 2r 2π
6. NW = S
2 4 4
i− j
SW SE

7. SE = 3π 1 π
2
2 4
−$i − $j
8. SW =
2 6π : 4 : π Answers

Average Speed
Q. 2 points A and B are located in NE and NW The average speed of a particle in a time interval
direction at a distance 30m from origin as shown. is defined as the distance travelled by the particle
Find position vectors of both the points and also divided by the time interval.
find the displacement vector AB. If the particle travels a distance 's' in time 't1' to 't2' the
Y
B A average speed is defined as.
S
Vav =
t2 − t1
d d
O
X V= d = V.t t=
t V
uuur  $i + $j  (i ) 'V ' & ' t ' given
OA = 30mNE = 30   V t + V t + .........
 2  Vav = 1 1 2 2
uuur  −$i + $j  t1 + t2 + .......tn
OB = 30mNW = 30   (ii ) V and d given
 2  d + d + d3 + .......
17 Vav = 1 2
d1 d 2 d3
+ + + .......
V1 V2 V3
(iii ) ' d ' and ' t ' given
(i ) 'V ' & ' t ' given
V t + V t + .........
Vav = 1 1 2 2
t1 + t2 + .......tn
(ii ) V and d given 2VV
Vav = 1 2

d + d + d3 + ....... (V1 + V2 )
Vav = 1 2
d1 d 2 d3 V1t1 + V2t2
+ + + ....... Vav =
V1 V2 V3 t1 + t2
(iii ) ' d ' and ' t ' given (V + V )t
t1 = t2 = t ⇒ 1 2
d1 + d 2 + d3 2 t
Vav =
t1 + t2 + t3 + ......
V1 + V2
Q. A man covers half the distance with speed V1 Vav =
and remaining with V2. Find average speed during 2
his journey ?
V1 V2 Q. In the previous question if t1 = 3t2 then find
avg. speed.
d d V1 + (3t2 ) + V2t2
2 2 Vav =
3t2 + t2
d 3(V1 + V2 )
=
V1 = 2 4
t
d Q. A man completes one revolution on a circular
track of radius 10m in 40 sec. Find the avg. speed
V2 = 2 of the man in.
t
d (i) 40 sec
Vav = (ii) 60 sec 10m
d d (iii) 120 sec
2+ 2 (iv) 180 sec
V1 V2
2π r 10π π
(i ) Vav == = m/s
40 20 2
2VV
Vav = 1 2
2π r + π r 3π r π (10) π
(V1 + V2 ) (ii ) Vav = = = = m/s
60 60 20 2
3(2π r ) π
(iii ) Vav = = m/s
Q. A man is walking with speed V1 for time 120 2
interval t1 and then next time interval t2 with speed 4(2π r ) + π r π
V2. Find average speed during his journey. Also (iv) Vav = = m/s
180 2
find average speed if t1 = t2. Note- Avg. speed is same.

d d AVERAGE VELOCITY
V1 = V2 =
t2 t2 The average velocity of a particle in a time interval
d d d (VV1 )
t1 to t2 is defined as its displacement divided by the
Vav = ⇒ =
d d dV2 + dV1 d (V1 + V2 ) time interval.
+
V1 V2 V1 V2

18
 40
Y Average speed = = 8m / s
A 5
ur
uuur 20$i + (−20 $j )
r1 B AB Average velocity =
V av = 5
t2 − t1
r2 = 4i − 4 j
X
= 42 + 42 = 32
Z ⇒ vector quantity
= 16 + 16 = 4 2m / s SE
Q. A man is walking 30m E→40m W→10m S in Instantaneous Velocity and speed
20 sec. Find avg. speed and Avg. velocity.
N → It is defined as velocity at a particular instant. It
10 30 means velocity as the function of time.
W E v = f(t)
10 10 2 → If position or displacement is given as the function
S of time then.
OA → AB → BC dx
v=
30 + 40 + 10 dt
Avg . Speed =
20 → It magnitude and direction of velocity is constant
80 then it is called constant velocity or uniform velocity.
= = 4m / s
20  dx 
→ Slope of position time graph   will give
 dt 
30i + 40(−$i ) + 10(− $j ) instantaneous velocity.
Avg . Velocity =
20 → Area of acceleration time graph will give change
−10$i − 10 $j −i − j in velocity.
= = r r
20 2 2 ∆v = v f − vi
(−i − j ) 10 1 1 1
= = + = ( sw) Q. Position of a particle is given by x = 2 + 3t + 2t2
20 4 4 2 find initial velocity.
Q. A man is walking 20m towards east direction Velocity at t = 1sec
suddenly takes a right turn and walked for 20m
more before he stopped. It total time taken by him x = 2+ 3t + 2t2
is 5 sec. Find average speed and average velocity. dx
N = 0+ 3+ 4+
E 20m E dt
W u − 4t + 3
S
v = 4t+3
20 ms

at t = 1sec
v = 4(1) + 3 = 7m/s

19
 v 3 Acceleration
∫ vdt ∫ (4t + 3)dt → It is defined as the rate of change of velocity w.r.
Vavg = u
⇒ 2 t. time.
t 3
Instantaneous Acceleration
∫ dt
o
∫ dt
2 r dv
r
3 a= ⇒ slope of velocity.
t + 2t 2  dt
= 3
2
[t ]2 Avg. Acceleration
uur ur ur
3(3 − 2) + 2(32 − 22 ) r ∆v vi − vi
= a avg = =
3− 2 ∆t ∆t
= 13m / s
If acceleration is equal to zero then velocity is constant
Q. A particle is following Q. Man is travelling with 20m/s in East direction
t = α x + β x where x is position and t is time.
2 suddenly be takes left turn without changing his
speed. It total time taken ley him is 5 sec. Find avg.
t = α x2 + β x acceleration.
dt
= 2α x + β
dx
dx 1 20(−$i ) + 20 j
= 20 mN 5
dt (2α x + β )
= −4i + 4 j
v = (2α x + β ) −1
= 4 2m / s 2 NW
20 mE
Q. Position of a particle varies x = 4 + 8t -2t2. Then
find.
Important Points to Remember
(i) Initial velocity
1. Physical Quantity
(ii) Inst. when v = 0 A quantity that can be measured.
(iii)  isplacement of particle before coming to
D
rest. 2. Measurement
Solution Comparison of a physical quantity with a homogeuous
(i) x = 4 + 8t - 2t2 quantity of same kind takes as a standard.

= 0 + 8 - 4t
3. Unit
= 8m/s (i) A standard quantity with which a physical quantity
(ii) 8 - 4t = 0 of same kind is compared.

8 = 4t
4. Fundamental Physical Quantities
t = 2m/s Quautities independent of each other.
(iii) x (at t=2) = 4 + 8 (2) - 2(2)2 = 12
x (at t=0) = 4 5. Derived Physical Quantities
Quantities derived from fundamental quantities either
12 - 4 = 8m by multiplication or by division.

20
6. Fundamental Units 10-9 nano n
The unit is which fundamental physical quantities are 10-12 pico p
expressed.
10-15 femto f
10-13 atto d
7. Derived Units
These units consist of combination of fundamental Dimensional Analysis
units.
1. Dimensions
The powers to which the fundamental units are to
8. Order of Magnitude be raised to represent a physical quantity are called
Order of magnitude of a member is the nearest pow- dimensions of the physical quantity.
er of 10 to which its value can be written.
2. Dimensional formula
9.There are 7 fundamental units in S1, they are
The experssion which show that which of the
Physical Quantity Fundamental Unit
fundamental quantities and with what powers
Mass Kilogram (kg) represent the dimeusious of a physical quantity is
Length metre (M) (m) known as the dimensional formula of the derived
Time second (S) (S) physical quantity.
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Luminous Intensity Candela (Cd) 3. Dimensional Equation
Current Ampere (A) The equation obtained by equating the symbol of a
Quantity of matter mole (Mol) physical quantity.
g = 9.8 m/s = 32ft/sec2 (FPS)
2

4. Principle of Homogenity
10. There are two supplementary unitys in S1, The dimensions of the fundamental quantities on both
they are the side of a physical relations must be same.
Physical Quantity Supplementary Unit
Angle Radian 5. Dimensional Analysis is used to
Solid Angle Srradian Convert one system of unit to other using following
relation n2 = n1 (M1/M2)a (L1/L2)b (T1/T2)C where n1, n2
are the units of first and second system respectively.
11. The following table gives prefixes, symbols and
multiples
Multiples Prefixes Symbols Equation of Motion using Calculus Method
1012 trea T Case 1
109 giga G Accleration is defined as the time rate of change in
106 mega M velocity. Mathematically it can be given by
103 Kilo K dv
102 hecto h a=
dt
101 deca da
100 dv = a.dt
10-1 deci d for constant accleration
10-2 centi a
10-1 milti m
10-6 micro r

21
 v t Case 3
∫ dv = a ∫ dt dv
u t =0 a=
dt
[v ]uv = a [t ]to dv  ds 
v − u = a[t − 0] = . 
ds  dt 
v − u = at dv
a = (v )
v = u + at ........(1) ds
s v

Case 2 ∫ a.ds = ∫V .dv

Velocity is defined as rate of change in displacement 0 u
v
ds  v2 
v= a.s =  
dt  2 u
ds = v.dt 1
as = [v 2 − u 2 ]
from eq ............(1) 2
2as = v 2 − u 2
∫ ds = ∫ (u + at ).dt v 2 − u 2 = 2as
s t t

∫ s = ∫ u.dt + ∫ at.dt
s0 0 0
Motion Under the effect of Gravity
Free fall: When a particle is dropped/fall released
t2  from a certain height is H, the motion is knwon as
[ s ]ss0 = u[t ] +   a
2 free fall.
1 1. Maximum velocity attained by the particle (just
s − s0 = ut + at 2 before touching the ground.)
2
u=0
Case 3
dv
a=
dt H g↓
dv  ds  (+)
= . 
ds  dt 
dv
a = (v ) v = u + at
ds
v = 0 + g .t
s v v = u + at
v = gt
∫ a.ds = ∫V .dv v = 0 + g .t
0 u 1 2
v sv==utgttaken
2. Time + atby the particle to reach the ground:
 v2  2
a.s =  
11 22
 2 u sH==ut0 ++ at gt
1 22
as = [v 2 − u 2 ] 1
2 H = 0 + gt 2
2
2as = v 2 − u 2

v 2 − u 2 = 2as

22
 a
1 4.
H = gt 2
2
2 H = gt 2 +g

2H
= t2
g
t
time

2H
t= -g
g
Questions
3. Maximum velocity attained by the particle (just
before touching the ground.) in terms of height. A particle is projected vertically upward with velocity
20m/s. from a height 25m. Find
v 2 − u 2 = 2as
(i) Maximum height attained by the particle.
v 2 − 0 = 2 gH
(ii) Time taken to reach the ground.
v 2 = 2 gH
v2 u = +20ms −1
M=
2g g = −10ms −2
v=0
v = 2 gH
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Q. A particle is dropped from a certain height H 0 = (20) 2 + 2(−10) H
A rebrence to the same position (no loss in K.E) 0 = 400 − 20 H
Draw the
H = 20m
1. Position - time graph
2H
2. Velocity - time graph T1 =
g
3. Speed - time graph
2 × 20
4. Accelration time graph = = 4 = 2sec
10
1.(a) x (b)
going up going down 2H
T2 =
g
2 × 45
time
x
H = = 3sec
10

t Total time = 2 + 3 = 5sec

t
Galileo's law of odd Numbers
The distances traversed, during equal in tervals of
2. with respect
to ground
3. time, by a body falling from rest, stand to one another
in the same ratio as the odd numbers begining with
x
unity [namely, 1:3:5:7 ...........]
speed

time

23
Prove it 0 - u2 = 2(-a)s
1 u2 = 2as
s = ut + at 2
2
u2
1 s=
H = 0 + gt 2 2a
2
1 2 Motion in a straight line
H = gt
2 Graphs
2 H
t2 = 1. Positions - time graph
g
The slope (m) of position - time graph gives the
2H
t= velocity
g
−1 2 = tan =
y= gt
2

y0 (-1/2 Distance slope of x − y → V =

t y Ratio
gt2) Traversed
0 0 0
−1 2
1 gt y0 y0 1 y
2
x
−1
2 g (2) 2 4y0 3y0 3 position
2
−1 t
3 g (3) 2 9y0 5y0 5 t
2
(a.) Draw the position time graph when particle is at
−1
4 g (4) 2 16y0 7y0 7 rest. Position time graph is parallel to time axis and
2 slope is from the time axis
−1
5 g (5) 2 25y0 9y0 9
2 position

−1
6 g (6) 2 36y0 11y0 11
2 x

Stopping Distance
When brakes are applied to a moving vehicle, the time
distnce it travels before stopping is called stopping
particle is at origin
distance.
∆x
u=u m=
∆t
v=0 x f − xi
=
a = -a t f − ti
s=? 0−0
= =0
t −0
v2 - u2 = 2as
(before time of observation particle started moving)
24
 0 = a.t
a=0

position Note When slope of position time graph is (-ve)

x velocity is negative. It means particle is moving
towards the origin.
1 (c) When particle accelerated
1 2 time 1
s = ut + at 2
It a position time graph is parallel to time axis, the 2 x yt
2

motion is not possible, 1

s = 0 + at 2
2
t
1
s = at 2 for accelerated
2
particle

s ∝ t2
x
2. Velocity Time Curve
When the particle is at rest, plot:
t (position) • Position Time

b. Particle moving with constant velocity then, the • Velocity Time

slope of position time graph will be constant. • Acceleration Time

(particle
Position at origin)
x time graph

x v
m = tan = 0

t
Velocity time
graph t t
v

t
a
a
accelration
time graph
t
t
v = u + at →→ The slope of velocity time curve gives acceleration.
vel. is constant →→ Area under velocity time curve gives the
v = u + at displacement.

v - v = at →→ Area under the acceleration time graph gives the

velocity.
25
Q. Find the velocity of the particle for the interval 35 × 35
when a-t graph is given. a=
400
a. 0 - 10 sec −49
= = −9.06m / s 2
b. 10 - 18 sec 16
v = u + at
c. 18 - 20 sec
= −35 + (−3.06)t
4.8
35
2.4 t=
3.06

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Q. A player throws a ball upwards with an initial

speed of 29.4 m s¹.
-2.4
-4.8 (a) What is the direction of acceleration during the
-7.2 upward motion of the ball?
-9.0
(b) What are the velocity and acceleration of the
-12
ball at the highest point of its motion?
1 1 (c) Choose the x = 0 m and t = 0 s to be the location
a. × b × h = ×10 × 4.8 = 24m / s
2 2 and time of the ball at its highest point, vertically
V = 24m / s downward direction to be the positive direction
of x-axis, and give the signs of position, velocity
and acceleration of the ball during its upward, and
b. v = u + at downward motion.
v=u (d) To what height does the ball rise and after how
24m / s = v long does the ball return to the player's hands?
(Take g = 9.8 m s-2 and neglect air resistance).
c. v = l x b a. Acceleration downwards
= 2 x 12 = -24 m/s b. v = 0
v = −24m / s a = -g = -9.8

Q. A train is moving at a speed of 126 km/h. Driver c. v = 2 gH

apply the breaks and it stops within 200m. Find v 2 − u 2 = 2as
(i) acceleration 0 − u 2 = 2(− g ) H +V

(ii) time required to stop the train. -g

u 2 = 2 gh
V = 126km / h 29.4
H=
5 2 × 9.8
= 126 × m / s H = 1.5m × 29.4
1S
= 35m / s 2H
T=
u = 35m / s g
v=0 2 × 1.5 × 29.4 6
=
v 2 − u 2 = 2as 9.82
−35 × 35 = 2 × a × 200 = 9 = 3sec

26
 4
CHAPTER MOTION IN A PLANE

Y
Physical quantity
B
All measurable quantities are known as physical
quantities. A

On the basis of direction physical quantities are

categarised into two parts: Q Q 2 1

X
1. SCALAR
2. VECTOR Position vector a directed line segment is known
as position vector.

SCALAR
Resultant of Two vectors
Direction independent physical quantities are Head-Head
known as scalar quantities.
B How to choose Angle
e.g. mass, distance, speed, volume, density, etc. Tail-Tail
-tail-tail
-head-head
-parallel shift
 T-T or H-H conbination
VECTOR A

Direction dependent physical quantities are known as (360-)

vector 
- Anti clockwise +ve
- Smaller angle
Necessary Condition - direction - Clockwise  -ve

Sufficient Condition - it has to follow vector law of B

addition R Bsin 2 2 2
B OB = OB OC + BC

e.g. displacement, force, acceleration, velocity, etc.

2 2 2
  R = (OA + AC) +(BC)
2 2
= (A+Bcos) + (Bsin)
A A Bcos C
Representation of a Vector.
R = A2 + B 2 cos 2 θ + 2 AB cos θ + B 2 sin 2 θ
⇒ Geometrical Representation
R = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos θ
a line with the direction can be used to express a ur ur
Angle of R with the A
vector quantity. (→)
BC
Tail Head
tan(∝) =
length OC
B sin θ
Length of the arrow gives the magnitude of a tan(∝) =
A + B cos θ
vector quantity.
B sin θ
∝= tan −1
Whereas the arrow suggests the direction of a A + B cos θ
vector quantity.
Q. If the resultant vector of two vector is equal
Mathematical urRepresentation A vector is
⇒  to magnitude wise any one of its vector. Find the
represented by A or bold letter A. angle between the two vectors.

27
 Example ur ur
R = A2 + B 2 + 2 AB cos θ
ur Find the angle between A and B where
ur ur
R= A or A = 2$i + 3 $j + 4k$ and B = 4$i + 6 $j + 8k$
ur
B Solution
ur
A = A + A + 2 A cos θ
2 2 2 2 A = 2$i + 3 $j + 4k$
ur
− A2 = 2 A2 cos θ A = (2) 2 + (3) 2 + (4) 2
A2 29
cos θ =
2 A2 ur
−1 B = 4$i + 6 $j + 8k$
cos θ = ur
2 B = (4) 2 + (6) 2 + (8) 2
θ = 1200 116
 1 (2$i + 3 $j + 4k$ ).(4$i + 6 $j + 8k$ )
θ = cos −1  
 2 = 2$i(4$i + 6 $j + 8k$ ) + 3 $j (4$i + 6 $j + 8k$ ) + 4k$ (4$i + 6 $j + 8k$ )

= 8 + 18 + 32
= 58
ur ur
Scalar  A.B 
θ = cos  −1

 A B 
vector  58 
= cos −1 
 29 116 
same. same =1  58 
= cos −1  
same x same =0  58 
diff. = 0
= cos −1 (1)
K j
ACW
Xj = k

j Xk =
θ = 00
kX = j
ur ur
Q. Find the angle between the vectors A and B
ur ur
K j
X k = -j
where A = $i + $j and B = k$ are the given vectors.
CW
kXj = -
j X = -k

Dot Product
ur ur
A.B = A B cos θ
ur ur
A.B
cos θ =
A B
ur ur
 A.B 
θ = cos 
−1

 A B 
28
 ur ur
(i ) A = $i + $j Q. Find the angle between the vectors A and B
ur ur
B = k$ where A = 2$i + 2 $j − 2k$ and B = $i + $j + k$ are the
ur given vectors.
A = (1) 2 + (1) 2 = 2
ur (iii ) A = 2$i + 2 $j − 2k$
B = (1) 2 = 1
B = $i + $j + k$
($i + $j ).(k$ ) ur
$i (k$ ) + $j (k$ ) = 0 A = (2) 2 + (2) 2 + (2) 2 = 12
ur ur ur
 A.B   0  B = 1+1+1 = 3
θ = cos −1   = cos −1   = cos −1 (00 ) ur ur r r r r r r
 A B  2 
A.B = a1 a 2 + b1 b 2 + c1 c 2
θ = 900 Ans
= 2 × 1 + 2 × 1 + (−2) × 1
ur ur =2
Q. Find the angle between the vectors A and B
ur ur
where A = $i + $j + 2k$ and B = 2$i + 2$i − 4k$ are ur ur
 A.B 
the given vectors. θ = cos −1

 A B 
(ii ) A = $i + $j + 2k$  2 
= cos −1 
B = 2$i + 2$i − 4k$  12. 3 
ur  2 
A = (1) 2 + (1) 2 + 4 = 6 = 6 = cos −1 = 
ur  36 
B = (2) 2 + (2) 2 + (4) 2 = 24  1
ur ur r r r r r r θ = cos −1   Ans
 3
A.B = a1 a 2 + b1 b 2 + c1 c 2
= 1 × 2 + 1 × 2 + 2 × (−4) Cross product/curl of vector
r
= −4 If a = 2$i + 2 $j + 2k$
r
ur ur b = $i − $j + 2k$
 A.B   −4  r r
θ = cos  −1
⇒ cos −1  find a × b = ?
 A B   6. 24  r r
a × b = (2$i + 2 $j + 2k$ ) × ($i + $j + 2k$ )
 2 
= cos −1  = 2$i × ($i − $j + 2k$ ) + 2 $j × ($i − $j + 2k$ )
 12. 3 
 2  +2k$ × ($i − $j + 2k$ )
= cos −1 = 
 36  = −2k$ − 4 $j − 2k$ + 4$i + 2 $j + 2$i
−1  2 
1
= 6$i − 2 $j − 4k$
= cos  
 63  Determinant Method
 1 r
θ = cos −1   If a = 2$i + 2 $j + 2k$
 3 r
b = $i − $j + 2k$
r r
find a × b = ?
29
 Resolution of a vector
+$i − $j + k$ Y
→ 2 2 2
1 −1 2
a
X 1
 X
2
1
→ $i (4 + 2) − $j (4 − 2) + k$ (−2 − 2) Y1
→ 6$i − 2 $j − 4$i r r r
a = a x ($i ) + a y ( $j )
r r r
Q. Find a × b if a = $i + $j = a cos θ ($i ) + a sin θ ( $j )
r
b = $j + k$ r
eg. a = a cos θ ($i ) + a sin θ ( $j )
r r
a × b = ($i + $j ) × ( $j + k$ ) = 3cos300 ($i ) + 3sin 300 ( $j )
= $i × ( $j + k$ ) + $j × ( $j + k$ ) 3 3 $ 3 $ 3
= (i ) + ( j ) 300

= ($i × $j ) + ($i × k$ ) + ( $j × $j ) + ( $j × k$ ) 2 2

= + k$ + (− $j ) + 0 + $i 3 3
ax =
2
= $i − $j + k$ 3
ay =
Using Determindant Method 2
r y
If a = $i + $j Verification : tan θ =
r x
b = $j + k$ 3/ 2
r r tan θ =
find a × b = ? 3 3/2
1
+$i − $j + k$ tan θ =
3
1 1 0 θ = 300
0 1 1
2
r  3 3   3 2
a=   +  2 
 2 
27 9
= + = 3 units
4 4
= $i (1 × 1) − $j (1 × 1) + k$ (1 × 1)
$i − $j + k$ Q. Resolve a vector of magnitude 5 units in IIIrd
quadrant as shown in the figure.

30
 Projectile
The name given to any body which once thrown. into
space with some velocity moves under influence of
gravity alone without being propelled.
t
u ni
5 0
Trajectory
45
Path followed by a projectile is called trajectory.
Projectile motion
r r uur
a = ax($i ) + ay ( $j ) When particle is thrown near earth's surface, it moves
along a curved path under constant acceleration
= a cos θ (−$i ) + a sin θ (− $j ) directed towards earth. This motion is called
projectille motion.
= −5sin 450 ($i ) + −5cos 45( $j )
−5 $ 5 $
= i− j Time of flight
2 2
It is the total time for which the projectile remains in
Q. Resolve a vector of magnitude 2 units in II its flight.
quadrant as shown in the figure.
1
s = ut + at 2
2
1
30
0
S y = U y (T ) + (a y )T 2
120
0 2
2 unit 1
O = u sin θ (T ) + (− g )T 2
2
g
O = T (u sin θ T ); T ≠ 0
2
Hence,
r r uur T
a = ax($i ) + ay ( $j ) u sin θ − g = 0
2
= a cos θ ($i ) + a sin θ ( $j )
2u sin θ
= 2sin 300 (−$i ) + 2cos300 ( $j ) T=
g
= 3 $j − $i
= −i + 3 $j Range
Projectile Motion It is the horizontal distance covered by projectile
during its time of flight.

Uy = usin
Hmax

+ve -ve 
O
Ux = ucos
Range

31
 1 2u sin θ
s = ut + at 2 → (i ) T =
2 g
1 y
S x = u x .T + ax .T 2 tan θ =
2 x
 2u sin θ  1 5 2
= (u cos θ )   + (0)T 2 =
 g  2 5 2
u 2 2sin θ cos θ θ = 450
= +0
g 2Uy
T=
u 2 sin 2θ g
=
g 2×5 2
= = 2 sec
10
u 2 sin 2θ
R=
g u 2 sin 2 θ
(ii ) H max =
2g
or 2(U x )(U y ) (u sin θ ) 2
R= =
g 2g
(5 2) 2 50
= = = 2.5m
Note : The maximum height attained by the projectile 20 20
is Hmax.
u 2 sin 2θ
2 (iii ) Range =
T  1 T  g
H max = U y   + (a y )  
 2 2  2
u 2 (2sin θ )(cos θ )
2 =
 2u sin θ  1  u sin θ  g
= (u sin θ )   − (g)
 2( g )  2  g  2(u sin θ )(u cos θ )
=
u 2 sin 2 θ u 2 sin 2 θ g
= −
g 2g 2U y .U x
=
g
u 2 sin 2 θ
H max = 2×5 2 ×5 2
2g =
10
= 10m
Q. A particle is projected with velocity of
5 2 $i + 5 2 $j m/s. Find Q. A bullet is fired horizontally aiming at an object
which starts falling at the instancet the bullet is
(i) time of flight fired. Show that the bullet will hit the object.
(ii) Hmax
(iii) Range

32
 u
* u=0
Ux=u H= 1 gt2
Uy=O 2
(free fall)
H

d
0
1
 y  Uyt  ayt 2
2
1
H  ( g) t 2
2

Q. With what minimum speed the bike be moving,

so that it safely crosses the ditch of lenght 11.7 ft,
approach road is at an angle of 150 and the lenght
of the bike is 5 ft.
11.7ft
0 0
15 15

g = 32 ft / sec 2
R = 11.7 + 5 = 16.7 ft
θ = 150
u 2 sin 2θ
R=
g
u 2 sin 30
16.7 =
32
2
u = 16.7 × 64
u = 1068.9
= 1069
= 32 ft / sec

33
 5
CHAPTER Laws of Motion

Force F F
Q. F sin 450 (+j) +
A force is a push or pull which tends to change the
0
F sin 45 (+j)

state of rest or motion of a body. Find Fnet

450 45
0
0
0
Fcos 450 (-i) Fcos 450 (+i)
Fundamental Force in nature
F F (-j)

Gravitational Electromagnetic Strong nuclear weak  1  $

force force force nuclear force 2 F sin 450 (+ j ) = 2 F   ( j ) + F (− $j ) = 0
 2
( 2 F − F )( $j ) = 0
Ratio of strength = FG : FW: FE: FS
= 1 : 1025 : 1036 : 1038
F ( 2 − 1)(+ $j ) N

According to 2nd law of motion If then,

F = ma
ur
ur
∑ urF X = 0
if m ≠ o, then a = 0
No force = no acceleration. In absence of external
∑ F = 0; ∑ FurY = 0
force a body is at rest will remain at rest and an ∑FZ = 0
uniformly moving body will move along the same
path. First law of motion gives the concept of inertia.

Newton's Laws of Motion Inertia is of 3 types :-

Derived Force • inertia of rest

All forces in nature in priciniple can be derived from • inertia of motion

one of the fundamental forces. • inertia of direction
eg. all contact forces arises from electromagnetic Second Law of Motion
interaction between charged particle in the body
It states that change of the momentum of a body is
making the contact.
equal to both magnitude and direction to the force
First Law of Motion imposed on it.
If the vector sum of all the forces acting on a particle The momentum of a body is equal to the product of
is zero, then and only then the particle remains its mass and its velocity.
unaccelerated (particle remains at rest or moving with
constant velocity)

34
 ∆P
F∝ (impulse) F
∆t
∆P
F=K
∆t
(v − u ) m
F = K. t
t t

F = Kma Third Law of Motion

K = 1; F = ma Third law :
Consider
ur an isolated system of two bodies A and B.
S.I. unit = kg.m/s2
Let F AB be force exterted by A on B.
= Newton (N)
d
C.G.S unit = dyne let dt ( PB ) be resulting change in momentum of B.
1N = 105 dyne ur
F AB be force exerted by B on A.
Q. Show that Newton's second law of motion is
the real law of motion. d
Let dt ( PA ) be resulting change in momentum
Ans. Do it your self
Impulse of A.
A large force acting on a particle for a very short According to 2nd law of motion
interval of time. Change in momentum is known as ur ur
impulse force is defined as. The time rate of change in ur d ( P B ) ur d (P A )
F BA = , F AB =
momentum is directly proportional to the force. dt ur urdt
∆P ur ur d PB d P A
F∝ F BA + F AB = +
∆t dt dt
∆P d ur ur
F = K. = (PB + P A )
∆t dt
there K = 1
when external force = 0 then
ur ur
∆P d (PB + P A )
F= then =0
∆t dt
ur ur
impulse ( I ) ∴ F BA + F AB = 0
F= ur ur
∆t F BA = − F AB
I = F .∆t
Action = − reaction
= N .S
To every action there is always an equal and opposite
Area under foce-time graph gives impulse. reaction to the mutual actions of two bodies upon
each other are always equal and directed to contrary
part.
Note- Action and reaction forces act on different
bodies not on the same bodies.

35
Free Body Diagram
N N
∑F y =0
2T1 cos30(+ $j ) + 200 N (− $j ) = 0
 3
2 T1   = 200
m m
 2 
200
T1 = = T2
3
mg mg
Similarly find the value of T3, T4 and T5
N-mg = 0 (∑Fy = 0)
Q. Find the magnitude of force exerted by string
Q. Find the tension in the strings. on pulley.
T
100N
1002 + 1002
100N
= 2 × 1002
T
100N = 2.100
m = 10kg
= 100 2 N
m = 10kg
mg = 10x10= 100N

mg Q. Find out the acceleration of the given block

mg
T- mg = 0 (consider g=9.8m/s2)

T- 10g = 0
T = 10g ∑ F = 100 − 98
T = 10 x 10 =100N = 2N
Q. Find the tension in the strings. F = ma
T1cos30 (+j) + T2cos 30 0 2 = (10)a
100N
2
0 0
60 60
T5 T1 T2
T4 T3 10kg 2N a=
60
0
10
T1sin30 (+i) 0
T2sin30 (i)
10(g) = 98N
= 0.2m / s 2
T1 T2
200 Q. Two blocks m1 and m2 are placed on an Inclined
200N plane as shown in fig.
∑F X =0 If they are relased from rest. Find! :-
T1 sin 30(−$i ) + T2 sin 30(+$i ) = 0 i) acceleration of m1 and m2
 1  1 ii) tension in the sting
T1   ($i ) = T2   (+$i )
 2  2 iii) net force on pulley exerted by string
+ T1 = +T2
T1 = T2

36
 T T m2a

1
m M2 M2

m2
g

1k
3k

g
0 0
30 60 T1 T2 m1g

m1a m2g
FBD, m1 M1

M2
For, m1; m1gsin -T=m1a
g
3k

T = m1g - m1a ....(i)

in

T - m2g = m2a ....(ii)

gs1
m

For, m2; From (i) and (ii) = m1g - m1a - m2g = m2a
T

(m1 - m2)g = a (m1 + m2)

T-m2gsin = m2a
1k
g

(m1 − m2 ) g
T = m2 × + m2 g
m2

m1 + m2
gs
in

m2 m1 g − m22 g + m1m2 g + m22 g

T=
m1 + m2
m1 g sin θ − T = m1a (i )
2m m g
+T − m2 g sin θ = m2 a (ii ) T= 1 2
m1 + m2
Form (i ) & (ii )
 1  3
3 g   − 1g   = a ( 3 + 1)  mm 
 2  2  T = 2 1 2  g
 m1 + m2 
a=0
m1gsinθ - T = 0 Impulse
T = m1 gsinθ Q. Find the impulse in given situation.

3g
= = 5 3N
2
Q. Find the acceleration of m1 and m2 and the 5m/s

tension in the string. (T1 & T2)

m = 2kg
(Consider m1 > m2)

5m/s

37
 ∆p = p f − pi If θ1 = θ 2 = θ and u = v
= mv − mu = m[v cos θ (−$i ) + v cos θ (−$i )]
= (2)(5)(−$i ) − 2(5)(− $j ) = 2mv cos θ (−$i )
= −10$i − 10$i
FRICTION
= −20$i kgm / s Whenever a force is applied on a body placed on
rough surface, a self generating force is developed
Q. Find the :
between the contact surfaces which opposes the
(i) Force imparted on the wall if the duration of relative motion, which is known as friction. Thus
collision is 0.2 sec. friction is the opposing force that is setup between
the surfaces in contact, when one body slides or rolls
(ii) Change in momentums.
or tends to do so on the surface of another body.
1kg
2m/s CAUSE OF SLIDING FRICTION
When two bodies are in contact with each other,
300
300
the irregularities in the surface of one body are
interlocked in the irregularities of another surface.
This locking opposes the tendency of motion. Friction
arises on account of strong atomic or molecular force
2m/s
1kg
of attraction betweeen the two surfaces at the point of
let us consider a general case, actual contact.
Types of Friction

Static friction Dynamic friction

(Kinetic friction)

Sliding friction Roliing friction

Static Friction :
→→ It is the frictional force which is effective before
ucosθ1(+i) vcosθ2(-i) motion starts between two planes in contact with
θ1 θ2 each other.
→→ It's nature is self adjusting.
→→ Numerical value of static friction is equal to
usinθ1(-j) vsinθ2(-j) external force which creates the tendency of
motion of body.
→→ Maximum value of static friction is called limiting
I = ∆P
friction
= mv − mu
= m[v cos θ 2 (−i ) + v sin θ 2 (− j )] − m[ucosθ1 (+i ) + u sin θ1 (− j )] Laws of Limiting Friction :
= m[v cos θ (−$i ) − u cos θ ($i )] + m[v sin θ (− $j ) + u sin θ (− $j )]
2 1 2 1 Once the applied force on body exceeds some
particular value, it tends to slide. The corresponding
friction is called limiting friction.
38
→→ The magnitude of the force of limiting friction fL = µSR = µsmg = 0.6 x 1 x 9.8 = 5.88N
(F) between any two bodies in contact is directly
As the applied force F is lesser than limiting friction
proportional to the normal reaction (N) between
fL the block will remain at rest in the truck and force
them
of friction will be equal to applied force 5 N and (not
F∝N fL) in the direction of acceleration of the truck.
∴ F=µN (where µs is coefficient of static friction) 03. A chain of length is resting on horizontal table
with co-efficient of friction. Calculate the maximum
→→ The direction of the force of limiting friction is
length of the chain which can be hang from the table
always opposite to the direction in which one
without sliding.
body is on the verge of moving over the other.
Sol. Let y be the maximum length of the chain that
→→ The force of limiting friction is independent of the
can be hold out side the table without sliding.
apparent contact area, so long as normal reaction
between the two bodies in contact remains the
R

same. f
(L-y)

→→ Limiting friction between any two bodies in Y

contact depends on the nature of material of W
the surfaces in contact and their roughness and
smoothness.
→→ Its value is more than the other types of friction Length of chain on the table = (L - y)
force Weight of part of the chain on table
Illusration M
W'= ( L − y) g
01. A block of mass m is rest on incline plane of L
inclination and with horizontal. If co-efficient of
Weight of hanging part of the chain
friction between block and surface is µ find force of
friction. M
W'= yg
 L
For equilibrium limiting force of friction = weight
f of hanging part of the chain
sin M M
mg µ R = W ⇒ µW ' = W ⇒ µ ( L − y) g yg
 L L
µL
Sol. Since the blook is in rest. Hence friction force is ⇒ µL − µ y = y ⇒ y =
1+ µ
equal to sliding force. Hence f = mg(sinθ)
02. A block of mass 1 kg lies on a horizontal surface Exercise 1
in a truck, the coefficient of static friction between 01. In the figure shown, find the minimum force F
the block and the surface is 0.6. What is the force of to be applied perpendicular to the incline so that the
friction on the block if the acceleration of the truck is block does not slide is:
5m /s2 ?
Sol. The force on the block due to acceleration of the  = 0.5
truck will be opposite to the acceleration of truck and
will be kg
10
F = ma = 1/5 = 5N ....(l) F
370
While the limiting friction
39
02. A truck is moving with an acceleration of a0 = 2m/ fED
s2. A block of mass 10 kg is kept on the truck. If the E 2 m/s D 1 m/s
coeficient of friction between block and truck is 0.50. fED fDC

(a) What will be the friction force acting on the fDC fCB
block by the truck. C 3 m/s B 5 m/s
fCB
(b) is the block sliding our the truck. (g = 10m/s2). fBA
fBA

03. What will the answers to the previous problem if 5 m/s A fAg
a0 = 5m/s2. fAg

Answer.
05. A block of mass m = 2 kg is accelerating by a
01. 200 N 02. (a) 20 N (b) no. force F = 20 N applied on a smooth light pulley as
03. (a) 50 N (b) may or may not. shown in the figure. If the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the block and the surface is µ = 0.3
find its acceleration.
KINETIC FRICTION
When a body slides over another body, then the Sol. From the F.B.D. of pulley shown in figure, F - 2T
frictional force acting between the surfaces in contact = m a
p p
is called kinetic friction. Its magnitude is given by N
fk = µkN.
P
This is always slightly less than the limiting friction m P
fR
because for two surfaces in contact µk < µs. From F.B.D. of the block
µ = 0.3
The value of µ depend on the nature of both the mg
surfaces in contact.
The value of u depends on material of the surfaces in N
contact µk and µs are dimensionless.
P
fR
01. A block of m
mass m is resting on incline plane of P
µ = 0.3Illusration
From F.B.D. of the block
2
mg
04. Find the direction of friction forces on each block
and the ground (Assume all surfaces are rough and all
velocities are with respect to ground) F
∴T = (because m p = 0) .........(i )
2
E 2 m/s N = mg .........(ii ) T − f K = ma
D 1 m/s i.e. T − µ k N = ma .........(iii )
F
C 3 m/s From ( I ), ( II ), and ( III ), − µ k mg = m
2
B 5 m/s
F
− µ k mg F
∴a = 2
5 m/s A
= − µk g
m 2m
 20 
Sol. ∴a =  − 3 × 9.8 m / s 2
 2×2 
= (5 − 2.94)m / s 2 = 2.06m / sec 2

40
Important Points: As the portion BC of the curve is parallel to OX,
therefore, kinetic friction does not change with the
• Friction always opposes the tendency of relative
applied force, It remains constant, whatever be the
motion.
applied force.
• The force of static friction exactly balances the
Angle of Friction (λ):
applied force during the stationary state of the
body The angle which the resultant of the force of friction
f and normal reaction N
• µk and µs can excesed unity, although commonly
they are less than one. N

Re f an
• Static friction is a self-adusting force, the kinetic

of
su d
friction is not a self adjusting force.

lta N
nt
• The frictional force is a contact force parallel
to the surfaces in contact and directed so as to
oppose the relative motion or attempted relative 
Applied
motion of the surfaces: force
• When two highly polished surfaces are pressed
hard, then a situation similar to welding occurs. It
is called cold welding.
• When two copper plates are highly polished and W
placed in contact with each other, then instead of
decreasing, the force of friction increases. This F µN
tan λ = ≤ ⇒ λ ≤ tan −1 µ s
arises due to the fact that for two highly polished M N
surfaces in contact, the number of molecules
Note: Let f is the friction and N is the normal
coming in contact increases and as a result the
reaction, then the net force by the surface on the
cohesive/adhesive forces increases. This in turn,
increases the force of friction. object is Fsurface = N 2 + F 2

Graph between Applied Force and Force of Its minimum value (when f = 0 ) is Mg and maximum
Friction : value (when f = µN ) is Mg 1 + µ 2
The part OA of the curve represents static friction, Exercise 2
Fs which goes on increasing, with the applied force.
04. In the shown figure, find acceleration of the
At A, the static friction is maximum. This represents
system.
the limiting friction. Beyond A. The force of friction
is seen to decrease slightly. The portion BC of the N a
curve, therfore, represents the kinetic friction (Fk). µm1g m1 T
f AB C m1g T
m2
force of friction

Fs m2g
Fs(max) Fk
ANGLE OF REPOSE OR ANGLE OF SLIDING
It is defined as the maximum angle of inclination of
a rough plane with the horizontal at which a body
450 placed on it is about to slide
o X
applied force

41
 f = mg sinθ and N = mg cosθ
 m2
f mg sin θ
So, µ s = = = tan θ ⇒ θ = tan −1 µ s
R mg cos θ =0 m1 F

f
N m2g N1
form fig. (A)
f

sin mg cos for mass m1 m1 F
g f=0
m mg F - f = m1a .........(i)

fig.(A)
m1g
This fact is used for finding the coefficient of static form fig. (B)
friction in the laboratory.
f = m2a .........(ii)  m2

Acceleration of a body down a rough inclined =0 m1 F

f = µN2 = µm2g ........(iii)
plane :
fig.(B)
N = Mg cos θ Mg

from (II) and (III) m2a = µm2g ⇒ a = µg ...(IV)

Net force on the body down the inclined place Fnet =
Mg sin θ- fr applying Newton's second laws of motioni from (I) and (II) F = (m1 + m2)a ..(V)

fs B from (IV) and (V) F = (m1 + m2)µg

N Case II
fk = kN When Both Surfaces are rough
in
gs 2 m2
m mg cos 
mg
F
A  1 m1

Ma = Mgsin θ - µkN = Mgsin θ Mg cos θ

Ma = Mg [sin θ - µkcos θ] hence a < g form fig (A)
m2g N1
»» accereration of a body down a rough inclined
plane is always less than 'g'. f2
F
Note : If body is projected in upward direction along m1
f1
the inclined plane then retardation of body is
a = g[sin θ + µ cos θ] fig. (A)
m1g
»» retardation of a body up a rough inclined plane is
always greater than 'g' for mass m1
Some Special Cases of Friction: F - f1- f2 = m1a or F = f1 + f2 m1a .....(I)
Case - I: When force F applied on m, and there is no form fig (B)
friction between m, and surface and the coefficient of
friction between m1 and m2 is µ. What should be the
maximum value of F so that both blocks are move
together.

42
 m2g N1 Cycling:

f2 In cycling, rear wheel move by the

m1 F force communcicated to it by
f1 pedalling. While front wheel moves
by itself, therefore, like in walking
fig. (A)
force of friction on rear wheel in
m1g forward direction. As front wheel moves by itself,
force of friction on front wheel is in the backward
f2 = m2a .........(ii)
direction.
f1 = µ1N1
When pedalling is stopped, both the
f1 = µ1(m1 + m2)g .........(iii) wheels moves by themelves so the
force of friction on both the wheels is in
[N1 = (m1 + m2)g]
backwards direction.
from fig (B)
Q. Explain:
f2 = µ2N2 (N2 = m2g)
(i) Pseudo Force
f2 = µ2m2g ...............(iv)
(ii) Non Inertial Frame & Inertial Frame.
from (II) and (IV)
Q. Determine the max acceleration of the train in
µ2 m2g = m2a a = µ2g .....(v) which a box lying on floor will remain stationary.
(µS=0.15)
F = µ1 (m1 + m2)g + µ2 m2g + µ2 m1g ....(vi)
F = (m1 + m2) (µ1 + µ1)g
N
Advantages of Friction: m f
F
• No two bodies will stick to each other without
friction. mg
• Brakes of the vehicle will not work without
friction.
• Adhesives will lose their purpose without
friction. fs ≤ µs N
• When a person pushes the ground backward ≤ µ s mg
(action) the rough surface of the ground reacts F = ma = µ s mg
and exerts a forward force dut to friction. So
a = µ s mg
friction causes the motion.
= 0.15 × 10
Disavantages of friction:
= 1.5m / S 2
• Friction always opposes the relative motion,
so extra energy has to spent in overcoming the Q. With reference to the following figure. A man
friction. of 4kg. rests on a horizontal plane. The plane is
• Friction causes wear and tear. gradually inclined until at an angle θ = 150, with
the horizontal, the mass just begins to slide. What
• Frictional force results in the production of heat, is co-efficient of static friction between the block
which causes damage in machineny. and the surface.

43
 Ncosθ N
N
150 fk
fs 20kg
o o
Nsinθ
0
15 mg

mg
ur
∑ uur
F =0 T

∑ uur
Fx = 0 3kg ↓ ma

∑ Fy = 0 mg
N cos θ = mg .......(i )
mg − T = ma
N sin θ = fs .....(ii ) 30 − T = 3a (i )
T − f k = Ma
fs N sin θ
= T − µ k N = Ma
mg N cos θ
T − (0.04)200 = 20a
fs = mg tan θ 4
T− × 200 = 20a
µ s (mg ) = mg tan θ 100
tan θ = µ s T − 8 = 20a (ii )
from (i ) & (ii )
tan150 = µ s
30 − T = 3a
tan(45 − 30) = µ s
T − 8 = 20a
1
1− 22 = 23a
3 =µ 22
1 s a = m / s2
1+ 23
3
(a) Motion of a car on level road
3 −1
= µs Three forces act on the car
3 +1
the weight of car, mg
2 − 3 = µs
normal reaction, N
2 − 1.732 = µ s
0.27 = µ s frictional force, f

Q. What is the acceleration of the block and trolly N

system shown in figure, if the co-efficient of Kinetic N-mg = 0
friction between the trolley and the surface is N = mg
0.044? What is the tension in the string? (Take g =
10 m/s2). Neglect the mass of the string.
mg

44
 (b) Motion of a car on banked road :
mv 2
fc = Ncosθ
R
N
N

mv 2
2
v R
a= CA N sinθ
f = ≤ µ s .N [ f s ≤ µs N ]
R
f cosθ
R fs mg
f sinθ

mv 2 θ f
f ≤ = µ s R.g [ N = mg ]
mg

Vmax =
 µ s Rg is the max possible speed for ∑F x =0
safe turn. mv 2
Fs cos θ + N sin θ =
R
Q. If a particle is moving at speed of 72 kmph. mv 2
µ sN cos θ + N sin θ =
What should be radius of curred road for safe turn R
(µs=0.25). mv 2
N (µ s cos θ + sin θ ) = (i )
( I ) = Vmax = µ s .( Rg ) R

5 ∑ Fy = 0
72 × ms −1 = 0.25 × R × 10 F sin θ + mg = N cos θ
18
µ s N sin θ + mg = N cos θ (ii )
20 = 2.5 R
N (cos θ − µ s sin θ ) − mg
20 × 20 = 2.5 R
mg
20 × 20 × 10 N= (iii )
=R (cos θ − µ s sin θ )
25
R = 160 m

45
 6 Work, Energy
CHAPTER & Power

Work: The work done by the force is defined as Cos 0° = 1

r r r r r r
the product of the component of the force in the W = F . S = | F || S | cos 0° = | F || S | (max. value)
direction of the displacement and the mgnitude of r
this displacement (iii) q = 180° 
 r
F
S
rr Cos 180° = –1
w = (fcosθ) s = f .s r r
i.e W = – | F || S |
Numerically : It is the dot product of force &
displacement. e.g. Work done by frictional force is –ve.
ur r ur r
W = F .s = F s cos θ
Here F is the applied constant force

Unit of work done = Joule or (kg.ms-2) W applied = + ve, W frictional = – ve

1 J = 107ergs [1 erg is the C.G.S unit of work done or Wgravity = 0
energy.] (a) q < 90°; cos q ; + ve ⇒ W = + ve
Work done is a scalar quality (b) q = 90°; cos q = 0 ; W = 0
Note : (i) If angle between force and displacement (c) q > 90°; cos q = – ve ; W = – ve
is 900 then the work done by the force is zero
W = 0; (Cos 90° = 0)
x
If force is variable, then W= ∫ F(x)dx
e.g: Work done by gravitational force in the direction
0

of moving object horizantally is zero. r r

Q.1 F= N, S = find work
done
r r
Ans. W = F . S = 3 × 1 + 2 × (–3) + 4 × 2
=3–6+8
=5J
W gravity = 0 r
Q.2 If a force F = N act on a
(ii) q = 0°; body and displaces it form to
When the angle between applied force and find the amount of work done.
r r
displacement is 00 then, Ans. W = F . S
46
 3
uuur uuur uuur  x3 
PQ = OQ − OP = = C − 0
3 0
= Cx3
W=
uuur uuur uuur
3
Hint OP + PQ = OQ C (3)3
uuur uuur uuur = = 9CJ
PQ = OQ − OP 3

Q6. F = (3x2 + 2x) , to bring a particle from 0 to 3m.

r r Find work done?
W = F.S = . ($i − 2 $j + 2k$ )
3 3
 x3 x2 
= (3) × (1) + (2) × (-2) + (4) × (2) Ans. W   Fdx    3 x  2 x  dx = 3  2 
2

= 3 - 4 + 8 = 7J
0  3 2 0

3
Q.3 In the above Question: , =  x3  x 2 
0
, find W. =
ur uuur
Ans. S = PQ = −2$i + 3 $j − k$ ( ) (
 33 + 32 − 03 + 02 
  )
= 27 + 9 – 0
r r W = 36 J
W = F . S = (-2) x 5 + (3 x 2) + (-1 x 1)
Attempt the following Questions:
= -10 + 6 -1
1. Force F = (2 + x) acts on a particle in x –
= -5 J
direction where F is in Newton and x in meter.
Q.4 A force F = kx, k = 5N/m acting on a body find Find the work done by this force during a
the work done when x varies form 0 to 5m. displacement from x = 1.0 m to x = 2.0 m.
Ans. W   fdx Ans. 3.5 J
5 k
= ∫ (kx)dx = ∫ 5 xdx 2. A force F = – (x ≠ 0) acts on a particle in x
x2
0
5 direction. Find the work done by this force in
= 5∫ xdx displacing the paricle from. x = + a to x = + 2a.
0
Here, k is a positive constant.
5
 x2  x n+1 −K
= 5  ∫ x dx = n + 1
n
Ans. =
 2 0 2a
3. A force F = 5N acting on a particle varies with
 52 0 2 
= 5 −  the position. Find the work done by this force
2 2 in displacing the particle from
125 (a) x = 0 to -2m, (b) x = 0 to 2m
= J
2 Ans. (a) – 10 J (b) 10 J
4. An Object of mass 5kg falls from rest through
Q.5 If F = Cx2 , bring a particle from 0 to 3m, find
a vertical distance of 20m and attains a velocity
work done by the force. of 10m/s. How much wok is done by the
X X
 x3 
3
resistance of the air on the object? (g = 10m/s2)
W   Fdx   Cx dx  C  x dx  C  
2 2

0 0  3 0 Ans –750 J
47
5. A body is displaced from position A to position Poltential Energy = P.E = mgh
B. Kinetic and potential energies of the body at
positions A and B are KA = 50 J, UA =–30 J, KB = Mechanical Energy = K.E + P.E = M.E.
10 J. Find work done by (a) Conservation force
(b) all forces (c) forces other than conservation Q: Show that mechanical Energy of a body falling
forces. from a certain height is conserved.
Ans. (a) –50 J (b) –40 J (c) 10 J At 'A' A
u=0
Kinetic Energy: It is the energy possessed by a body u = 0
due to its motion hB
1
K.E = m(0) 2 = 0
F= Force A
2
P.EA= mgh x
x
M.EA= K.EA + P.EA C
Initially body is at rest & after applying a force F, its = mgh
velocily reaches ‘v’.
At 'B'
Small amount of work done in displacing the body by
distance ‘dx’ v2 – u2= 2as
r v2B – 0= 2gx
dw = F.dx = F dx cos 0° → F

→ dx K.EB=
dv dx K.EB = mgx
dw = F(dx) = madx = m ⋅ ⋅ dx = m ⋅ ⋅ dv = mvdv
dt dt P.EB = mg (h-x)=mgh-mgx
Total Work done
v v M.EB = K.E + P.E = mgh
 v2   v2 o2 
W   dw   mv dv  m    m  − 
1
At 'C'
o  2 o 2 2
v2 – u2= 2aS
 n x 
n 1

  x dx  n  1  vc2 – 0 = 2gh

 
1 2 K.Ec=
W= mv
2 K.Ec= mgh
This work done is stored in the body as its kinetic P.Ec= 0
Energy M.Ec= K.E +P.E = mgh
1 2
K .E = mv
2

Potential Energy:
M.E=mgh
It is the energy pssessed by a body due to its position
from the reference point. P.E

Note: Potential Energy exists due to an attractive or K.E

repulsive force
ur ur Q. The bob of a pendulum is released from a
W = F .S = mgh horizontal postion. If the length of the pendulum
is 1.5m, what is the speed with which the bob
48
 arrives at the lowermost point, given that it Consider two bodies of masses m1 & m2 moving with
dissipated 5% of its initial energy against air u1 & u2 collide elastically in one dimension & moves
resistance ? with velocity v1 & v2 after collision.
K.EA=95% of P.EB known Variables: m1, m2, u1, u2
unknown Variables: v1, v2

using conservation of linear momentum

v
2 sum of momentum before collision = sum of
momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 (i)
m1(u1 -v1) = m2 (v2 - u2) (ii)
Practice Time using conservation of kinetic energy
Q. An object of mass m is tied to a string of length (K.E) before collision = (K.E) after collision
I and a variable force F is applied on it which
1 1 1 1
brings the string gradually at angle θ with the m1u12 + m2u2 2 = m1v12 + m2v2 2 (iii )
vertical. Find the work done by the force F. 2 2 2 2
m1 (u12 − v12 ) = m2 (v2 2 − u2 2 )
m1 (u1 − v1 )(u1 + v1 ) = m2 (v2 − u2 )(v2 + u2 ) (iv)
l
Divide Eq (iv) by (ii), we get

u1+v1 = v2+u2 u1- u2 = v2 - v1

or (v)
Ans. mgl (1-cos θ) now velocity of approach = velocity of separation
#Collision: It is an event in which two or more bodies v2 = u1+v1 - u2
interact for a short duration of time
put this value in equation (i)
Types:
i.e.
1. Elastic Collision
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1u1 + m2u2
K.E & linear momentum is conserved.
m1 v1 + m2 (u1 + v1 - u2) = m1u1 + m2u2
2. Inelastic Collision
m1 v1 + m2 (u1 + v1 - u2) = m1u1 + m2u2
Only linear momantum is conserved.
m1 v1 + m2 u1 + m2 v1 = m1u1 + 2m2 u2
and K.E is not conserved
v1 (m1+m2) = (m1-m2)u1 + 2m2u2
Note: Total energy is always conserved in all types
of collision (m1 − m2 ) 2m2u2
v1 = u1 +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Elastic collision in one dimension:
(Head on Collision) Similarly
(m2 − m1 ) 2m1u1
u1 u2 v1 v2
Target v2 = u2 +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
Projectile
m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

Target
Projectile m1 m2 m1 m2 m1 m2

49
#Special Cases: if m2 is at rest,
1. Let m1 = m2 = m v2 = 2u1

Case III: m1 << m2

(m1 − m2 )u1 2m2u2
v1 = +
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
 − m2   2m2 
= u +  m + m  u2
 m2 
1
1 2

m 
= −u1 + 2  2  u2
 m2 
i.e If two identical particles collide elaslically in v1 = −u1 + 2u2
one dimension then velocities get interchanged
after collision. if m2 is at rest v1 = -u1
2. Second particle (I.e m2) is at rest v2= 0, * (m2 − m1 ) 2m1u1
v2 = u2 +
Target is at rest (m1 + m2 ) m1 + m2
m  2m u
m m =  2  u2 + 1 1
 m2  m2

u1 u2 = 0 v1 =? v2 =? v2 = u2

(m1 − m2 )u1 2m1u1 If heavier particle is at rest. I.e. m2 at rest

v1 = v2 =
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 v2 = 0
Case I: m1 = m2 = m
2m #Inelastic Collision in one dimension
v1 = 0, v2 = u1 = u1
m+m In case of inelastic collision only linear momontum
is conserved.
In inelaslic collision when to bodies collide, after,
u1 u2 = 0 v1 = 0 u2 = u1
collision both stick together & move with a common
velocity
Case II: m1 >> m2 u1 u2
v
m2 can be neglected m2 0
m1 m2 m1 m2

using conservation of linear momentum

2m1u1 (m2 − m1 ) The sum of momentum after collision = The sum of

v2 = + u2 momentum before collision
m1 + m2 (m1 + m2 )
m1v + m2v = m1u1+ m2u2
2m u  − m 
= 1 1 +  1  u2
m1  m1  v(m1+ m2) = m1u1+ m2u2
= 2u1 − u2

50
 m1u1 + m2u2 x axis;
v=
m1 + m2 m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 cos θ + m2v2 cos φ (ii )

Q. Show that there is a loss of kinelic energy in along Y axis.

one dimensional inelastic collision. 0 + 0 = m1v1 sin θ − m2v2 sin φ (iii )
u1 u2 v
unknown variables: v1, v2 θ & φ
m1 m2 m1 m2
As there are four unknown variables & only three
different equation, so We cannot solve the given set
Ans. ∆K .E = K .Ei − K , E f of equation.
1 1 1 
= m1u12 + m2u2 2 −  ( m1 + m2 ) v 2  Q. Show that when two identical particle (one at
2 2 2 
1 (m u + m2u2 ) 2   m1u1 + m2u2 
rest) collide elastically in two dimension, Both
=  m1u12 + m2u2 2 − 1 1
2 (m1 + m1 )  
 v =
m1 + m2 
 move to each other after collision.

=
1 (m u + m2u2 )2 
 m1u12 + m2u2 2 − 1 1 Ans. Show θ + φ = 900
2  m1 + m2  m1
v1
1  m 2u 2 + m1m2u2 2 + m1m2u12 + m22u22 − m12u12 − m2u2 − 2m1u1m2u2 
=  1 1  v1sin
2 m1 + m2 
1  m1m2 (u2 2 + u12 − 2u1u2 )  1  m1m2 (u2 − u1 ) 2 
=  =  
2 m1 + m2  2  m1 + m2  m1 m2 v1cos
u1 u2 =0 v2cos

m1m2 (u2 − u1 ) 2
i.e ∆K .E = K .Ei − K .E f = v2sin
2(m1 + m2 ) = +ve term
m1
v2

i.e K.Ei- K.Ef > 0 Using conservation of K.E

K.Ei > K.Ef (there is a loss in kinetic energy) 1 1 1 1

 mu12 + m × 02 = mv12 + mv2 2
2 2 2 2
Generally energy is lost in terms of Heat. 2 2
u1 = v1 + v2 2
(i )
# Elaslic Collision in two dimensions
Using Conservation of linear momentum.
Both momentum & K.E are conserved
m1 along x-axis
v1
v1sin mu1 + 0 = mv1 cos θ + mv2 cos φ
u1 = v1 cos θ + v2 cos φ (ii )
m1 m2 v1cos along Y-axis
u1 v2cos
0 = mv1 sin θ − mv2 sin φ
u2

v2sin 0 = v1 sin θ − v2 sin φ (iii )

m1
v2
Squaring & adding Eq (ii) & (iii)
using conservation of K.E u12 + o 2 = v12 cos 2 θ + v2 2 cos 2 φ + 2v1v2 cos θ .cos φ +
1 1 1 1 v12 sin 2 θ + v2 sin 2 φ − 2v1v2 sin θ sin φ
m1u12 + m2u2 2 = m1v12 + m1v12 (i )
2 2 2 2
+2v1v2 (cos θ .cos φ − sin θ sin φ )
using Conservation of linear momentum along
[using cos (A+B) = cos A.cos B − sin A.sin B]
51
 v v=0 v/2
12 3
⇒ (ii)
v=0 v

O = 2v1v2 cos(θ + φ ) 123

⇒ cos(θ + φ ) = 0
⇒ (iii)
v/3
⇒ cos(θ + φ ) = cos900
For Figure (i)
θ + φ = 900 (K.E) K.E. before collision
1 1 1
= m.v 2 + (2m) × 02 = mv 2
#Co-efficient of Restitution (e) or Resiliance: 2 2 2
It is the ratio of Relative velocity of sparation after
collision to the Relative velocity of approach before K.E. after collision
collision

K.E. before collision = K.E. after collision

i.e. This case is not possible
(u1-u2)
For Figure (ii)
Q. Show that e=1 for eleastic collision 1 1 1
(ii) (a) (K.E) LHS = m.v 2 + (2m) × 02 = mv 2
2 2 2
Ans. In eleastic collision 1 1 2 1 2
2
(K.E) RHS = (2m) × o + mv = mv
u1 + v2 = u2 - v1 2 2 2
i.e. (K.E) LHS = K.E (RHS) (K.E. is conserved)
⇒ u1 - u2 = v2 - v1
(b) PLHS = m × v + 2m × o = mv
i.e. ⇒ PLHS = PRHS
PRHS = 2m × o + m × v = mv
e = 1 elastic collision;
momentum is coverved
Similarly for inelastic collision
Hence this case is possible
o≤ e≤1 1 1 1
(iii) (K.E)LHS = m.v 2 + (2m) × 02 = mv 2
2 2 2
For perfectly inelastic collision e = 0.
Q. Two identical ball bearing in contant with each 1
2
1
 v
other and resting on a friction less table are hit head (K.E)RHS (3m)   = mv 2
2  3 6
on by another ball bearing of the same mass moving
initally with a speed 'v'. If the collision is elastic,
which of the following (as shown in fig.) is a possible K.E L.H.S. ≠ K.E R.H.S.
result after collision ? #Work-Energy Theorem: The amount of work done
1 2 3 1 23 on a body is equal to change in kinetic energy of the
v=0
⇒ body.
v v=0 v/2
W= ΔK.E = K.Ef - K.Ei
12 3
⇒ (ii)
v=0 v Initally body is moving with velocity 'u' & after

123 52
⇒ (iii)
v/3
applying a force F, its velocity becomes 'v' in time t. Ans. f = µ.R = µ mg = 0.1 x 2 x 9.8 = 1.96N; Fnet =
F-f = 7-1.96 = 5.04 N
Say 'dw' is the small amount of work done in
displacing the body by distance 'dx'
1.26
F 5.04
ur uur anet    2.52m / s 2
dw = F .dx = f .dx cos o 0 = Fdx(1) = Fdx m 2
1
dv dx a ) s  ut  1 at 2  0   2.52  (10)2  126m
dw = Fdx = madx = m dx = m dv = mvdv 2 2
dt dt W = F .S = 7 ×126 = 882 J
b) W f = − f .s = −1.96 ×126 = −246.97 J [cos1800 = −1]
Total Work done
c) Wnet = f net × s = 5.04 ×126m = 635.04 J
v v
v  v u 
2 2 2
w = ∫ dw = ∫ mv dv = m   = m  − 
u  2 u 2 2 1
d ) ∆K = × 2(25.2) 2 − 0 = 635.04 J
1 1 2
w = mv 2 − mu 2  Hint v = u + at 
2 2  = 0 + 2.52 ×10 
 
W= (K.E)f - (K.E)i =ΔK.E  = 25.2 
# Relation between kinetic energy & linear
Q. momentium:
Using
1 2 m 1 m 2 v 2 1 (mv) 2 P 2
2
v − u = 2as 2 K .E = mv × = = = [ P = mv]
2 m 2 m 2 m 2m
v 2 − o 2 = 2 gh
v = 2 gh P2
K.E = P 2 = 2m( K .E ) P = 2m( K .E )
2m

(say v) if momentum ( P) = constant

1 K .E = same
Energy Conservation Work Energy Conservation K .E ∝
TE A = TEB TE A = TEB
m P∝ m
M .E A = M .EB M .E A = M .EB
Q. Two bodies of mass m1 & m2 (m2>m1) are
K .E A + P.E A = K .EB + P.EB K .E A + P.E A = K .EB + P.EB
1
moving with same momentum. Which one has
1
0 + mgh = mv 2 + 0 0 + mgh = mv 2 + 0 greater KE ?
2 2
1 1
2
mv = mgh
2
mv = mgh P2 1
2 2 Ans. K.E = , P same ⇒ K .E ∝
v = 2 gh v = 2 gh 2m m
As m2 > m1
Q. A body of mass 2 kg initially at rest moves ⇒ K .E2 < K .E1
under the action of an applied horizontal force of 7N
on a table with coefficient of kinetic friction = 0.1. Q. Two bodies of masses m & 4m are moving with
compute the same momentum. Find the ratio of K.E. of both
bodies.
(a) Work done by the applied force in 10 s,
Ans. P2 P2 P2
(b) Work done by friction in 10 s, K .E = , K .E1 = & K .E2 =
2m 2m1 2m2
(c) Work done by the net force on the body in 10 s, K .E1 P 2 / 2m1 m2 4m 4
= = = =
K .E2 P 2 / 2m2 m1 m 1
(d) Change in kinetic energy of the body in 10 s,
and interpret your results. Q. Two Bodies of mass m1 & m2 (m2>m1) are
53
 moving with, same K.E. Which one has large direction of displacement.
momentum.
Ans. P = 2m( K .E )
K .E = same ⇒ P × m
m2 > m1 Fr
x
⇒ P2 > P1 F
Fr

Q. Two bodies of masses m & 4m are moving with

x

same K.E. Find the ratio of momentum of both

bodies. K: Spring constant or force constant

Ans.  F
Unit of K = N m  K = 
(K.E)
(K.E1)  x
(K.E2)

#Potential Energy of stretched/compressed spring

Q. Momentum of body is increased by 300%. Find Let us assume that a spring is stretched by distance x
the % change in the K.E. (from mean position)
300
Ans. P1  P  P  4P Small amount of work done in stretching by distance
100
 P2 
'dx'
P2 P12 (4 P ) 2

K .E   K .E1   16   16 (K. E) ur uur

2m 2m 2m  2m  dw = Frdx = Frdx cos180
dw = (− kx)dx(−1)
∆K .E K .E1 − K .E 16 K .E − K .E
%change = × 100 = × 100 = × 100 dw = kxdx
K .E K .E K .E
= 1500%
 x2 
total work done = w = ∫ dw = ∫ kxdx = K  
Q. Momentum of body is increased by 100%. Find 2
1
the % change in the K.E. W= kx 2
2
Ans. P = P + 100% of P = 2 P ⇒ K .E = 4( K .E )
1 1

This work done is stored in spring as its potenlial

4 K .E − K .E
% change = ×100 = 300% energy
K .E
1 2
P.E= kx M.E = K.E + P.E
Q. K.E. of a body is increased by 300%, Find the 2
% change in its linear momentum. o≤x≤A

Ans. K .E1 = K .E + 300% of K .E = 4 K .E

P = 2mK .E ⇒ P1 = 2m(4 K .E ) = 2 ( )
2mK .E = 2 P x = A = ampleleale

P1 − P 2P − P
% change = × 100 = × 100 = 100%
P P
#Spring
(Helical)
P.E + K.E

Fr ∝ (-x) restoring force

Fr = -K(x) 1
T.E = KA2 = K.E +P.E
-ve sign shows that restoring force is in opposite 2
54
 1 1 K ( A2 − x 2 ) = 2 1 ( Kx 2 )
K .E = KA2 − P.E 2 2
2
A − x 2x
2 2 2
1 1
K .E = KA2 − Kx 2
2 2 3 x 2 = A2 ⇒ x = ± A 3

1 # Conservative Force: A type of force in which

K.E = K (A2-x2) work done on a body doesn't depend upon the path
2
followed by body. It only depends upon the inilial &
1 final postion of body
P.E = K x2
2 e.g. gravitational force, eleclnostatic force, spring
force
# Non Conservative Force: A type of force in which
T.E = ½Kx
2 work done depends upon the path followed by body.
Parabolic K.E e.g. frictional forces
Curve

P.E

x=-A x=0 x=A

[compress] [Stretch]

K.E = ½Ka2 = max P.E = 0 = min

mean Position Conservation Non Conservation

x=0 WI = WII = WIII WI ≠ WII ≠ WIII
1
P.E. = Kx 2 = 0 W closed path = 0 W closed path ≠ 0
2
# Power: If is defined as the time rate of doing work.
All energy is in the form of K .E
or
Extreme Position
work done per unit time.
x = ±A
W
P.E. = 1 2 Kx 2 = max Pavg = , Unit = Joule / sec = J / s = Watt (W )
T
K .E = 0 = min
1 KW = 1000 Watt = 1000 W
All energy is in the form of P.E
1 Horse Power = 746 W, 1 hp = 746 W
Q. At what Position K.E & P.E. of a spring are
equal ? #Instantaneous Power:

Ans. K.E. = P.E. at any instant power can be given

ur uur
dw d ur uur  w = F .dx 
P= = ( F .dx)
dt uur dt  ur uur 
 w = F .dx 
ur dx
P = F.
dt
ur r
P = F .v = Dot product of force & velocity
Q. At what position K.E. is twice the P.E. ?
Q. A man of weight 60 kg climbs up a stair case
Ans. K.E. = 2. P.E. carrying a level of 20 kg on his head. Find
the power of man if he has covered a vertical

55
 distance of 10 m in 20s. 5
10
Ans. m = 60 + 20 = 80 kg, h = 10m W 1000 × 60 Π × 10 × 22.5 12250
P= = = π Watt
W = mgh = 80x10x10 = 8000J, t= 20s t 3600 3
6
3
 30 + 15 45 
 h = = = 22.5m 
Q. An electric motor is used to lift and elevator 2 2 
and its load (total mass=1500 kg) to a height of
20m. The time taken by lift is 20s. What is the h = 22.5m
work done ? What is the rate of doing work, if
the efficiancy of lift is 75%. At what rate energy
30
is supplied to the motor. [g=10m/s2]
15
Ans. w= mgh = 1500 x 10 x 20 =30 x 104 = 3x105 J
W 3 × 105 4
Power = P = t = 20 = 1.5 × 10 W = output
Q. Two spring have force component K1 & K2
Poutput (K1>K2). On which spring is more work done
Efficiency = n = ×100
x if.
x= 75%, Poutput = 1.5 x u4 Pinput = ?
(i) they are stretched by same force
Poutput
Pinput = ×100 (ii) they are stretched by same amount
η
1.5 × 104 15 ×1000 ×100 Ans. (i) F1 = F2
Pinput = ×100 = = 2 ×104W
75 75 k1 x1 = k2 x2
Q. Water is pumped out of a well 10m deep by a x1 k1
=
pump rated at 10KW. Find the efficiency of x2 k2
motor if 4200 kg of water is pumped out every 1 k x2
W2
= 2
1 1
min.
W2 1 k2 x2 2
Ans. W= mgh = 4200 x 10 x 10 = 42 x 100 x 100 2
k x2
7 = 1 12
W 42  100 100 k2 x2
Poutput    7000 W 7KW
T 69
k1 k2  x1 k2 
2
Poutput 7 kw
  100   100  70% =
k2 k1  x2 k1 
2
Pinput 10kw

Q. A 30m deep well is having water upto 15m. An W1 k2

= <1
engine evacute it in one hour. Calculatoe the W2 k1
power of engine if diameter of the well is 4m. W1 < W2
[P= 1000kg/m3]

Ans. V = Πr 2 H = Π(2) 215 = Π (4)(15) = 60Π (ii) x1 = x2 = x

mass = m = density × value 1 k x2
k1
= 2
m = 1000 × 60Π × 10 × 22.5 W 1 1
1
= >1
W2 1 k x2 k2
2 2 2
W1 W1 > W2
>W 2

56
 7 System of Particles &
CHAPTER
Rotational Motion

Centre of Mass (COM):

4m 3m
It is a point where whole mass of body is supposed to D C

be concentrated.
for symmetric bodies, COM lies at the centre of body a a

COM of ring
A 2a B
m 2m

Ans. (x, y)
mA= m (O, O)
#C.O.M of a two parlicle system: mB= 2m (2a, O)
y
m1(x1y1) mC= 3m (2a, a)
mD= 4m (O, a)
m2(x2y2)
1
r

m1 x1 + m2 x2 + m3 x3 + m4 x4 m × 0 + 2m × 2a + 3m × 2a + 4m × 0
m
co

X com = = =a
r

m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 10m
2
r

m y + m2 y2 + m3 y3 + m4 y4 m × 0 + 2m × 0 + 3m × a + 4m × a 7 a
Y com = 1 1 = =
m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 10m 10
x
r r r
r1 = x1 $i + y1 $j r m1 r1 + m2 r 2  7a 
r ⇒ r com = rCOM =  a, 
r 2 = x $i + y $j
2 2 m1m2  10 
r
r com = xcom $i + ycom $j
Q. Find C.O.M. of the given system.
m ( x $i + y1 $j ) + m2 ( x2 $i + y2 $j )
xcom $i + ycom $j = 1 1
m1 + m2 C
3m
(m x + m2 x2 ) $ (m1 y1 + m2 y2 ) $
xcom $i + ycom $j = 1 1 i+ j
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
a a

m1 x1 + m2 x2 m y + m2 y2
X com = , Y com = 1 1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m 600 a /2 o 2m
A (o, o) a B (a, o)

Ans. mA = m (x, y)
Q. Find the C.O.M. of the given system.
= m (0, 0)
mB = 2m (a, o)

57
 a 3 
mc = 3m  , a
2 2 
1 R/6
O
a
m × 0 + 2m × a + 3m × A
xcom = 2 = 7 ma / 2 R/
2
6m 6m
7 R
= a
12
3 M
m × 0 + 2m × 0 + 3m × a pR2→M; mass per unit area =
2 = 3a π R2
ycom =  R M
2
 R
2

6m 4 π  → ×π  
 2 πR 2
 2
 7a 3 
rcom = , a
 12 4  M π R2 M
m1 = × =
3 π R2 4 4
CD = a sin 600 = a
2
R/
Q. Find the centre of mass of a uniform L-shaped O 2
lamina (a thin flat plate) with dimensions as 3M O A -M 
shown. The mass of the lamina is 3 kg. 4 (M) 2

or
(0,2) m mass
A surface density (ρ) =
m area
mass = ρ × area
(0,1)
Bm Cm M = ρ × ΠR 2
(1 2) (3 2) (1 2) ρ.(ΠR 2 ) M
& m1 = ρ × Π ( R 2 ) =
2
=
4 4
(0,2) m
Am

(0,1)
Bm Cm
(12) (3 2) (12)

(1,0) (2,0)

M = m4
(1,0) (2,0) 1

Ans. m ( x, y )
m× 1 + m× 1 +m× 3 ( ) O, co-ordinate for mass M (0, 0)
( )
A: m 1 , 3
2 2
xcom = 2
3m
2 2=5
6
B : m( 1 , 1 )
−M  R 
2 2 A, co-ordinate for mass  ,0
1 1 3 4 2 
m× +m× +m× −M  R 
(
C :m 3 , 1
2 2 )ycom = 2
3m
2 2=5
6
M ×0+  
4  2  − MR 4 −R
Xcom = = × =
(
rcom = 5 6 , 5 6 )  −M  8 2 3M 6
M + 
 4 
Q. From a uniform disc of radius R, a circular hole Ycom = 0
of radius R is cut out. The centre of hole is
2
R from the centre of disc locate the centre of Q. From a uniform circular disc of diameter D,
2 a circular disc of diameter D/6. & having its
mass of the resulting body. centre D/4 from the centre of disc is scooped
Ans. M: mass of original disc out. Determine the C.O.M. of remaining
portion.

58
Ans. R1 R2
P G
A B
K1 K2
D/12

O A W1 W

D/4 Ans. 54.88N & 43.12N

Velocity of centre of mass
M -M r r
36 r d ( r 1 ) d ( r 2)
ur m1 + m2 + ......
d rcom dt dt
O
1
O A Vcom = =
D/4 dt m1 + m2 + ......
2 r r
 D ur m1 v1 + m2 v 2 + ........
Π  → M
 2 V com =
m1 + m2 + ........
Mass per unit Area
Q. Two bodies of masses 10kg and 2kg are moving
4M
= with velocities 2i - 7j + 3k and -10i + 35j - 3k
πd 2 m/s respectively. Find the velocity of the centre
2
 D 4 M ΠD 2 of mass of the system.
Π  → ×
 12  ΠD 2 144
M Ans. 2k$ m / s
=
36 m1v1 + m2 v2
Vcom =
−M D m1 + m2
m×0+ ×
Xcom = 364 =
−M D
× ×
36 = 10(2i − 7 j + 3 k) + 2( −10 i + 35 j − 3k)
−M 12
20i −10 j + 30k 20i + 70j − 6 i
M 36 4 35M
36 =
12
−D 24
= ; Ycom = 0 = K = 2 K m /s
140 12
 −D 
C.O.M  ,0 Angular Velocity & Angular Acceleration
 140 
l
θ=
Q. A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its r x
centre. When two coins, each of mass 5g are l = rθ r
put on top of the other at the 12 cm mark, the x = rθ
stick is found to be balanced at 45cm. What is
the mass of the metre stick ? Diff w.r.t time,
Ans. 66g dx  dθ 
= r 
Q. A metal bar 70cm long and 4kg in mass is dt  dt 
supported on two knife-edges placed 10cm
from each end. And 6kg weight is suspended at dθ
ω= = Angular velocity
30 cm from one end. Find the reactions at the dt
knife-edge. (Assume the bar to be of uniform
cross section and homogeneous) Take g= 9.8 v = rω
m/s2
Diff agian wrt 't'
59
 dv d (ω ) consider a rigid body consisting of n particles of
= r. masses m1, m2 ................ mn & r1, r2, .............. rn be
dt dt the ⊥r distance of particles from axis of rotation
a=rα ω: Angular velocity of rigid body; v1, v2, v3 .............
vn be the linear velocity of particles respectively
K.E of first particle = K.E1 =
UNIT : rad/s
Dimension of angular velocity
[ω] = [T-1]

 θ
 for uniform ω , ω =
t  r
dω
α= = angular acceleration
dt
#Note: Angular velocity of all paticles in a rigid body
1 1 1
remain same = m1r12ω 2 + m2 r2 2ω 2 ............... + mn rn 2ω 2
2 2 2
1
v3

w
v2
Let us = (m1r12 + m2 r2 2 + ............... + mn rn 2 )ω 2
2
v3

assume two r1

discreate
m1 r3
m3

system
r2
1 2
m2
on comparing K.E = Iω
mw 2
or

1 2
Rotational K.E → K .E. = Iω
for all three parlicles, time period of one revolution
2
is same.
Here 'I' is known as moment of Inertia. It is the
Lets us assume time period is 't' Rotational analogue of mass.
θ 2π
ω= = = same for all three particles I= ∑m r1 1
2
= moment of inertia of rigid body about
t t given axis.
Moment of Inertia (M.O.I.)
Now v = rω → v ∝ r
M.O.I of a body about a given axis is equal to sum
i.e v3 > v2 > v1 of product of particles of body & square of their
#K.E of a rigid body in Rotational motion. perpendicular distance from axis of rotation.
ω

r1
r3
m1
r2 m3
m2 rω
m

60
 acceleration (α)

r1
∝
m1
r2

m2 rω
mn

ω0: initial angular velocity

n
ω: final angular velocity after time 't'
I = ∑ m ir i2
(i) First Equation's of Motion in Rotation
i =1
dω
n Angular acceleration is defined as α=
i.e I = ∑mr
i =1
i i
2 dt
Unit : Kgm2
ω = ω0+ αt
→ M.O.I plays the same role in rotation as mass play
in translatory motion
In case of Rotational In case of Translational
M.O.I depends upon. motion motion
(i) Size & shape of body. dω dv
α= a=
(ii) Distribution of particle (or mass) of rotation of dt dt
the body dω = α dt dv = adt
v t
(iii) Postion of axis from the rotation of the body. ω t

(iv) orientation of axis ∫ω dω = α ∫ dt ∫ dv = ∫ adt

u o
0 0
M.O.I of ring about an axis passing through its C.O.M [v]uv = a[t ]to
& ⊥ to its plane: [ω ]ω = α [t ]o
ω t
0
v = u + at
M: Mass of ring ω − ω 0 = α[t − 0]
R: Radius ω − ω 0 = αt
M.O.I. of 'dx' element R
(ii) Second Equation's of Motion in Rotation
 M  2 d
dI =  R dx 
 2ΠR 
2 ΠR
dt
M 2 d   dt
I = ∫ dI = ∫R dx
0
2ΠR
M 2 2 ΠR M 2
d  ( 0   t )dt
I= R [ x]0 = R [2ΠR − 0] = MR 2
2ΠR 2ΠR
t
  t 2
I = MR 2
[]   0t   
0
 2 0
# Equations of motion in Rotation using calculus
method.  t 2 
[  0]   0t   0
Consider a rigid body rotating with uniform angular  2 
61
(iii) Third Equation's of Motion in Rotation ω − ω0
dω α= =4 π rad / s 2
α= t
dt
(i) The angular acceleration of the engine
d ω dθ
α= . = 4π rad/s2
dθ dt
(ii) 
The angular displacement in time t is
dω  dθ  given by
α= .ω ω = dt 
dθ 1
θ ω θ =ω 0 t + α t 2
2
∫ α dθ =ω∫ ω.dω 1
0 0
= (40π × 16 + × 4π × 162 )rad
ω 2
ω 2 
α[θ ]0 =  
θ
= ( 640π + 512π ) rad
 2 ω 0
= 1152π rad
1
α[θ − 0] = [ω 2 − ω 02 ] 1152
2 Number of revolutions = =576
2π
ω2-ω20= 2αθ Q. A wheel starting from rest is rotating with a
const angular acc 3rad/s2. What is its (i) angular
velocity after 4s ? and (ii) angular displacement
Q. The angular speed of a motor wheel is increased
from 1200 rpm to 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. (i) Ans. ω = ω0+αt
What is its angular acceleration, assuming the = 0 + (3) (4) = 12rad/s
acceleration to be uniform? (ii) How many
revolutions does the engine make during this (ii) θ = ω t + 1 α t 2 = 24rad
0
time? 2
# Torque: (τ)
Ans. We shall use ω = ω0 + αt
Torque is the rotational analogue of force
ω0 = initial angular speed in rad/s
Fix Fix Fix Fix
r sin (Π-θ)
= 2π × angular speed in rev/s r sinθ

2π × angular speed in rev / min r

= Π-θ F
60 s / min r r r 90
0

θ=0
0
θ=180
0 θ F
2π × 1200 F
rad / s
F F
= 6
θ
60 τ= 0 τ= 0 τ≠0 τ≠0 6
= 40π rad / s
Torque = Force × ⊥r distance from the fix point or
Similarly ω = final angular speed in rad/s
axis of rotation to the line of action of force
2π × 3120 τ = F (r sinθ) [Sin (180-θ)=sinθ]
= rad / s
60
τ = F sinθ
= 2π × 52rad / s r r ur
= 104π rad / s τ =r×F
Angular acceleration

62
r r r
τ = r F sin θ τ1 = τ 2
θ = 00 or 1800
sin 00 = sin1800 = 0 θ = 900 [Sin 900 = 1 = max] r1F1= r2 F2
⇒τ =0 τ = rF = max
 r2 F1
r = F
 1 2

 r2 > 1 ⇒ F1 > 1

θ
in
r

rs
r2 r
 1 F2
F2
r1 θ F1 > F2
F
F1
θ Q. A car weighs 1800kg. The distance between
r
its front and back axles is 1.8m. Its centre
of gravity is 1.05m behind the front axis.
r ur Determine the force exerted by the ground on
Q. Given r = $i + 2 $j + 3k , F == i − j + k , find each front wheel and each back wheel.
torque.
rr ur R1
[Hint τ = r × F ]
R2
0.75m
1.8m
# Equilibrium Conditions 1.05m

To be in equilibrium the sum of net external force

acting on a particle must be zero. ω2
ω1
ω = ω1 + ω1
ur
i.e. ∑F = 0 To be in Translational Equilibrium
Translatory Equilibrium
ur ur ur W1 + W2 = 1800 × 10 [ g = 10m / s 2 ]
Net force = 0; ∑ Fx = 0; ∑ F y = 0∑ Fz = 0 or
ur ur ur R1 + R2 = 18000 (i )
F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + ............. = 0
Rotational Equilibrium: Rotational Equilibrium :

Net torque = 0 τ1 = τ 2
r r1 N1 = r2 N 2
∑τ = 0 0.75 N1 = 1.05 N 2
N1 105 7 7 N2
F1 F2 = = ⇒ N1 =
N 2 75 5 5
r1
now N1 + N 2 = 18000
r2
ω 7 N2
+ N 2 = 18000
r r ur 5
τ 1 = r1 × F 1 = r1F1[θ = 900 ] 12 N 2
r r ur = 18000
τ 2 = r 2 × F 2 = r2 F2 5
r r N 2 = 7500 N ⇒ N1 = 10500 N
τ1 + τ 2 = 0
r r N 2 7500
τ 1 = −τ 2 force on each front wheel = = = 3750 N
2 2

63
  4  3Π   3 
T1   d =  (2 − d )
 5  4   5 
N1 10500 16d = 18 − 9d
force on each back wheel = = = 5250 N
2 2 25d = 18
18
Q. A non uniform bar of weight 'W' is suspended at d= = 0.72m
rest by two strings of neglisible weight as shown 25
below. The angle made by the strings with the
vertival are 36.90 and 53.10 respectively. The Q. A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its
bar is 2m long. Calculate the distance 'd' of the centre. When two coins, each of mass 5 g are
centre of gravity of the bar from it left end. put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark
the stick is found to be balanced at 45cm. What
is the man of the metre stick ?
0
=37
0
0 0 0
0
s5 3 53.1 53
36.9 cos3
7
T 2co 12 cm
23 cm
T1 5 cm

T1 0 0 T2 10g 33 m (ing)
37 2m 53 5 45 cm
O O 50 cm
0
T1sin37 2-d T2sin53
0
(Let) origin
45
d 50 cm
m r + m2 r2
rcom = 1 1
m1m2
m(5) + (10)(−33)
0= ⇒ 5m − 330 = 0
Net force = o m + 10
5m = 330
T1 cos370 + T2 cos530 = W .........(i)
m = 66 g
T1 sin370 = T2 sin530 ........(ii)

 3  4
T1   = T2  
 5  5
use: m1r1= m2r2
3
use, Sin(370 ) =
5
4
Sin(530 ) =
5 #Angular Momentum:
ur r ur
3T1= 4T2 ......(iii) L=r× p
Rotational Equlitrium r ur
r ⊥ P ⇒ L = rp = rmv = mvr v
(T1 cos370)d = T2 cos530 (2-d) r ur
 4  3T   3  r⊥P
T1   d =  1    (2 − d ) ur uur
 5  4   5 r ur
T1cos370 T2cos530 L=mvr r ⊥ P [ P = mv]
370 530

#Relation b/w Angular momentum & M.O.I

T1 T2

0
T1sin37 T2sin530

Let no. of particles = n

64
m1, m2, .......................... mn be the masses of partcles
rn whose ⊥ distance from axis of rolation is r1, r2, r3 v
...................... rn r1
r2
m1
rn m2
mn
r1
r2
m1
rn m2 F = ma
mn
r ur
Troue on first particle τ1 = r1 × F 1
r
= r1F1 [θ = 90]
ω: angular velocity of rigid body τ1 = r1m1a1
angular momentum of first particle = l1 = m1 v1 ω 1 τ1 = m1r1 (r1α )

= m1 (r1 ω)r1 τ1 = m1r12α

= m1 r12 ω τ 2 = m2 r2 2α
Similarly angular momentum of second particle = L2 similarly for nth particle
=m2 r12 ω
τ n = mn rn 2α
angular momentum of nth particle, Ln = mn rn2 ω Net torque (τ) =

L4 =m2γ1 ω 2
τ1 + τ 2 + .............................. + τ n
Total angular momentum
= (m1r12 + m2 r2 2 .................. + mn rn 2 )α
L = L1+ L2 + ....................... + Ln n

= (m1r12 + m2r2 +.......................+ m4r42)w

= (∑ m1r12 )α
i =1

L = (∑ mi ri ) w
2
= (τ = I ∝)
τ = I α This expression is similar to F = ma
L = Iω
#Relation between Torque & Angular Momentum
uur
Analogue r dl
L=IW P = mv
τ=
↓ dt
L = IW
Rate of change of angular momentum is equal to
torque
r r ur
#Relation between Angular acceleration & M.O.I Proof l = r × p
Let no of particles = n on Differentiating both side
uur uur uur
m1, m2 ........................ mn : masses of particles dL d r ur dr ur r dP
= (r × p) = ×P+r×
r1, r2, r3, ........................ rn : ⊥ distance of particles dt dt r ur r ur dt
dt
from axis of rolation =u×P+r ×F
a : Angular acceleration of rigid body. r r ur
vP sin θ + r × F

65
Since velocity and linear momentum are is same Hint
direction Hence θ =0
[solar mass = 1.9x1030kg]
θ =0 [MOI of solid spherical body about diameter =
ur
dL 2
MR 2 ]
dt 5
r ur r
= r×F =τ Ans. Using anservation of Angular momentum

or Linital = Lfinal
uur I1ω1 = I2ω2
dL r
i.e =τ
dt ur ur
L = Iω
uur uuur 2
dL dω R
=I = Iα = τ ω 2 = ω1  1 
dt dt R  2
τ = Iα 2
−6  10 
6
#Conservation of Angular Momentum
= 10  4 
It states that when external torque acting on a body or  10 
system is zero, Angular momentum of body or system ω 2 = 10−2 rod / s
is conserved.
uur Q. A child stands at the centre of a turntable with
r dL his two arms outstretched. The turntable is
using τ =
dt uur set rotating speed of the child if he folds his
r dL hands back and there by reduces his moment of
when τ = 0 ⇒ =0⇒ inertia to times the initial value ? Assume that
dt ur the turntabale rotates without friction show that
This is possible only when L = const.
the child's new K.E of rotation is more that the
L= Iω = const. initial kinetic energy of rotation. How do you
account for this increase in Kinetic energy?
Here,
2
I= ∑mr i i
2
ω 2 = 40rpm, I 2 = I1 , ω 2 = ?
5
• Application of conservation of angular momentum
• Ice skates or figure skates can increase or dcercase (i) I1ω1= I2ω2
their angular speed by folded or outstretch their
body. 2
I1 (40) = I 2ω 2 ⇒ ω 2 = 100rpm
5
• Planet revolve around sun, during revolution
Angular momentum of system remain covserved.
Q. A star of mass twice the solar mass & radius
106 km rotate about its axis with ω = 10-6
rad/s. What is the angular speed of star when it 10Π
collapse (due to internal gravitational force to a
= rad / s
3
radius of 104 km)

66
 1 (i) What is its angular acceleration, assuming
( K .E )i = I1ω12 the acceleration to be uniform? (ii) How many
2
2 revolutions does the engine make during this
( K .E )i  I1   ω1 
( K .E ) f = 1 2 I 2ω ⇒
2
= time?
( K .E ) f  I 2   ω 2 
2
Ans. (i) 4π rad/s2, (ii) 576
Q2. A child stands at the centre of a turntable with
his two arms outstretched. The turntable is set
rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min.
How much is the angular speed of the is set
rotating with an angular speed of 40 rev/min.
How much is the angular speed of the child if

he folds his hands back and thereby reduces his
( K .F )i 5 4 2 moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial vlaue
= × = <1
( K .F ) f 2 25 5 ? Assume that the turntable rotates without
friction. (b) Show that the child's new kinetic
(K.E)l < (K.E) f energy of rotation is more than the initial
Q. If earth were to be suddenly contract to half of kinetic energy of rotation. How do you account
its present radius (without any external torque) for this increase in kinetic energy ?
by what duration would the day be deereased ? Ans. 100 rpm
2 Q3. A rope of negligible mass is wound round a
Given I = MR 2
5 hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius 40 cm.
Ans. Using convervation of angular momentum What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder
if the rope is pulled with a force of 30N? What
R1
Given R2 = is the linear acceleration of the rope? Assume
2 that there is no slipping.
 θ 2Π 
I1ω1 = I 2ω 2 ω = t = T  Q4. An automobile moves on a road with a speed of
54km/h. The radius of its wheel is 0.35m.What
is the average negative torque transmitted by
2  2Π  2  2Π  its brakes to a wheel if the vehicle is brought to
MR12   = MR12 
5  T1  5  T2  rest in 15s? The moment of inertia of the wheel
about the axis of rotation is 3kgm2
2
 R2 
2
 R1  Ans. 8.57 kgm2s-2
T2 =   T1 ⇒  2  (24)
 R1   R1  Q5. A grindstone has a moment of inertia of 6kgm2.
24 A constant torque is applied and the grindstone
= = 6h is found to have a speed of 150rpm, 10 seconds
4 after starting from rest. Calculate the torque.
decreased duration = 24 - 6h = 18h Ans. 3πNm
Q. What will be the duration of day, if earth Q6. Torques of equal magnitude are applied to a
sudelenluy shrinks to 1 of its original volume, hollow cylinder and a solid sphere, both having
64
mass remaining same the same mass and radius. The cylinder is free
to rotate about its standard axis of symmetry,
Ans. 1.5 hrs.
and the sphere is free to rotate about an axis
Q1. The angular speed of a motor wheel is increased passing through its centre. Which of the two
from 1200 rpm to 3120 rpm in 16 seconds. will acquire a greater angular speed after a
67
 given time. Z

Q7. The moments of inertia of two rotating bodies O

A and B are IA and IB (IA > IB ) and their angular
Y

momenta are equal. Which one has a greater X

rotational kinetic energy?

Sol. IX = IY
Ans. B
IZ = IX + IY
Q8. The moments of inertia of two rotating bodies A
= 2 IX
and B are IA and IB (IA > IB) and their rotational
kinetic energies are equal. Which one has a MR 2
greater angular momentum? IZ =
2
Ans. A MR 2
Q9. A cord of negligible mass is wound around
2I Z =
2
the rim of a fly wheel of mass 20kg and radius
20cm. A steady pull of 25N is applied on the MR 2
I X = IY =
cord as shown in fig. The flywheel is mounted 4
on a horizontal axle with frictionless bearings.
Theoram of Parallel axis
The MOI of a body about any axis is equal to the sum
M = 20kg
R = 20 cm of the MOI of the body about a parallel axis passing
through its centre of mass and the product of its
mass and the square of the distance between the two
parallel axis.
I = IZ + Ma2
F = 25N
Example
1. Compute the angular acceleration i. of the wheel.
Find the MOI of a body (rod) of mass M, lenght 'l'
2. Find the work done by the pull, when 2m of the about an axis ⊥r to it through one end.
cord is unwounded.
ML2
3. Find also the kinetic energy of the wheel at this For the rod of mass 'M' and length 'L' I =
joint. Assume that the wheel starts from rest. 12
using the parallel axes theorem,
Ans. 12.5 rad/s2, 50J & 50J I1 = I + Ma2 = l/2, we get
#Theorem of parallel axis & perpendicular axis I1 = I2 +Ma2
Theoram of perpendicular axis- The MOI of a
planar body (lamina) about an axis perpendicular
to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axis concurrent with
perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.
IZ = IX + IY
Q. What is the moment of Inertia of a disc about
one of its diameters.

68
 2
l2  l2 
=M +M 
12  2 r1 r2
2 2
Ml Ml m1 m2
= + M K
12 4 rw
m3 r3
ML2 + 3ML2 mw
=
12
4 ML2
=
123 I = MK 2 = ∑ mi ri 2
1 ML2
I = K= radius of Gyration
3
Radius of gyration of a sphere Ring, Disc, Rod,
Cylinder
1. Ring
a. MOI of ring about an axis passing throught its
COM & ⊥ to plane. A
M1R
IAB = MR2
MK2 = MR2 ⇒ Radius of
gyration K=R B

Radius of Gyration The radius of gyraation 'K' of a b. MOI of ring about an axis ⊥ to
body about a siven line is defined by the equation. its plane & passing theorem one of its point.
A C
I = MK2 Using theorem of parallel axis

Example ICD = IAB + MR2 R

Find the radius of gyration of a uniform disc of radius = MR2 + MR2

B D
'r' about its axis. ICD = 2MR2
MR 2 I MK2 = 2MR2
I= K2 =
2 M K = 2R
I M × R2
K= = c. MOI of ring about one of its diameter
M 2×M A
ID
R
K=
2 ID
ID
Note
The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be ID
defined as the distance from the axis of a mass point
whose mass is equal to the mass of the whole body B
and whose MOI is equal to the MOI of the body about Using Theorem of ⊥ axis
the axis.
69
 1 A

IT = ID + MR 2
MK = MK2
2
2
1 1
= ID = I AB = MR 2 K = R / 2
2 2
B

d. MOI of ring about one of its tangent in same

plane A

ID
IT = I D + MR 2 ID
1
= MR 2 + MR 2
ID
2 ID
B
3
IT = MR 2
2
Using therom of ⊥ axis
IAB = ID + ID = 2ID
MK = 3 2 MR 2
2
I =a
2 ID =
1 1
IAB = MR2 ⇒ K = R
MK = a 4 2
K = 32R 2
d. MOI of disc about one of its tangent in same
a
K= plane.
2. Disc: M ID IT

a. MOI of Disc about an axis passing through its

com & ⊥ to plane
R
1
I AB = MR 2
2
MK 2 = MR 2 / 2
IT = I D + MR 2
⇒K= R 1
2 = MR 2 + MR 2
4
b. MOI of Disc about an axis ⊥ to its plane &
5 5
passing through one of its end point [or tangent IT = MR 2 ⇒ 5 R = R
⊥ to plane] 4 4 2
ICD = IAM + MR2 3. Rod:
1
= MR 2 + MR 2 (i) M.O.I of rod about an axis passing through its
2
3
C.O.M. & ⊥ to its length.
I CD = MR 2 ⇒ K = 32R
2 A
A

c. MOI of Disc about one of its diameter ML2

I AB =
12 L
L
K=
12 B

70
(ii) M.O.I of rod about an axis ⊥ to length of rod & B
pasing through one of its end.
A C

2
I AB = MR 2
3 A

L/ L/ b. M.O.I of Hollow sphere about any targent

2 2 IT B
IT = I AB + MR 2
B D 2
IT = MR 2 + MR 2 R
2 3
 L 5
I CD = I AB + M   IT = MR 2
 2 3 A
2
ML
= I AB + a. M.O.I of Hollow sphere about its diameter
4
B
ML ML2 ML2
2
L
I CD = + = ⇒K=
12 4 3 3
4. Cylinder 2
I AB = MR 2
Hollow Cylinder 3 A

↓
b. M.O.I of solid sphere any of its targent.

IT = I AB + MR 2
A B
I T B

2
= MR 2 + MR 2
IAB = MR2

5
Solid Cylinder
7
↓ IT = MR 2
5 A
Disc
#Expression for center of mass of two particle
system:
A B
Consider a system ofr particles
r
having masses m1 &
m2 & postion vector r1 & r 2 .
r r r
1
IAB = 2 MR2
ur r d v1 d  d r1  d 2 r1
5. Sphere f 1 = m a1 = m1 = m1  = m1 2
dt dt  dt  dt
Hollow Sphere r
ur d 2 r2
a. M.O.I of Hollow sphere about its diameter & f 2 = m2 2
dt

71
 y
f1 m1(x1y1)
lamina
8m
m2(x2y2)
Orgin 0

1
r

m
co
r
f2

2
r
2m
A
x

3m 3m
 dv d  dx  d 2x 
 a = dt = dt  dt  a = dt 2  B
  6m
d d d d d 
 dx ( K . f ( x)) = K dx ( f ( x)) dx ( f ( x) + g ( x)) = dx f ( x) + dx g ( x) 

Total force on system = 2m

ur ur ur
F = f1+ f 2
2
r 2
r A(0, − 1), mA = 16ρ
ur d r1 d r2
F = m1 2 + m2 2 A(0, − 1), mB = 12ρ
dt dt
2
d r d2 r r m y + m2 y2 16ρ(−1) + 12ρ(−5) −76ρ
= 2 (m1 r1 ) + 2 (m2 r 2 ) ry = 1 1 = =
dt dt m1 + m2 16ρ + 12ρ 28ρ
ur d 2 r r −76 −19
F = 2 (m1 r1 + m2 r 2 ) = =
dt 28 7
r r
ur d 2  m1 r1 + m2 r 2  r  −19 
F = (m1m2 ) 2  r  (i ) r com =  0, m
dt  m1 r1  7 
r
Let = r.com = position vector of C.O.M. of system Q. Show that velocity of center of mass remain
ur constant while external force acting on the
F : Total force acting on system system is zero.
r
ur 2
d (r com ) Ans. ur r
F : (m1+m2) (ii ) F = M a com
ur r
dt 2 When F = 0 ⇒ M a com = 0
r
⇒ a com = 0
r
d v com
⇒ =0
rdt
d v com
⇒ =0
F (m1 + m2) dt
this is possible only when
r
⇒ v com = constant
Path of centre of man is parabolic
r r
r m1 r1 + m2 r 2
r
from eq (i) & (ii) com = m2
m1 + m2 m
u
Q. Find the position of the centre of mass of the
m1
given body whose mass density (mass per unit area)
is ρ.

72
#Expression for torque x = r cos θ
Expression for work done in rotational motion diff . w.r. to 'θ '
ur ur
W = F. x dx d
=r (cos θ )
dw = τ .dθ dθ dθ
dx
w = τ .d = r (− sin θ )
dθ
#Expression for work done in rotational motion: dx = −(r sin θ ) dθ
r
r = x($i) + y ( $j ) ⇒ d (r$ ) = dx($i) + dy ( $j ) r = r dx = − ydθ (iii )
r Put values of dy & dx in Eq (i)
work done in displacing the position by d γ after
aplying force F dw = Fx (− ydθ ) + Fy xdθ
y
Fy F dw = ( xFy − yFx)dθ
dr dw = τ z dθ [dw = F .dx]
Fx in General
r
dθ y W = τ .θ .
θ x
x r r ur
ur r τ =r×F
dw = F .d r
 i j k$ 
= ( Fxi$ + Fy $j ).(dxi$ + dy $j )  
= x y z
dw = Fxdx + Fy dy (i)
 Fx Fy Fz 
Now
= i ( yFz − zFy ) − j ( xFz − zFx )
y x
sin θ = cos θ = + k$ ( xFy − yFx)
r r r
d τ = τ xi$ + τ y $j + τ z k$
(sin x) = cos x
dx
d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx
y
sin θ =
r
y = r sin θ
Diff . w.r. to 'θ '
dy d (sin θ )
=r
dθ dθ
dy
= r cos θ
dθ
dy = (r cos θ )dθ
dy = xdθ (ii )
73
 8 Gravitation
CHAPTER

• It is independent of medium between two masses

#Newtons law of Gravitation: It states that
gravitational force of attraction b/w two point mass • It is independent of presence of other masses and
in univerce is directly proportional to product of their also independent to the presence of the medium
masses & inversely proportional to square of distance A(m)
between them.
m1 a a
F1 1
F12 F13 F

B(m) F2 a C(m)
m2 m3
A
F23

F ∝ m1m2
Q. Find the net force on mass 'm' placed at B.
1
F ∝ 2 ( Inverse square law)
r Gm 2
Ans. F1 = = f ( say )
mm Gm1m2 a2
F ∝ 12 2 ⇒ F=
r r2 Gm 2
F2 = 2 = f ( say )
a
G : Universal gravitational constant i.e F1=F2=F
G= 6.67 x 10 -11
Nm kg
2 -2
F1 : Resultant of F1 & F2
[G] = [M-1L3T-2]
F 1 = F12 + F2 2 + 2 F1 F2 cos 600
• Gravitaional force is attractive in nature
• It follows inverse square law F 1 = F 2 + F 2 + 2F 2 1 ( 2) = 3F 2 = 3F
• It is a conservative force. 1 Gm 2
F = 3 2
• It is the weakest force in nature a
• Gravitational force acts along the line joining the
centre of two masses.
m1 r m2 Q.

| F12 | | F21 |
ur ur Gm1m2 Where should a mass M be placed on line
F 12 = F 21 = joining the centres of masses M & 4m so that
r2 net force on M is Zero.

74
Ans. ur ur ur GmM GM
F c = 0, F 1 = F CA = g=
x2 R2
ur ur G (4m) M 1
i.e F 2 = F CB = g ∝ 2 , if M is constant
(a − x) 2 R
ur ur ur
F c = 0 ⇒ F1 = F 2
GM
g=
GMm G (4 m) M R2
=
x2 (a − x) 2 let us assume ' ρ' is the average density of planet
(a − x) 2 = 4 x 2  M
a − x = 2x  ρ =  ⇒ M = ρ × V
V
3x = a G 4
g = 2 × ρ × ΠR 3
x = a3 R 3

4
g = ΠGρ R
3 or g ∝ ρ R & g ∝ ρ
if; ρ constant; g ∝ R
#Relation between 'g' (acceleration due to gravity)
& 'G' (universal gravitational constant) Q. If radius of a planet is doubled keeping its
velocity constant. Find how will the 'g' changes.
let us assume that 'M' is the mass of the planet & 'R'
is the radius 4
Ans. g = ΠGρ R ⇒ g = 2 g ; R = 2 R
1 1

3
g∝R

#Variation of 'g' with Altitude

m
A m

h
∝=
R+h
m : Mass of an object placed at the surface of planet A m
R M
M
W = (weight of body) = mg (i) M
Planet M

[It is the force with which planet attract the body

towards it self]
GMm M : Mass of Planet.
Force on 'm' due to 'M' ⇒ F = ___(ii )
R2 R : Radius of planet
g : acceleration due to gravity at the surface of planet
GM (at A)
g= 2
R g = acceleration due to
GM
gravity i.e g = (i )
R2
g1 : acceleration due to gravity at an altitude 'h' (i.e
at A)
75
 GM General Formula
1
g = (ii )
( R + h) 2 1 R2 
g = g
divide Eq (ii) by Eq (i)  ( R + h) 2 
or
divide eq (ii) by eq (i) g
g1 = 2
1
GM / ( R + h ) 2 2  h
g R
 1 +
=
GM
=
(R + h )2 RE 
g
R2
g1 R2
g1 R2 =
= g ( R + h) 2
g ( R + h) 2
Q. Find the height at which value of 'g' reduce to
36% of its value on the surface of earth.
approximation Ans. g 1 = 36% of g
2
   g 
= 36 × 
 100 
2
g1  R   1 
=  =
g  R + h 1+ h  36 g
  =
R 100
2
g1 1 1  h  6
2
= 2 ⇒ g = g / 1 +  =  g
g  h  R  10 
1 + 
R 2
1  3
g =  g
using binomial expansion  5
(1 + x) n ≈ 1 + n.x when,  g1 3
= (i )
  g 5
 x << 1 
eg (1 + 0.02)3 = 1 + 3 × 0.02 = 1.06   2
  using g 1  R 
=  (ii )
g  R + h
 2h 
g 1 = g 1 −   R   3
2 2

 R  Note: This is an approximated   = 

formula. It is used only when R + h   5
h << R R 3
= ⇒ 5R = 3R + 3h
g1 = g [% Change in g ∝ 5%] R+h 5
2R
2 R = 3h ⇒ h =
3

Q. Find the height at which value of g reduce by

36% of its value which is on the surface of
earth.

76
 2 2 g
1 64  8  4
Ans. g = 64% of g = g =  g =  g g = GM
100  10   5
2
R
2
g1  4 
=  (i )
g  5
2
g1  R 
=  (ii )
g  R + h r
Centre Surface
R 4
i.e = ⇒h= R4 Q1. The acceleration due to gravity at the moon's
R+h 5
surface is 1.67m/s2. If the radius of the moon is
1.74x106m, calcuate the mass of the moon.
#Variation of g with depth.
Ans. 7.58 x 1022 kg.
M : Mass of Planet.
Q2. A body weighs 90N on the surface of the earth.
R : Radius of planet.
How much will it weigh on the surface of Mars
g : acceleration due to gravity at the surface of planet whose mass is 1/9 and radius is 1 2 of that of
(i.e A) earth.
GM G 4 4 Ans. 40N
i.e g= = 2 × ρ × ΠR 3 = ΠρGR (i )
R2 R 3 3
g1 : acceleration due to gravity at depth 'd' Q3. What is the fractional decrease in the value of
free-fall acceleration g for a particle when it is
GM 1 G 4 4
g1 = 2
= 2
× ρ × Π( R − d )3 = ΠρG ( R − d ) lifted from the surface to an elevation h ? (h <
(R − d ) (R − d ) 3 3 < R)
(ii )
1
1 Ans. d ( g ) = −2  h 
g R−d d R−d g  R
= = 1−
g R R <1
R
Q4. If the radius of the earth shrinks by 2%, mass
g1 remaining constant, then how would the values
 d <1
g 1 = g 1 −  g of acceleration due to gravity change ?
 R
g1 < g Ans. 4%
Q5. A man can jump 1.5m high on the earth.
i.e value of g dcereases if we move away from the Calculate the approximate height he might be
surface of planet. (Alltitude/depth) able to jump on a planet whose density is one-
GM quarter that of earth and whose radius is one
Value of g is maximum at the surface = third of the earth's radius.
R2
Ans. 18m
→ Value of g at the center of the planet Q6. Calculate the height from the surface of the
earth at which the value of g is 81% of the
i.e d=R
value at the surface.
 d  R
g 1 = g 1 −  = g 1 −  = 0 ( weight − lessness ) Ans. R/9 (= 711.1 km)
 R  R
Q7. At what depth below the surface of earth, value
of acceleration due to gravity is same as the
value at height h=R, where R is the radius of
earth.
77
 3
Ans. d= R M r m=1 (unit mass)
4
dx
A F
Q8. At what height above the earth's surface, the Fix dx
at∞

value of g is half of its value on earth's surface

?
Small amount of work done in moving unit mass
Ans. (2 − 1R) (m=1) by distance 'dx' towards M.
ur uur
Q9. Calculate the depth below the surface of earth dw = F .dx = Fdx cos00 = Fdx
where the acceleration due to gravity is 2% of
its value at the earth's surface.  GM (1)   Gm1m2 
dw =  .dx  F =
Ans. 6272 km  x 
2
r 2 
Q10. Find the value of g at a height of 400km above r
GM
the earth surface. Given R= 6400 km, (g=9.8m/ Total work done = w = ∫ dw = ∫ 2 dx
x
s2.) ∞
r
Ans. 8.57m/s2. = GM ∫ x 2 dx
∞
Q11. A body weighs 63N on the surface of the earth. r
What is the gravitational force on it due to the  x −1 
= GM  
earth at a height equal to half the radius of the  −1  ∞
earth ? r
 −1 
Ans. 28N. = GM  
 x ∞
Q12. How much would a body weigh half way down 1 1 
to the center of the earth if it weighed 250N on = −GM  − 
the surface. r ∞
1 
Ans. 125N W = −GM  − 0 
r 
#Gravitational Potential: −GM
W=
Gravitational Potential due to a point mass at a point r
is equal to amount of work done in bringing a unit
mass from infinity to a particular point.
This work done is equal to gravitational Potential (V)
−GM
V= −GM
r V=
→ Scalar quanity i.e r
Force attractive V : -ve
Nm 2
.kg Repulsive force V : +ve
kg 2
Unit : Note :
m
• Gravitational potential is always - ve : Gravitational
N .m
= force is an attractive force.
kg
• Gravitational potential is a scalar quantity
Joule
= • Vmax = 0 [at infinity]
kg
#Gravitational Potential Energy:

78
GP.E of a system of masses is equal to amount of work Q. Find G.P.E of the system
done in bringing various masses to their respective
position from infinity to a particular point slowly or
−Gm1m2
U=
without any acceleration : r
G.P.E of a system of two masses
M r m
dx
A F
Fix
x at ∞
dx

Work done in moving mass 'm' by distance 'dx'

towards M.
ur uur
dw = F .dx = F dx cos 00 = F dx Ans. U = UAB + UBC + UAC

GMm  Gm1m2  Insert

dw = dx  F =
x2 r 2  −G (2m)(m) −G (2m)(3m)
= +
a a
Total work done =
−G (3m)(m)
r
GMm +
w = ∫ dw = ∫ dx a
x2
∞
−2Gm 6Gm 2 3Gm 2
2
r
 n x n+1  = − −
= GMm∫ x −2dx ∫ = a a a
n + 1 
x dx
∞ 
−11Gm 2
U=
r

x  −1
= GMm   a
 −1  ∞ Q. Find G.P.E of the given system.
r

 −1  1 1  m a m
= GMm   ⇒ −GMm  +  A B
 x ∞  r ∞
 1 −1 
=− GMm  r ∞ 
 
2a

a a
1 
W = −GMm  r − 0 
 
−GMm D C
W=
r m a m
This workdone is equal to Potential energy of system-
ve sign indicate that force is attractive
Ans. U = UAB + UBC + UCD + UAD + UAC + UBD
−GMm
U= = 4 (UAB) + 2 (UAC)
r
−GM  −GM 
U= .m = V (m) V =
r r 

79
  −Gm 2   −Gm 2 
= 4 + 2
 a   2a 

−4Gm 2 2Gm 2 Earth

= −
a a
2
−Gm
U= [4 + 2]
a
(i) Orbital velocity It is horizontal velocity given
Q. Find the work down of masses at A,B & C are to a setellite so that it Revolve around the planet.
taken to D, E & F respectively
M, R : Mass & radius of planet
−Gm1m2
U= m : mass of satellite
a
h : altitude of satellite
m A v0: Orbital velocity
GMm
Gravitational force b/w satellite & Planet =
F m r2
a/2 NASA
D
ISRO
a/2 a/2
C B
3m E 2m
a

−11Gm 2
Ans. U2 = UAB + UBC + UAC = mv02
a Centripetal force on satellite =
r
−11Gm 2 −22Gm 2 Gravitational force provides the required centripetal
Uf = UDE + UEF + UDF = =
a/2 a force

i.e⇒
mv02 GMm GM
= ⇒ v02 =
W = Uf - Ui = −22Gm −  −11Gm 
2 2
2
r r r
a/2  a 
−11Gm 2
W= GM GM
a V0 = =
#Satellite : 
An object which revolves around an r R+h
heavy object due to gravitentional field is
#Note : 
called a satellite
• It is independent of mass of satellite
Natural satellite : Moon
• With increase in r ⇒ v0 decrease
Artificial satellite : Man made satellite
• Satellite near to the planet has higher velocity as
compared to a satellite far away from Planet.
• Near the surface of earth
r = R + h ≈ R [= 6400 km]

80
 GM GM gR 2 i.e ( R + h)3 R3  GM 
T = 2Π ≈ 2Π  g = R 2 
v0 = ≈ = MG GM
r R R
R3
≈ 2Π
GM
v0 = gR ≈ 7.91 km/s R
T ≈ 2Π , R = 6400 km
g
g = 9.8m / s 2
(ii) Time Period of satellite: (T) Time taken by T ≈ 84.6 min
satellite to complete one revolution
(iii) Height of satellite :
2Πr r
T= = 2Πr ( R + h)3
V0 GM T = 2Π
GM
3
2 ( R + h)
[ x = x2 ] 2
T = 4Π
GM
2
GMT
r 2 (r ) ( R + h)3 =
T = 2Π 4Π 2
GM  GMT 2 
1
3
R+h=  2 
 4Π 
r3 ( R + h)3
T = 2Π = 2Π
GM GM  GMT 2 
1
3

⇒squaring on both side h= 2 

−R
 4Π 
2 4π 2  (iv) Energy of a satellite :
T =  ( R + h)3
 GM 

T ∝ r 3 or T 2 ∝ r 3
or
3
T ∝r 2
(r = ( R + h))
#Note : 
(i) 4
M = ρ × ΠR 3
3 T.E. of a satellite = M.E
3 3 3
( R + h) 3( R + h) 3Π( R + h) M.E. = K.E + P.E.
T = 2Π = 2Π =
4 4 Π ρ R 3
G ρ R3G
ρ × ΠR G 3

3 −GMm
P.E. = (i )
r
(ii) Near the surface of earth r = R + h ≈ R
1 1  GM  GMm
K.E. = M .V02 = m  = (ii )
2 2  r  2r
 GM 
V0 = 
 r 

81
 ur r
GMm  1  GMm  −1 −GMm dw = F .d x = Fdx cos0 = Fdx
T.E. = K.E. + P.E. =  −1 +  =  =
r  2 r  2 2r ∞
GMm GMm
dw = 2 dx ⇒ W = ∫ dW = ∫ 2 dx
x x
−GMm R
T .E . = ∞
 x −2+1 
∞
 x −1 
∞
2r = GMm∫ x dx = GMm 
−2

−2 + 1  = GMm  −1 
-ve sign indicate that satellite is bounded to planet i.e R  R  R
it can not leave orbit by its own. use
∞
Note 1  n x n+1 
= −GMm   ∫ x dx =
n + 1 
(i) K.E. = -T.E  x R 
P.E. = 2T.E 1 1  1
= −GMm  −  = −GMm 0 − 
Q. If T.E of a satellite is Eo, what are its K.E & P.E ∞ R   R
choose the correct option GMm
W=
a. Eo, Eo b. -Eo, 2Eo R
c. Eo, -2Eo d. 1.5 Eo, -2Eo This workdone (Energy) is supplied to body in terms
of K.E.
#Escape velocity : It is the minimum velocity given
to an object so that it crosses the gravitational field of 1 GMm
planet & never comes back to it. i.e mVe2 = ⇒ Ve = 2GM
2 R R
M, R : Mass & radius of planet
M.R m OR using the concepts of using conservation of energy
M
R m
dx at  (T .E ) A = ( P.E ) A + ( K .E ) A
R A ve m Fix T.E = 0 −GMm 1 2
= + mve
x R 2
(T .E )∞ = ( P.E )∞ + ( K .E )∞
M : Mass of object −GMm
Ve : Escape velocity of object from surface (i.e A)
= +0
∞
Small amount of work done in displacing the object = 0+0= 0
by 'dx'
conservation of energy (T .E ) = (T .E )
A ∞

−GMm 1 2
+ mve = 0
R 2

2GM
2GM V =
Ve2= ⇒ e R
R

82
Ve = 11.2 km / s Q. Find Resultant force on M (at controid) due to
masses at the vertices.
V = 2Ve , V 1 = V 2 − Ve2 = ( 2Ve)2 − Ve2 m
A m

= 4Ve2 − Ve2 a a

M a F1
M O a
2
= 3V
F3
F2 
e

= 3Ve
m m
m m B a C
a

= 3(11.2) GMm

= 1.732(11.2)km / s
F1 = F2= F3 = =F

F1 = F

Q26.
M

F2 F3

1
F =F

M (Ve)1 1 1 Let Resultant of F2 & F3 be F 1

Ve ∝ = =
R (Ve) 2 8 2 2
F 1 = F22 + F32 + 2 F2 F3 cos1200

2GM 1 ( )
F 1 = F 2 + F 2 + 2 F 2 −1 2 = F 2 + F 2 − F 2 = F

R1 M 1 R2
= × Resultant of F1 & F1 will be zero
2GM 2 R1 M 2
Geostationary Satellite : These satellite revolue
R2 crovd the (syn chronous satellite) earth such that
appears to be at rof w.r.t. an observer one earth
(Ve) moon = 2.38 km/s
• They revolve arouved the earth with the angular
(V) then = 4.3 km/s
velocity of earth (west→east)
MCQ 1
 GMT 2  3
Q12. T1 = 5 Hours, γ1 = γ h= 2 
−R
 4Π 
T2= ?, γ2 = 4γ
T = 24 hours, R = 6400 km
T2 ∝ γ3 ⇒ T2 = Kγ3
2 3 h = 35930 km ≈ 36000 km
T22 γ 23  T2   γ 2 
= ⇒  T  =  γ 
T12 γ 13 1 1

83
 9 Mechanical Properties
CHAPTER
of Solids

Rigid Body: It the seperation between two points

marked on a body remains constant whatever the
force applied on it known as rigid body.
→→ Ideal rigid body does'nt exist.
→→ In real world When external foce applied on the
body, it may get deformed.
→→ When deformed the internal foce try to restore it.
Solid: Solid body has Definite size & shape.
#Elasticity: It is the property of a meterial by virtue Perperdicular
Normal
of which it can regain its original size or shape [or
configuration] after the removal of applied force (or N
deforming force).
m
→→ Material exhibiting this property are called elastic
material. e.g. Quartz. (Close to perfect elastic
material) mg

→→ Elasticity is a proprty of matter due to which it can 1. Tensile Stress : When a normal force is applied
develop a force within itself to oppose deforming one a body, then Restoring force per unit is called.
force. Tensile stress. (increase in length)
or 2. Compressive Stress for Compression : When
a normal force is applied on a (Decrcase body,
The proporty to restore the natural shape or to oppose
Then restoring force per unit area is (in length)
the deformation is called elasticity.
called compressive stress.
#Stress: It is defined as restoring force per unit area.
F
Restoring force External Force
Stress = =
Area Area
Unit : N/m2 = Pascal (Pa)
L L
−2
[ MLT ]
[Stress] = 2
= [ ML−1T −2 ] DL

L
Restoring T
Force
F

Deforming
Force mg
84
 2. Volumetric Strain

Tensile & Compressive stress collectively known as

longitudinal stress.
3. Hydraulic Stress : When a
Normal force is applied on a body
& there is a change in volume
without change in shape then
restoring force per unit area is
called hydraulic stress change in volume
=
Restoring Force original volume
=
Area ∆V −∆V
= or
4. Tangential or Shearing Stress : When a V V
tangential force is applied on the body & there is
a change in shape of body without change in its -ve sign signify that volume is decreasing
volume.

F 3. Shearing strain
F

θ ∆l L F

θ
#Strain: It is the ratio of change in configuration to
l
the original configuration

1. Longitudinal Strain
∆l
L ⇒ = θ = deflection
F F l
L
All three are unitless & dimensionless

L + ∆L #Hooke's law: It states that stress applied is directly

proportional to the strain produced in a wire material
change in length within elastic limit
Strain =
Original length Strain ∝ Stress
∆L
=
L
It is unitless & dimensionless

85
 Stress
Stress D
γ= , Stress
E
Strain A C
B
γ: Coeffcient of elasticity
OA : Hooke's law
or is followed
Modulus of elasticity is the stress required to Strain Strain
develop a unit strain.
5. Stress strain [Hooke's law] stress Vs strain is a st.
Unit of γ : N/m2 or Pa (Pascal), stress/strain is a line
straijat line. [ML-1T-2]
Q. The young's modulus of a wire of length L and
#Young's Modulus of elasticity (γ): radius r is γ. If the length is reduced to L/2 and
It is the ratio of Longitudinal stress to the logntudinal radius r/4, what will be its young's modulus ?
strain Ans. γ will remain same
Longtudinal stress F / A Fl Q. Steel is more elastic than rubber. Explain
γ= = =
Longtudinal strain ∆l / l ∆lA Ans. Consider two identical specimem of steal &
rubber; length and area identical
Note :
i.e LS = Lr = L, AS = Ar = A
1. γ is constant for a material (independent of size
& shape) Let same force (load) is applied on both
speciman.
2. γ is calculated only for solids
FS = Fr = F & (∆L)r>> (∆L)r
3. For wires, we generally use γ (Young's Modulus
of elasticity) (Elongation of rubber is very large as compared
to steel)
4. Larger the value of the Youngs Modulus, larger
will be the elastic. F L F .L F L F L
Now γ = = ⇒ γs = s . s & γr = r . r
A ∆L ΠR 2 ∆L As (∆L) s Ar (∆L) r
Q. Which (wire) one is more elastic ?
γ s (∆L) r γ ∆L
= ⇒ s = r > 1[∆Lr > ∆Ls ]
Stress A γ r (∆L) s γ r ∆Ls
γs > γr
B

As Youngs modulus of steel is greater than

rubber, Hence it is more elastic.
Strin Fl 1 [if other parameters
γ= ,⇒Y ∝
∆y A∆l ∆l are constant]
Ans. Slope =
∆x & ∆lr > ∆ls
Stress
Slope = γ = = tan θ ⇒ γs > γr
Strain
i.e ( Slope) A > ( Slope) B Q. Two wires made of same material are subjected
to forces in the ratio of 1:4. Their lengths are
i.e γ A > γ B in the ratio of 8:1 and diameter in the ratio 2:1.
i.e A is more elastic Find the ratio of their extensions.
Ans.

86
 1 Πd 2
F1 1 l1 8 r1 2 A r2 4 Ds = Db = 0.25 × 10−2 m, A = π r 2 =
= , = , = ⇒ 1 = 12 = , 1 = 1 ⇒ 2 = 1 4
F2 4 l2 1 r2 1 A2 r1 1 1 2 1
2  γ = 2 × 10 N / m 2 
11

lS = 1.5m, lb = 1m,  S 11 2
 γ b = 0.91 × 10 N / m 
using γ = Fl ⇒ ∆l = F × l
F l Fl
A∆l A Y γ = . ⇒ ∆l =
∆l1 F1 A2 l1 γ 2 A ∆l Aγ
= × × × FS = (4 + 6) × 10 = 100 N [ g = 10m / s 2 ]
∆l2 F2 A1 l2 γ 1
[ F = W = mg ]
F l
∆ls = s s
As γ s
=
Fb = 6 × 10 = 60 N
F l
Q. The graph shows the extension of a wire of ∆lb = b × b
length 1m suspended from the top of a roof at Ab Yb
one end with a load W connected to the other
end. If the cross-sectional area of wire is 10-6m2, 1. The length of metal is l1 when the tension in it is
calculate the Young's modulus of the material T1 and I2 when the tension in it is T2. Find the original
of wire. length of wire.
−4 ∆ls = 100
Ans. ∆l = ∆l = 1 × 10
W F 20 Ans.
F l
γ= × T1 T
l l l1 l2
A ∆l = 2
F l l1 − l l2 − l T1 ∆l2
= ×
∆l A 1l1 W T2
= T2l2 - T1l W1

20 1 20
−4
× −6 = −10 = 20 × 1010 = 2 × 1011 N / m 2 = T2l1 - T2l
1 × 10 10 10
⇒ l(T2-T1) = T2l1
1. Two wires each of diameter 0.25 cm, one made
-T2l1
of steel and other made of brass are loaded as
shown in figure. The unloaded length of steel T l −Tl
wire is 1.5m and that of brass wire is 1.0 m. l= 21 12
Young's modulus of steel is 2x1011 Pa and T2 − T1
that of Brass is 0.91x1011 Pa. Compute the #Bulk modulus of elasticity (B):
elongations of steel and brass wires.
It is the ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric
Ans. ∆lS = 1.5x10-4m, ∆lB = 1.3x10-4m strain
Diameter same
Volumetric stress ( Hydraulic Stress ) F P A=
B= =
Volumetric Strain ∆V −∆V
1.5 m
V V
Steel
4.0 kg
F
1.0 m
Brass B= A= P
6.0 kg ∆V −∆V
V V
87
, Unit of B : N/m2 or Pa 2. What is the percentage increase in the length of
a wire of diameter 2.5mm stretched by a force
→→ Larger the Bulk Modulus, larger will be the
of 100Kgwt ? Ywire = 12.5x1011 dynecm-2.
elasticity.
= 12.5x102 N/m2
→→ Bulk Modulus is defined for all i.e solids, liquids
& Gases Ans. 0.16%
1 #Stress-strain curve for a stretched wire :
→→ Compressibility (K) =
Bulk Modulus ( B) Consider a wire & a variable load
i.e K gas > K liq > K solid is suspended to one end of wire.
⇒ B gas < B liq < B solids As the load increase, stress v/s
strain curve is drawn for the wire
Q. Which one is more elastic, water or air ?
1
Ans. Bw > Ba  Kair > Kwater , B = 
  K 
#Shear Modulus of Elasticity or Modulus of
Rigidity : (G or η)
It is the ratio of tangential stress or sharing stress to
the shearning strain.
Shearing Stress F / A F / A OA : Hook's law is followed [stress ∝ strain]
G= = =
Shearning strain θ ∆l / l (linear curve)
A→B: stress & strain are not linearly proportional
unit of G : N/m2 or Pa
still body will regain its size & shape after the
removal of deforming force (load)
Point B : Elastic limit or Yield Point:
B→O: If stress is increased further so body will not
regain its size or shape i.e If stress = zero ⇒
strain ≠ 0
→→ If is defined only for solids. i.g If wire is unloaded at 'C', strain ≠ 0
If change in length : Apply Youngs Modulus there will be permanent set in the wire
If change in Shape : Shear Mouduls OO': Permanent set (Plastic deformation)
If change in Volume : Bulk Mouduls Point D : Ultimate tensile strength
If change in liq/Gas : Bulk Mouduls Beyond D additional strain is produced even with
samll value of stress & of force (stress) is increased
Practice Time further we reach to fracture point E.
1. A structural steel rod has a radius of 10mm If D & E are far a part, material is said to be
and a length of 1m. A 100KN force stretches ductile .
it along its length. Calculate (a) the stress,
(b) elongation, and (c) strain on the rod. (γsteel If D & E are close, to each other, material is brittle.
=200x109).
Ans. 3.18x108N/m2, 1.59mm and 0.16%

88
 ur uur
Ductile Material Brittle Material
dw = F .dl = Fd cos00 ⇒ fdl
D
Y D Y  l
dw =  γA  dl
E
E
 L
Stress, σ

Stress, σ
l
l
w = ∫ dw = ∫ γA dl
o
L
l
γA 1 γA  l 2 
Strain, E Strain, E w = ∫ l dl =  
L o L  2
#Elastomers : Elastomers are the elastic material
1 l2
which do not obey Hooke's law. w= γ A× L
2 L×L
i.e Stress- Strain area is not a straight line
w = U = P.E
e.g Elastomrs rubber Stress
l2
1
U = 2γ 2 A× L
L
U = 1 2 × γ × ( strain) 2 × Volume
Strain
U
u = Energy denisty =
V
Elastic Potential Energy of stretched wire:
U 1
Consider a wire which is put under tensile stress : u= = 2 × γ × ( Strain) 2
V
Work is done aginst into atomic forces
This is stored in the wire as its P.E or
L : Length of wire
1
A : Area of cross-section of wire u= × stress × strain
2
Y : Youngs modulus of material of wire
l : elongation in the wire 1. Two identical springs of steel and copper are
equally stretched. On which more work will
Now have to be done?
FL l Ans. Stretched by same amount.
Y= ⇒ F = γ .A (Here ∆l = l )
Al L i.e equal strain

small amount of work done in increasing the length using u = W = 1 γ ( strain) 2 ⇒ W ∝ γ

by 'dl' V 2
γs > γcu
⇒ Ws > Wcu

2. If two identical springs of steel and copper are

pulled by applying equal forces then in which
case more work will have to be done ?
Given γs > γcu
89
Ans. Applied equal force d : depth of beam
i.e equal stress b : breadth of beam
W 1 ( stress ) w : weight at the center of beam
= =
δ : bending the beam

W∝ As γs > γcu Wl 3 1
δ= 3
,δ = 3
4bd Y bd
⇒ Ws ∝ Wcu
δ : must be small
Practice Time
i.e between b & d, increasing 'd' is more effective for
1. When the load of a wire is increased from 3kg small value of δ
to 5kg, the elongation increases from 0.61 mm l
to 1.02 mm. How much work is done during
this extension of the wire ?
Ans. 16.023 x 10-3J
2. A steel wire of 4m is stretched through 2 mm. W
The cross-sectional area of the wire is 2mm2. If
γsteel = 2 x 1011N/m2, find (i) the energy density
of the wire and (ii) the elastic potential energy
stored in the wire.
Ans. 2.5 x 104 J /m-3, 0.2J
Application of elasticity :
3. What will we the radius of the copper wire if
the steel wire is given.
(i) Thickness of a wire :
y
m = 100 kg, Yield strength (steet) : 300 x 106 Nm2

stress= [F=W=mg] y = 1x

y2 = 1 x 3
x
Area = 3.33 x 10-5 m2 x=1

Πr2 = 3.33 x 10-5 cm2

Πr2 = 3.33 x 10-1 cm2 1. Explain why are girders given in I shape or rail
road has I shapeed strect
Πr2 = 0.33 cm2
Ans. deep bar has atendency to bend due to weight of
0.33
r = ≈ 0.11 cm 2
2 traffic. This bending is called buckling. I shape
3.14 provide large surface area and enough depth to
prevent buckling.
r2 ≈ 0.3 cm Buckling:
(ii) Bending of a Bridge & how to Rectify it: Bending of girders from the as shown is called
l : Length of girder/beam buckling.

90
 ∆D
σ= D
∆l
l
1. Why hollow shafts are preferred over solid ∆D.l
shafts for transmitting torque.
σ=
∆l.D
amt of both have same material
Key Points:
Πr 2l = Π(r02 − r22 )l
Longtudinal Strain: Strain produced in the direction
of force.
r 2 = r02 − r22
Lateral Strain: Strain produced ⊥ to the direction of
applied force
torque acting on a solid shaft
Poisson ratio is defined as the ratio of latered strain to
2
Π r −∆D
τ= η , τ ∝ r4
2 l
the longitudinal strain. = D
∆l
Π  r04 4
Hollow shaft τ = η  − ri  , τ ∝ r0 − ri
1 1 4 4

2  l 
l
τ / r04 − ri 4 (r02 − ri 2 ).(r02 + ri 2 ) r02 − ri 2 −∆D l
= = = > 1 =
τ r4 r 2r 2 r2 ∆l D
⇒τ/ >τ
-ve sign indicate that longtudinal strain & laleral
strain are in opposite sense [if one ↑ then after ↓]
i.e torque required to twist a hollow shaft is sppear 1. A bar of cross-section A is subjected to equal
lower than the solid shaft. Hence Hollow shaft and opposite tensile forces at its ends. Consider
is preffered. a plane section of the bar whose normal makes
#Poisson's Ratio: (σ) an angle θ with the axis of bar.

When a wire is strctched, its length increases but

diameter decreases.

a) What is the tensile stress on this plane ?

b) What is the shearing stress on this plane ?
lateral strain
Poission's Ratio = c) For what value of θ is the tensile stress
longitudinal strain maximum ?
l + ∆l →D-∆D d) For what value of θ is the shearing stress
maximum ?
Ans. (a) F/A cos2θ (b) (F/2A)sin 2θ
91
 (c) 00 - (d) 450 P
F l
Y= .
A A A ∆l
cos θ = ⇒ A1 = = A secθ F l
A1
cos θ ∆l = .
Normal Force F ⊥ F cos θ F
A T
(a) Tensile stress =
Area
= 1 =
A
= cos 2 θ
A / cos θ A F l
∆l1 = 1 . 1
A Y1
(b) Shearing stress = tangential Force = F111 = F sin θ F1 = (m + 2m) g = 3mg
Area A A / cos θ
3mg L
∆l1 = .
F
A Y
= .sin θ .cos θ
A Q
F 1 F2 = 2m. g
= . (2sin θ cos θ )
A 2
F 1
F l
= . (sin 2θ ) ∆l2 = 2 . 2
A 2 A Y2

(2mg ) (2 L)
(c) Tensile stress is maximum when cosθ is = .
maximum A Y
2
F 2 
mg L
 cos θ  ∆l2 = 8 .
A A Y
i.e cos θ = 1 ∆l1 3
=
θ = 00 ∆l2 8

(d) Shearning stress is maximum when

P
 F sin2θ = maximum l1 = L, Y1 = Y
 (sin 2θ )
2A sin2θ = 1 m kg

2θ=900
Q l2 = 2L, Y2 = Y/2
θ=450
1. Two wires P and Q of same diameter are loaded
as shown in the figure. The length of wire P
is L m and its Young's modulus is Y N/m2
while length of wire Q is twice that of P and
its material has Young's modulus half that of P.
Compute the ratio of their elongation.

92
 10 Mechanical Properties
CHAPTER
of Fluids

Fluids It is the states of matter which can gain the PA = PC = PD

shape of the container in which it is kept. & PE = PB = PF
commonly liquid and gas are known as fuids. #Pascal law:
#Pressure: It is defined as the force per unit Area. Statement 1: If gravity is neglected, Then pressure
F at every point in a liquid at rest is equal.
P= , Unit : N / m 2 = Pascal ( Pa )
A i.e If g = o ⇒ P1 = P2 [P2 - P1 = ρgh]

#Expression for Pressure: consider a portion of

P1
liquid in a cylinderical shaped cantairer.
F1, P 1 h
h : height of cylinder P2
Area=A
σ : density of liquid W=
mg h

A : Base Area of cylinder Statement 2: In a liquid at rest, pressure at same

F2, P 2
2
level of height/depth remains equal
V= rh
= A.h. i.e If h = 0 ⇒ P1 = P2 [P2 - P1 = hρg]
F1 F2
P1 = & P2 = V = π r 2h Statement 3: Pressure exerted at any point on an
A1 A
enclosed liquid is transmitted equaly in all direction.
F1 = P1 A F2 = P2 A = A.h
Types of Pressure :
m = mass of liquid = density x volume = ρxAh = ρAh
1. Absolute Pressure : It is the exact or total
As liquid is at rest i.e Fnet = zero value of pressure at a point.

F2 = F1 + mg A 2. Gauge Pressure : It is the pressure difference

C P1 D h between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric
P2 A = P1 A + ρ (Ahg) P2 B pressure at that point (ρgh).
E F
P2 A - P1 A = ρ (Ahg)
Pa : Atmospher Pressure
( P2 − P1 ) A = ρ Ahg
P : Pressure at a depth h = absolute Pressure
P2-P1 = hδg ∆P = Gauge Pressure = P - Pa = ρgh
P = Pa + ρgh
P2 = P1 + hρg, P2 > P1
if h= 0, P2 - P1 = 0, ⇒ P2 = P1 P1
h
P2

Unit of Pressure :
93
1. S.I unit : pascal (Pa) F
P=
2. 1 atm = 1.013 x 10 Pa5
A
3. 1 bar = 105 Pa
F = P.A
4. Mercury column in a barometer has a height of 76
cm (=760mm) at sea level = 1atm
(iii) Force on a window of 20 cm x 20 cm
5. Pressure equivalent to 1 mm is called 1 torr = 133
Pa [Torricelli] Area = 20 x 20 cm2 = 400 (10-2)2

Q. The density of the atmosphere at sea level is = 400 x 10-4 m2 = 4 x 10-4

1.29 kg/m3. Assume that it does not change with F = P.A = 103 x 105 x 4 x 10-2
altitude. Then how high would the atmosphere
extend ? = 412 x 103

ρ = 1.29 kg/m3, P = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa F = 4.12 x 105 N

P 1 × 105 Q. Toricelli's barometer used mercury. Pascal

using P = hρ g ⇒ h = = ≈ 8km duplicated it using french wine of density
ρ g 1.29 × 9.8 984 kg/m3. Determine the height of the wine
column for normal atmospheric pressure.
PO= atmospheric Press
Solution.
wine (984 kg/m3)
1000m
Hg (13.6 x 103 kg/m3)
(1 atm) using Hg colum = (1 atm) using wine
hhg × ρhg × g = hwine × ρwine × g
1
P

At a depth of 1000m in an ocean

76 x 10-2 x 13.6 x 103 = hwine x 984
(i) What is the absolute pressure ?
(ii) What is the gauge pressure ?
76 × 10−2 × 13.6 × 1000
hwine = = 10.5 m
984
(iii) Find the force acting on the window of area
20 cm x 20 cm of a submarine at this depth,
the interior of which is maintained at sea level Q. A u-tube contains water and methylated spirit
atmosphere pressure. (The density of sea water seperated by mercury. The mercury columns in
is 1.03x103 kg m-3; g = 10ms-2) the two arms are in level with 10.0 cm P7 water
in one arm and 12.5 cm of sprit in the other
(i) Absolute pressure at a depth of 1000 m arm. What is the specific gravity of spirit.
P1 = Po + hρg Solution
= 1.013 x 10 + 1000 x 1.03 x 10 x 10
5 3
As mercury level on both side is equal
= 1.013 x 105 + 1.03 x 100 x 105 (∆P) water = (∆P) spirt
104.013 × 105
P1 = 1.013 x 105 + 103 x 105 = 1.013 × 105
= atm h w ρw g = h s ρs g
(ii) Gauge Pressure = hδg = 1000 x 1.03 x 103 x 10
= 103 x 105 Pa

94
 h1 a a
= ⇒ h1 = h h1 < h
h A A
12.5 cm
spirit
a h1 1 
 A < 1 ⇒ h < 1 ⇒ h < h
10 cm
Water
 
Q. Two syringes of different cross-sections
(without needles) filled with water are connected with
a tightly filled rubber tube filled with water. Diameters
Hg
of the smaller piston and larger piston are 1.0 cm and
3.0 cm respectively.
ρs hw 10 100 4 (a) Find the force exerted on the larger piston when
ρr = = ⇒ = = = 0.8
ρw hs 12.5 125 5 a force of 10 N is applied to the smaller piston.

(δr) specific gravity of spirit = 0.8 (b) If the smaller piston is pushed through 6.0 cm,
how much does the large piston move out ?
Application of Pascal's law:
1 3 
1. Hydraulic lift : 200m
r= × 10−2 m, R =  × 10−2  m, f = 10 N
f
Area = a Area = a 2 2 
f : Force applied on left side F
2
F : Impact of 'f' on right side A  ΠR 2   R
[P=F/A ] (a) F = f ⇒ 2 
f ⇒  f
a  Πr   r
a, A : Area of cross-section of left & right side
( )
2
respectively using pascal law:  3 × 10−2 
= 2  × 10
( )
(Pressure)right = (Pressure)left
 1 × 10−2 
2
F f F A
= or = = 9 × 10
A a f a
= 90 N
A A F  2 2
F= f a > 1 ⇒ > 1 ⇒ F > f  a  r  1
a  f  (b) h = h =   h =   × 6 × 10−2
1

A  R  3
6 2
Note: = × 10−2 m = × 10−2 m
9 3
−2
= 0.67 × 10 m
#Viscosity: It is the property by virtue of which an
internal frictional force comes into play when fluids
is in motion & it opposes the relative motion b/w the
different layers of fluids.

(Volume) left = (Volume) right

a.h = Ah1
F : Viscovs force between two adjacent layers

95
 or (viscous drag force) P : Pressure difference b/w two ends of tube
A : area of layers in contact r : radius of cylindrical pipe or tube
Now F ∝ A (i ) l : length of tube
dv η : coefficient of viscosity of liquid
F∝ (velocity gradient ) (ii )
dL Using Dimensional analysis
on combining equation (i ) & (ii ) a
 P
dv V = K   r bη c
F∝A l
dL
[V ] = [ L3T −1 ], [η] = [ ML−1T −1 ]
dv P −2 −2
F = ηA
dL
, η: coefficient of viscosity  l  = [ ML T ]
[r ] = [ L]
F on solving on can get a = b = c = 1
η=
 dv  coefficient of viscosity
A.  #Stokes law:
 dL 
Viscous force or drag acting on a Spherical body
coefficient of viscocity is equal to viscous. moving in a viscous medium is given by
force required to maintain a unit value of velocity Fv = 6πηrv
gradient when area of antact b/w two layer is unity.
r : radius of spherical body Fv
Units of coefficient of viscosity v

v : speed of spherical body

F dL MLT −2 L
η= × , [η] = 2
× −1
= [ ML−1T −1 ] η : Coefficient of viscosity of medium
A dv L LT
[Using dimensional analysis]
(i) CGS unit : poise, 1 poise = dyne cm-2
Let F = kηarbvc
(ii) S.I unit : decapoise = poiseiulle= 0.1 Pa(s)
[F] = [MLT-2], [r] = L, [v] = [LT-1]
[1 decapoise = 10 poise], [η] = [ML-1T-1]
On solving we get:
#Poiseille's Formula:
a = 1, b = 1, c =1
Rate of flow of liquid (volume per unit time) through
a horizontal tube is given by i.e F = kηrv or FV = 6πηrv
Pressure = P #Terminal velocity: It is the maximum constant
velocity with which a body moves in a viscous
A . flow
r medium under gravity
B
or
Terminal Velocity is the maximum uniform velocity
Rate of flow of volume per unit time with which an object moves in fluid and the force of
friction become equal to the viscous drag.
Π P.r 4
V= . v : terminal velocity of sperical body
8 η.l
r : density of spherical body

96
σ : density of viscous medium Q. Eight rain drops of radius r falling with terminal
velocity v coalesce to form a single large drop.
4  Find the terminal velocity of bigger drop.
W : Weight of body = mg = (r x V)g = ρ  Πr 3  g
3 
Fv : Viscovs force = 6 πηrv Ans. R
fT : upthrust force = w
 eight of medium (or liquid) =8x r

displaced by body
4 
= m g = σ  π r g 
1 3

3
As terminal velocity is attained at equilibrium position Volume = 8x volume of each samll drop

Fnet = zero
4 4
ΠR 3 = 8 × Πr 3
3 3
FT + Fv = w
R3=8r3
4 4
− π r 3 g + 6πηrv = ρ π r 3 g R=2r
3 3
2 2
4 4
v1  R   2r 
6πηrv = ρ π r 3 g − σ π r 3 g =   ⇒ v1 = v   = 4v
3 3 v
 r  r

4 Q. Show that if n equal drops (rain droplets) falling
6πηrv = πη3 g (ρ − σ ) through air with terminal velocity 20cm/s coalesce,
3 the resultant drop attain a new terminal velocity of
20η2/3.
2 r2g
vT = (ρ − σ ) or vT ∝ r
2
Ans. Vnew = Vold
9 η
4 4 1
ΠR 3 = x × Πr 3 ⇒ R = η 3 × r
Note : 3 3
2
(i) ρ − σ : + ve ⇒ ρ > σ ⇒ v : + ve (downward motion) 1 2  η 13 r 
V  R 2

(ii) ρ − σ : − ve ⇒ ρ < σ ⇒ v : −ve (upward motion)

1
=   ⇒ v = v  = vη 3
V  r   r 
(iii) 
It size of particle increases, its terminal velocity
also increases while if size decreases its terminal given v = 20 cm/s
velocity also decreases.
i.e v1 = 20η2/3
Q. Terminal velocity of a spherical body of radius
# Types of Flow
r is v. Find the terminal velocity of a spherical
body having radius of same materal. 1. Streamline Flow
2 r2g 2. Laminar Flow
Ans. v = (ρ − σ ) ⇒ v ∝ r 2
9 η 3. Turbulent Flow
2 2
v1 r1 v1  r1  v1  2r  1. Streamline Flow: In streamline flow each
= ⇒ =  ⇒ =  particle of liquid passing through a given point
v r2 v r v  r
follows its preceding particle.
v1 = 4v A
C Vc

B
VB
VA
VB≠VB≠VC

97
2. Laminar Flow: When liquid move in layer Q1. Water is flowing in a pipe of radius 1.5cm
such that layer slide over one another which with an average velocity of 5cm/s. What is the
behave as lamina. This type of flow is called nature of flow of water ? Given coefficient of
laminar flow. Velocity of particle at same will viscosity of water is 10-3kg/m/s and its density
be different. is 103 kg/m3.
Ans. r =1.5 cm ⇒ D = 1.5 x 2 = 3 cm = 3 x 10-2m
c = 5cm/s = 5 x 10-2 m/s
η = 10-3kg/m/s, η = 103 kg/m3
VDρ 5 × 10−2 × 3 × 10−2 × 103
R= = = 1500
η 10−3
3. Turbulent Flow: When the liquid exced the
certain value of Reynolds number velocity of Flow is streamline or laminar.
fuid is considered as critical velocity and its
Q2. Diameter = 1.25 cm,
flow is called turbulent flow.
(i) Rate of flow = 0.48L/min
(ii) Rate of flow = 3L/min
η = 10-3 pas, ρ 103 kg/m3
#Critical Velocity : It is the maximum, velocity of Find the type of flow of liquid
fluid upto which flow is streamline or laminar &
V .D.ρ
above which it becomes turbulent. Ans. R =
η
K .η
Vc =
ρ.D Rate of flow = Q = a.v =Πr 2v
2
here ρ: density of liqiud η: coefficient of viscosity of  D ΠD V 2

liquid Q = Π  v ⇒ Q =
 2 4
4Q
v=
D ΠD 2

now RV =
DP 4Q DS
= ×
#Reynolds no. (R) : It is a dimensionless variable η ΠD 2 η
which determines the type of flow of liquid 4QS
R=
V .D.ρ ΠDη
R=
η type of flow of liquid
4 × 0.48 × 10−3 × 103 4.89 × 104
v: velocity of fluid (i) R= = = 815
3.14 × 1.25 × 10−2 × 10−3 × 60 60
D: diameter of tube
η: Coefficient of viscosity Laminar Flow :
R< 2000; Streamline or laminar #Rate of Flow :
R> 3000; Turbulent Volume
Rate of flow = Q =
2000< R < 3000, flow is changing time
(from streamline to tubulent)
98
 l Kinetic Energy
Area = a = ∏r2 1 2
K.E = mv
2
K .E
Volume = V = (Πr)2h = al (i ) K .E per unit mass = ; K .E m = 1 2 v 2
m
Rate of flow = K .E 1 mv 2 1 2
(ii ) K .E per unit volume = ; K .E V = = ρv
V 2 V 2
Volume al  l  l  l
= = a   = av v =  = av v =  Polential Energy
time t  t  t  t
P.E = mgh
Rate of flow = volume per unit time = av
(i ) P.E m = gh
mgh
 Distance  (ii ) P.E / v = ρ gh
Speed = V
 time  Pressure Energy
Important for Exam B Pressure Energy = P.V.
a2, v2
#Equation of continuity : Pressure Energy PV PV
(i ) = =
ρ1 : density of fluid entering at A mass m ρ
r2 : density of fluid leaving at B Pressure Energy PV
(ii ) = =P
A
a1, v1

a1, a2 : area of cross-section of tube at A & B. Volume V

v1, v2 : velocity fluid at points A & B mass
of liquid entering per unit time at A = Expression for Pressure Energy:
ρ1 × (volume)
= ρ1 × Rate of flow W = F.x = P.A.x = P(Ax) = P(dv)
(time)
= r1a1v1 or
& mass of liquid leaving per unit time at B = ρ2a2v2
W = P.V
As mass of liquid entering per unit time = mass of
liquid leaving per unit time F→ Area = A
W = Pressure Energy x

r1a1v1 = r2a2v2 #Bernoullies Theorem : It states that for an ideal

liquid (streamline, incompressible irrotational) sum
of r1 = r2 [fluid is in compressible]
of kinetic energy, potential energy & (Based on
conscervation) pressure energy per unit volume or
r1a1v1 = r2a2v2 per unit mass is constant.
a1v1 = a2v2 or av = const. i.e 1 2
1
P+ ρv + ρ gh = constant
v∝ 2
a
a ↑⇒ v ↓ or a ↓ ⇒ v↑ P 1 2
or + v + gh = constant
Types of Energy ρ 2

99
 perunit volume divide by ρ
B P 1
a2, v2, P2 + gh + v 2 = constant
i.e ρ 2 perunit mass
a1 > a2
u1 < v2
P1 > P2 Note : For a horizontal flow.

h2 A B
h1
A a1, v1, P1 h P1,a1,v1 P2,a2,v2 h

r : density of liquid
Let
applying Bernoulli's theorem
a1, a2 : Area of cross-section of tube at A & B
respectively 1 1
P1 + ρv12 + ρ gh = P2 + ρv22 + ρ gh
v1, v2 : velocity of liquid at A & B respectively 2 2
1 1
P1, P2 : Pressure of liquid at A & B respectively. P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
Assume that mass of liquid entering per sec at
A = mass of liquid leaving per second at B. 1
P + ρv 2 = constant
i.e mass of liquid entering in time ∆t at A = mass of i.e. 2 ⇒ P↑ ⇒ v↓ or P↓ ⇒ v↑
liquid leaving in time ∆t at - B
Bernoulli Eqn for horizontal flow.
m = r a1v1∆t = r a2v2∆t [r av]
Q. Find the pressure difference over the area A =
Change in K.E in going from A to B =
1 2 1 2
mv2 − mv1 25m2 and velocity of wind over and below the
2 2
surface are185km/h and 234km/h respectively.
(increase) [v2 > v1] (Density of air = 1.2kg/m3)
Change in P.E in going from A to B = mgh2-mgh1 Ans. A= 25m2
(increase) [h2 > h1] V1 = 180km/h x 5/18 = 50m/s
Change in Pressure Energy = P2V-P1V V2 = 234km/h x 5/18 = 65m/s
(increase) [P1 > P2] F
∆P = ⇒ F = ∆P × A
Using conservation of energy A
1 1
Decrease in Pressure energy = ↑in K.E+↑in P.E P1 + ρv12 = P2 + ρv22
2 2
1 1 
PV
1 − PV =  mv22 − mv12  + mgh2 − mgh1 1
2  ∆P = P1 − P2 = ρ(v22 − v12 )
2
2
2
1
PV
1 2
+ mgh2 + 1 mv22
= × ρ × ((65) 2 − (50) 2 )
1 + mgh1 + mv1 = PV
2 2 2
2
1
= × 1.2 × (65 + 50)(65 − 50)
1 2
P + ρ gh + ρv 2 = constant = 0.6 × 115 × 5
i.e 2 
= 345 Pa
100
#Application of Bernoulli's theorem : Rate of flow = Volume flow per unit time = Q = V =av
(i) Venturimeter : It is a machanical device which i.e
is used to measure the rate of flow of liquied in a
2hρm g
horizontal tube. Q = V = a1v1 = a1a2 , ∆P = hρm g
ρ(a12 − a22 )
A .B (P , a , v )
2 2 2
P1, a1, v1
(i) Torricelli Theoren : It states that velocity of
of a fluid through an orifice (small hole at depth h
P2
P 1> P 2
V 1< V 2 P
P1 h
a 1> a 2
is equal to velocity of body dropped from the same
P1 height under gravity)
P1

P1=P=hρg

a1, a2 : Area of cross-section at A & B.

P1, P2 : Pressure in fluid at point A & B respectively.
v1, v2 : velocity of fluids at point A & Brespectively.
ρ : density of fluid flowing in tube
ρm : density of fluid in U-shape tube
using Bernoullis eqution for horizontal flow. v : velocity of efflux

1 1 r : d ensity of liquid, P0 = Pa = atmospheric

P1 + ρV12 = P2 + ρV22
2 2 PA = P0 + hrg, PB = P0 [point B is in contact with
1 air]
P1 − P2 = ρ(V22 − V12 ) (i )
2 VA = o. VB = V

from diagram Using Bernaullis Equation for horizontal flow

P1= P2 + hrmg
P1- P2 = hrmg (ii)
u=0
using eq (i) & (ii) 2 2
v -u = 2as
Pressure h
1 v2 - O2 = 2gh
ρ(v22 − v12 ) = hρm g v = 2 gh
2
1 2  v22 
ρv1  2 − 1 = hρm g
2  v1 
1 1
1 2   a1 
2
 PA + ρVA2 = PB + ρVB2
ρv1    − 1 = hρm g 2 2
2   a2   1
( P0 + hρ g ) + O = P0 + ρV 2
2
2
1 2 a1 − a2
ρv1
(
2

= hρm g
) 1 2
2 a2 ρV = hρ g ⇒ v 2 = 2 gh
2
2hρm g.a22 2hρm g
v12 = ⇒ v a2
( )
ρ a12 − a22
1
ρ a12 − a22 ( ) v = 2 gh

101
(iii) Blowing off roof duning thounderstom : A
V2 > > V1 ⇒ P2 < < P1
1
[P + r v2 = constant]
2

⇑
↑ ↑ P1, ↑ V1
V2, P2

VA > VB
PA decreases when air rusher out from the tube but
pressure at B is large so to balance the pressure liquid
i.e Pressure inside the room is greater than the from point B move in upward direction.
pressure outside Hence roof blow off. #Surface tension : It is the property of a free surface
(iv) Dynamic Lift (Aeroplane/Aerofoil) of a liquid such that it levels to have the minimum
surface area.
v1 > v2 ⇒ P1 < P2
or
v1, P1 defined as force per unit length.
F
Numerically s(or σ) =
v2, P2 l
i.e Pressure at lower body is greater than pressure
→ Small drops are always spherical in shape
acting at the upper body which hepls to lift the
plane.
(v) Magnus effect :
deformed. due to gravity [w=mg↑]

v1, P1 Perfect Sphere

→
→

→v
→
→
→

max
v2, P2

At upper part of the ball : net velocity decrease min Area

(let's say v1)

#Surface Energy : Work done increasing the surface
i.e v2 > v1 ⇒ P2 < P1 Area
Due to change in Pressure, ball will move in
ur uur
W = F .dx = Fdx (i )
down ward direction.
(vi) Atomizer or sprinkler : Let S = σ = Surface tension = Surface energy per
unit Area
increase in Area in moving the arm PQ by
distance dx = 2l.dx

102
 Total surface energy = s. 2ldx (ii) Fsa > Fes
[Soap film has two free surface] ⇒ cosθ: + ve ⇒ θ:Acute
using eq (i) & (ii) i.e Adhesive force > cohesive force
Work done = surface energy

Fdx = S.(2l)dx ⇒ S = F
l
F
Note : S = , when there are two free surface.
l

F
S= , when there is only one free surface.
2l → liquid spread on solid surface
or liquid wet the solid surface
surface energy = S x (2ldx)
eg water - glass
S.E. = Surface tension x increase in Area Case - II :
Fsa > Fls
surface energy
Surface tension = ⇒ cosθ: - ve ⇒ θ:obtuse
Area
i.e cohesive force > Adhesive force
unit of surface tension = N/m = J/m2
#Angle of Contact : (θ) It is the angle between
tangent to the liquid surface & solid surface inside
the liquid. θ (Concave upward)

As drop is in equilibrium → liquid doesn't spread on solid surface

Fls + Fla Cosθ = Fsa or liquid doesn't wet the solid surface
eg mercury- glass
F − Fls
Cos θ = sa Case - III :
Fea θ Meniscus
Fsa = Fls (Plane)

Cohesive Force : Attractive force between the cosθ = 00

molecules of same type
θ = 900
Adhesive Force : Attractive force between the
eg: pure water - silver
molecules of different type
#Excess Pressure :
Case - I :

103
1. Excess Pressure inside a liquid drop in air: Amount of work done in increasing the radius by ∆R
excess pressure = P2 - P1 = ∆P
ur uur
R : Radius of spherical drop W = F .dx = F .dx
∆R : increase in Radius R
W = F .∆R
S : Surface tension of liquid
P1 P2 Force F
∆P = = ⇒ F = ∆P × Area
∇
R+ R
∇ Area Area
Amount of work done in R
W = ∆P × Area × ∆R
increasing the radius by ∆R
ur uur W = ∆P × 4ΠR 2 ∆R (i )
W = F .dx = Fdx
W = F ∆R Now
Force F increase in Area = 4Π( R + ∆R)2 − 4ΠR 2
∆P = = ⇒ F = ∆P × Area
Area Area = 4Π( R 2 + ∆R 2 + 2 R∆R − R 2 )
W = ∆P × Area × ∆R = 4Π(2 R∆R)
W = ∆P × 4ΠR 2 × ∆R (i ) = 8ΠR∆R
[∆R is very small
Now increase in Area
2 2 ∆R2 is very small, so it can be neglected]
= 4Π( R + ∆R) − 4ΠR
surface energy = S x increase in Area
= 4Π( R 2 + ∆R 2 + 2 R∆R − R 2 )
S.E = S (8ΠR∆R) (ii)
= 4Π(2 R∆R)
= 8ΠR∆R As Amount of work done = surface energy

[∆R is very small

∆R2 is very small, so can be neglected] 2S
∆P =
Surface Energy = S x increase in Area R
S.E. = S x (8ΠR∆R) (ii) 3. Excess Pressure inside a soap bubble in air :

Amt of work done = stored in liquid surface as 

excess pressure = P2 - P1 = ∆P
its surface energy R : Radius of spherical bubble R

∆R : increase in Radius P1 P2

2S S : Surface tension of soap

∆P =
∇
R

R Amt of work done in increasing the radius by ∆R

2. Excess Pressure inside an air bubble in
liquid: ur uur
W = F .dx = F .dx
excess pressure = P2 - P1
 W = F .∆R
= ∆P R
Force F
R : Radius of air bubble ∆P = = ⇒ F = ∆P × Area
P1 P2
∇
R+ R
Area Area
∆R : increase in Radius ∇
R
W = ∆P × Area × ∆R
S : Surface tension W = ∆P × 4ΠR 2 ∆R (i )

[ there are two free surfaces]

104
Now from diagram PA > PB
increase in Area 2S
& PA − PB =
[∆R is very small R
2S
∆R2 is very small, it can be neglected] ⇒ PB = PA =
R
surface energy = S x increase in Area 2S
⇒ PB = P0 = (i )
S.E = S x (16ΠR∆R) (ii) R

As Amount of work done = stored in thin film as its  e know pressure at same level remains requal
w
surface energy pressure at point B & D point must be equal but PB
≠ PD
unstable condition
4S
∆P =  −25 
R  PB = PO R , PD = PO 

# Capillarity :
So to maintain the pressure, liquid level in tube
The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid in a
 rises till PB = PD
capillary tube in comparison to the surrounding.
( PB + hρ g ) = PD
[capillary tube : A tube of very small radius]
2S
e.g. (ii) Bloting paper soak ink PO − + hρ g = PO
R
# Ascent fomula : 2S 2S
hρ g = ⇒ h=
Consider, a capillary tube (of glass) of radius 'r' R Rρ g
Glass - Water from diagram
Point A & C are in air
r r
Po = atmosphaic Pressure cos θ = ⇒R⇒
R cosθ
θ R
i.e PA, PB, PC and PD : Pressure at point A, B, C &
now
θ

D. θ

cosθ : +ve (θ: acute) 2S 2 s cos θ θ

h= =
 r  rρg
(Adhesive > Cohesive force)   ρ g
cos θ
h = + ve
B
2 S cos θ
h
Ascent formula A C
B
h=
rρg
B D
cosθ : -ve (θ: obtuse)
colnesive > Adhesive force # Rise of liquid in a capillary tube of insufficient
h = -ve length :

Descent formula using

PA = Po, PC = Po
Point C & D are very close
i.e PC ≈ PD ⇒ PD = PO
105
 2S
h.R = = constant
ρg

2cm = h
r
0
60
l=?

h
h1
h1 h
cos 600 = = ⇒ l = 2h
l 2 l
l = 2 × 2 = 4cm

1
h <h

h
i.e h.R = h1R1 ⇒ R1 = R
h1

of h1 < h ⇒ R1 > R
i.e Radius increases or liquid spread out on the top
but will not overflow.
Q.

h
l

600 h1

h1< h

(i) If radivs of capillarg tube is 1/3 rd of first tube

what will be the height of liquid level. If first
tube is inclined at an angle of 600 with the
vertical, what will be the height of liquid level
& length of tube upto which level rises.

Ans. 1
h∝
r
1
i.e h = 3h = 3 × 2
= 6 cm

(ii) Height of liquid level = 2 cm length of within =

2h = 4cm tube
106
 11 Thermal Properties
CHAPTER of Matter

TC = TK -273 or TK = TC + 273
Heat: It is a form of energy which gives the sensation
of warmth [S.I unit : Joule] Q. Find absolute zero in Fahrenheit scale.
Τ K − 273 TF − 32
Temperature: It measures the degress of hotness & =
100 180
coldness of a body. [S.I unit : Kelvin] TK = 0
Different scale of measurement of temperature: −273 TF − 32
=
5 100 180 9
1. Celsius Scale 5TF − 160 = − 2457
2. Kelvin 5TF =− 2297
−2297
3. Fahrenheit TF = = −459.4 0 F
5
[Reference Point is taken as freezing point of water Q. Temperature of a body in celsius scale is 360,
= 00C] and Find its temperature in Fahrenheit scale.
[Boiling point of water = 1000C] Ans. TF = 96.80F
Q. A thermometer with wrong calibration, M.P of
ice = -100C, it reads 600C in place of 500C. Find
the B.P of water on this scale.

Ans. TC − O = T − TO
100 x
To : lower point in faulty thermometer
n : no. of division
TC − O TK − 273 TF − 32
= = 0 − 0 −10 − TO
100 100 180 (i) = ⇒ T0 = −100 C
100 n
Q. At what temperature celsius & Fahrenheit gives
the same reading. 50 − 0 60 − (−10) 1 70
(ii) = ⇒ = ⇒ n = 140
Ans. TC = TF = F 100 n 2 n
TC − O TF − 32
= 100 − 0 T − (−10)
100 180 So = ⇒ T = 140 − 10 = 1300 C
100 140
T − O T − 32 #Thermal Expansion:
= ⇒T =?
100 180
Almost all solids, liquid & gases expand on heating &
T = −400 contract on, cooling.
Increase in size or dimension of a body on heating is
i.e -400C = -400F called thermal expansion.
107
1. Linear Expansion ∆A α ∆T
When heat is given to a body & there is an expansion ∆A α A∆T
in the length only.
∆A = β A∆T
L ∆L
β : coefficient of Area expansion.

L : Original length ∆A
β=
∆L : increase in ∆L A.∆T
∆T : increase in temperture
∆L α L increase in Area per unit original Area, per degree
change in temperature, known as co-efficient of area
∆L α ∆T
expansion
∆L α L ∆T
Unit : 0C-1 or K-1
∆L = α L ∆T
[β] = [K-1] = [θ-1]
α : coefficient of linear expansion.
= [M0 L0 T0 K-1]
∆A
β= Volume of a, β & γ depends upon the Nature of
A.∆T material

Defination coefficient of linear expansion (α) → Gases have only volume expansion, as they
increase in length per unit original length per, degre don't have fixed shape.
change in temperature is known as co-efficient linear 3. Volume Expansion
expansion
When heat is given, to a body & there is an
Unit : C or K
0 -1 -1
increase in volume.
[α] = [K-1] = [θ-1]
= [M0 L0 T0 K-1]
or
= [M0 L0 T0 θ-1]
Metals have high volume of α. V : Original volume
2. Area Expansion (Superficial Expansion) ∆V : increase in volume
When heat is given to a body & there is an increase ∆T : increase in temp.
in Area. ∆V α V
∆V α ∆T
∆V α V ∆T
A ∆V = γV∆T
γ : coefficient of volume expansion.
∆A
∆V
A : Original Area γ=
V .∆T
∆A : increase in Area
∆T : increase in temp. increase in volume per unit original volume
per degree chane in temperature, known as
∆A α A
coefficient of volume expansion. Unit 0C-1 or K-1

108
Dimension = [M0L0T0θ-1] Let
γ is not constant, it becomes constant only at high L : side of cube
temp. V : Volume of cube
γ ∆T : increase in temperature
∆L, ∆V: increase in length & volume respectivly
V1 = new volume = V + ∆V = (L + ∆L)3
(a+b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2
V + ∆V = L3 + ∆L3 + 3L2 ∆L + 3L ∆L2
⇓ ⇓
0 0
∆L is small, ∆L2, ∆L3 is very small. Hence can be

T(in K) neglected
250 500 ∆V = 3L2 ∆L
#Relation b/w α, β & γ : using ∆V = γV ∆T, ∆L= αL ∆T
(i) Relation b/w α & β γ. V. ∆T = 3L2 (αL ∆T)
Let γ. V. = 3 αL3
L : side of square γ = 3α
A : Area of square
Note
∆T : Change in temp.
β = 2 α, γ = 3 α
β
α= = ⇒ 6α = 3 β = 2γ
23 3

∆L = α L ∆T ∆A = βA∆T ∆V = γV∆T
L1 = L + ∆L A1 = A + ∆A V1 = V + ∆V
∆L, ∆A: ↑ in side & Area of square L1 = L + α L ∆T A = A+βA ∆T
1
V1 = V+γV ∆T
A = L2 L1 = L(1+α∆T) A1 = A(1+β∆T) V1=V(1+γ∆T)
A1 = new Area = A + ∆A = (L + ∆L)2
Q. Show that cofficient of Area expansion of
⇒ A + ∆A = L2 + ∆L2 + 2L ∆L
a rectangular sheet of solid is twice of its
⇒ ∆A = ∆L2 + 2L ∆L coefficient of linear expansion.
 ∆L is small, ∆L2 is very small. Hence it can be ∆L
neglected
∆L2≈O II IV ∆B
∆A = 2L ∆L
using ∆A = βA ∆T, ∆L= α L ∆T B I III B
β. A. ∆T = 2L (α L ∆T)
L
β. A. = 2 α L2
2α L2 Ans. A = length x bredth
β=
A L1 = L + ∆L = L (1+ α ∆T), ∆L = α L.∆T
β = 2α B1 = B + ∆B = B (1+ α ∆T), ∆B = α B.∆T
(ii) Relation between α and γ A1 = A + ∆A = A (1+ β ∆T), ∆A = βA.∆T

109
from diagram  mount of heat required to raise the temperature of
A
unit mass of a substance by unit degree is known as
∆A = L ∆B + B∆L + ∆L.∆B specific heat capacity
= L (αB∆T) + B(αL∆T) + (αL.∆T) (αB.∆T)
Isothermal Process:T=const. ⇒ ∆T = 0 ⇒ s = α
∆A = α (B.L)∆T + α (B.L) ∆T + α2 L.B.∆T
(α2 can be neglected as Adiabatic Process:Q =const. ⇒ ∆Q = 0 ⇒ s = 0
β.A.∆T = 2α. B.A.∆T α is very small)

β.A.∆T = 2α (A) ∆T ⇒ β=2α #Change of state :

Q. A blacksmith fixed iron ring on the rim of the Consider ice at -10 C in a beaker & Heat is
0

wooden wheel of a horse cart. The diameter of the rim continuosally supplied to the ice,
and the iron ring are 5.243 m and 5.231m respectively T

at 270C. To what temperature should the ring be

heated so as to fit into the rim of the wheel.

ur
Drim = 5.243m, Dring = 5.231m

po
va
L V
1000C
Boiling Point
id
L = Pring = Π x 5.231 S L
Sol

00C
L1 = Prim = Π x 5.233 So
lid
Melling Point

∆T = T2-T1 = T2-270C
t

L = L (1 + ∝∆T),
1
∝ =1.2 x 10 K -5 -1
#Melting Point: It is the temperature at which solid
5.243 = 5.231(1 + 1.2 x 10-5 x (T2-271) & liquid state of substance conist & in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
T2 = 2180C
#Boiling Point: It is the temperature at which liquid
#Specific heat capacity:
& vapour sate of substance conist & in thermal
∆Q : Amount of heat given, to the substance equilibrium with each other M.P & B.P & at normal
atmospheric pressure are called normal melting point
∆T : Change in temperature
& normal boiling point.
m : mass of substance
#Latent Heat :
∆Q ∝ m
∆Q ∝ m
i.e ∆Q ∝ ∆T
∆Q = mL
or ∆Q = mL
∆θ = ms ∆T
L: latent Heat
Let
unit : J/kg = J kg-1
m = 1, ∆T = 1 ⇒ s = sQ
Let m = 1 ⇒ L = ∆Q
Def: Amount of Heat required to change the state of
s: specific heat capacity [ S or c ] unit mass at same temperature
Lf: Latent Heat of fusion
S.I unit : J kg k or J kg c
-1 -1 -1 -1
Lv: Latent Heat of vaporisation (or steam)
(GS unit : erg g k )
-1 -1
∆Q = ms∆T, ∆Q = mL
Let Temp is raise to change the state
at same temp.
m = 1, ∆T = 1 ⇒ s = ∆Q
in same state
110
example Q. When 0.15 kg of ice at 00C is mixed with 0.30
kg of water at 500C in a container, the resulting
Calculate the heat required to convert 3 kg of ice temperature is 6.70C. Calculate the heat of
at -120C kept in a calorimeter to steam at 1000C at fusion of ice.
atmospheric pressure. Given specific heat capacity of
ice = 2100 J/kg/K, specific heat capacity of water = Ans.  ice 00C   water 500C  Result 
4186 J/kg/K, latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.35 x 105  0.15 kg +  0.3 kg  =  6.70C 
J/kg and latent heat of steam = 2.256 x 106 J/kg.
Ans. m = 3 kg Heat gain = Heat lose

s v (ice) (water)
s→s 0 s→L 0 L→L L →V ie 0 C → 6.7
0 0
C = 500C → 6.70C
−120 C 0C 0C 1000 C 1000 C
∆Q1 ∆Q2 ∆Q3 ∆Q4 gain lose
∆Q1 = Sice m.∆T = 2100 x 3 x 12 J mice Lf + swm x ∆T = sw mw x ∆T
∆Q2 = mice Lf = 3 x 3.35 x 10 J 5
0.15 x Lf = 4186 x 0.15 = 4186 x 0.3 x 43.3
∆Q3 = sw mw ∆T = 4186 x 3 x 100 J 0.15 x Lf = 4186 x 0.15 [2 x 43.3-6.7]
∆Q4 = m.Ls = 3 x 2.25 x 10 J 6
Lf = 4186 x [86.6 - 6.7]
∆Q = ∆Q1 + ∆Q2 + ∆Q3 + ∆Q4 = 3.34 x 105 J kg-1
#Calorimetry: It means measurement of heat. When #Anomalous behavior of water:
a body at high temperature is brought in contact with y y
Volume of 1kg of water (cm3)

another body at lower temperature, heat lost by hot

Density of water (g cm3)

1000.35 1.0000
body is equal to heat gained by colder body provided 1000.30

no heat is lost to surroundings. A device for heat 1000.30 0.9999

measurement is called calorimeter.

1000.30
0.9998
1000.30

1000.30
Principle: Heat gained = Heat lost
0.9997
1000.30

1000.30 0.9996
Q. A sphere of 0.047 kg aluminium is placed for x
0
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

sufficient time in a vessel containing boiling water,

0 0
Temperature C Temperature C

so that the sphere is at 1000C. It is then immediately

transferred to 0.14 kg copper calorimeter containing 0
0.25 kg water at 200C. The temperature of water 0 C → 4 C : water contract or (volume decreases)
0

rises and attains a steady state at 230C. Calculate the hence density increases
specific heat capacity of aluminium. At 40C V = Volume ⇒ ρ = maximum
Ans. m sphere = 0.047 kg, 1000C above 40C V↑ ⇒ ρ↓
Aquatic life: When lake cools down towards 40C,
near the surface of water, ρ of water increase. It
becomes denser at 40C & sink. Less denser water
rises & comes at the top. It becomes denser, & 40C
& sink and process keeps on repeating till whole lake
acquire the same temperature of 40C.
Using principle of calorimety If temperature of top surface decreases below 40C.
Heat gain = Heat lost It becomes less denser & remain at the top where it
freezs. Freezing starts from the top surface and below
(cu + water) (sphere)
this the lake still in the form of liquid state. frence
scu.mcu. ∆Tcu + sw.mw. ∆Tw = sal.ms. ∆Ts aquatic life sustain.
386.4x0.14x3+4186x0.25x3=SAl (0.047)x77 #Modes of Transfer of Heat :
solve for SAl = 0.911 kJ kg k -1 -1

111
  H .L J / Sm −1 −1 −1 
(i) Conduction  K = A∆T = mK = Jm s k 
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation Q. All three rods are identical & of same material.
Find the temperature at junction.
(i) Conduction: I t is the mode of transfer of Heat 0
90 C
between two adjacent parts of
a body due to their temperature ion
nct ?
u
difference. J
T
=

(ii) Conduction: I t is the mode of transfer of Heat 0

0C
between two adjacent parts of
a body due to their temperature 00

difference. 90 C
90 C
0

Heat transfer : Higher Temperature → Lower 90 C

Q1
Temperature.
H1
Q
L (A) T
C D Area 00C H
Q2
TC > TD
TC TD H
2
0
90 C

Ans. Q1 + Q2 = Q
or H1 + H2 = H
Experimentally it has been found that:
 KA∆T 
 H = L 
 dQ 
Rate of flow of Heat  H = dt  ∝ A (Area of cross-
section)
KA(90 − T ) KA(90 − T ) KA(T − 0)
Heat current ∝ ∆T (TC-TD) + =
L L L
1 90 − T + 90 − T = T
∝
L 180
180 = 3T ⇒ T = = 600 C
3
A∆T Q. All three rods are identical & of different
H∝
L material. Find the temp of junction.
0
H 1 90 C
H = K . A∆T , K: coefficient of thermal


ion
nct
L conducturity Ju T=
?
=K
K1
Unit of K: Js-1m-1k-1 = W m-1 k-1 0
0C K3 = 3K

H1 K2 = 2K
H2 900C

Ans. K . A(90 − T ) (2 K )(90 − T ) 3KA(T − 0)

+ =
L L L
⇒ 3(90 − T ) = 3T
270
⇒ 270 = 6T ⇒ T = = 450 C
6
112
eg 11.7 upon the color of body.
Black bodies are better absorber & emitter.
Example :
Q. All three rods are identical but of different (i) 
In summer we prefer to wear light colour as
materal. Find the temperature of junctions
T 1 T 2
they absorb minimum heat from sun.
(ii) In winter we prefer to wear dark color as they
0 0
100 C 0C

absorb maximum heat from sun.

K1 = 2K K2 = K K3 = 0.5 K
H1 H2 H3
Ans. A1 = A2 = A3 = A, L1 = l2 = l3 = L (iii) Bottoms of utensils are blackened so that they
H1 = H2 = H3 absorb maximum heat.
KA∆T #Blackbody Radiation : Thermal radiation doesn't
H= has one wavelenght but follows a continuous spectram
L
from small to long wavelength.
2 K . A.(100 − T1 ) K . A.(T1 − T2 ) 0.5 K . A.(T2 − 0)
= = Radiation Energy per unit Area per unit wavelength.
L L L
Wavelength λm for which energy is maximum
decreases with increasing temperature (T).
T2 600
0
Relation with λm & T is given by wien's which is
T1-T2 = (ii) T = C known as wien's displacement law:
200-2T1= T1-T2 2 1
7
3T2 0 λm.T = const = 2.9 x 10-3 mK
3T1-T1 =200 (i)
T1 =
400
2 T2 = C This law is used to find the surface temperature of
7
celestial bodies like moon, sun & other stars.
# Convection : It is a made of transfer of heat by Black body radiation are universal they depend only
actual motion of matter [Possible upon temperature & independant of size, shape &
only in fluids] material of black body
Natural Convection : #Stefan-Boltzman law : The total energy radiated by
lan
d ea a body at absolute temp T is propootional to its size,
 d S
Sea lan ability to radiate (called emissivity) & its temp for a
pefect radiator
Energy emitted per unit time = H = A σ T4
During the day, ground heats up quickly as compared
to the water because (specific heat) of water > (specfic A : Area, T : absolute temp of body,
heat of ground) object. Air near the ground expands
σ : Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 w m-2 k-4
becomes less dense warm air rises & air from the sea
side move towards the land region. H = eAσT4 , Where e= emissinty (O ≤ e ≤ 1)
#Radiation : It doesn't requires a material medium e = 1, for pefect radiator
Energy is transferred by electromagnetic eg for tungsten : at T = 3000K, e = 0.4, for A = 0.3cm2
wave (Radiant Energy)
H = 0.4 x 0.3 x 10-4 x 5.67 x 10-8 x (3000)4 = 60w
→ All bodies radiatie energy. (Solid, liquid & Gas)
If body radiate energy at temp T & receives
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body due energy from surrourding at Ts
to their temperature is called thermal radiation when
then H = eσA(T4-TS4)
thermal radiatio falls on another bodies, it get partly
rflected & partly absorbed by radiation. It all depends #Regelation : Regelation is the process in which when

113
pressure in increased the solid converts to liquid and Vaporization : Vaporization is a process in which
again on releared of pressure it converts back to solid. liquid converts to a vapour. The temperature at which
it taken place is called boiling point of liquid.
eg. Skating is possible on snow in due to fomation
of water under the skate. It is formed due to Low Pressure Normal High Pressure
pressure & this water act as a lubricant. Liquid Pressure
Change of State low normal increased
vapour vapour vapour
Solid liquid gas (vapour) 80 C----------- 100 C---------- 120 C-----------
0 0 0

less energy energy higher energy highest liquid liquid liquid

distance less distance larger distance largest * at low * at normal * at high
force higher force weaker force weakest pressure liquid pressure liquid pressure liquid
shape-rigid and shape → not shape and size converted into converted converted into
vapour below into vapour at vapour above
size → fix fixed & size → not fixed. 1000C 1000C the 1000C
fixed
If vapour is directely convert into liquid process
by exchange of heat we can charge the state of matter. is known has condensation and reverse process is
→ Temperature is indicater of Heat charge. known as vaporization.
→ If solid is directely convert into liquid process is If liquid is directely convert into vapour (on heating
known has fusion or melting and reverse process is and on cooling converted into solid) process is known
known as freezing. has sublimation.
Melting pt : Melting pt is a temp of material at which #Tripple Point: At a particular combination of
it can exists in the state of liquid as well as solid or pressure and temperature the all state of matter that is
together. solid liquid and gases reside together.
O0C→for water & Ice.
With increase in pressure, the melting point increases.
With decrease in pressure, the melting point decreases.
Low Pressure Normal High Pressure
Liquid Pressure
solid liquid liquid
+50C------------ +5 C------------
0
+5 C------------
0

liquid solid solid

+00C------------ +00C------------ +00C------------ Pressure vs. temperature graph for water in different states of
liquid solid solid matter.

-5 C------------
0
-5 C------------
0
-5 C------------
0

114
 12 Thermodynamics
CHAPTER

Energy that is transferred between a system and



T hermodynamics is the branch of physics its surroundings whenever there is temperature
which deals with the study of transformation difference between the system and its surroundings
of heat into other forms of energy and is called heat.
vice-versa.
The energy possessed by a system due to its molecular
Heat is the form of energy and heat and work are motion and molecular configuration is called internal
interconvertible. SI unit joule (J) energy. The internal energy is denoted by U. Internal
Mechanical equivalent of heat is the amount of work energy of a system is a macroscopic variable and it
done to produce one unit of heat energy. It is 4.186 depends only on the state of the system. Its value
joule per calorie of heat. depends only on the given state of the system and
Thermodynamics system has a certain values of does not depend on the path taken to arrive that state.

pressure (P), volume (V) and temperature and (T). irst Law of Thermodynamics is the general law
F
 thermodynamic system is in an equilibrium state if
A of conservation of energy applied to any system.
the macroscopic variables such as pressure, volume, According to this law, "the total heat energy change
temperature, mass composition etc. that characterise in any system is the sum of the internal energy change
the system do not change in time. In thermal and the work done." dQ = dU + dW = dU + PdV
equilibrium, the temperature of the two systems are For Isobaric process, P= Constant
equal.
 he degree of hotness or coldness of the body is
T dQ = dU + PdV
called temperature of it.
 eroth Law of Thermodynamics identifies thermal For
Z Isochoric process, V= Constant ⇒ dV = 0
equilibrium and introduces temperature as a tool for
identifying equilibrium. According to this law "If dQ = dU
two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third
system then those two systems themselves are in For Adiabatic process, dQ = 0
equilibrium." 0 = dU +dW
⇒ dW = -dU
Work is done at the cost of internal energy

 ork is said to be done if a body or a system moves

W
through a certain distance in the direction of the
applied force. It is given as dW = PdV.
Proof: Let gas expands by dx then under isothermal
conditions, work done dW is
dW = Fdx = PAdx = PdV (Where dV = Volume
change)
 V2  Isothermal
W = 2.303 nRT log
 V  Process
1

115
 V2 V2  hermodynamic state variables of a system are the
T
dV V  parameters which describe equilibrium states of the
W = ∫ dw = ∫ PdV = ∫ nRT = nRT log e  2 
V1 V1
V  V1  system.
The equation of state represents the connection

 V2  between the state variables of a system. For example,
W = 2.303 nRT log  V 
1 the equation of state of an ideal/perfect gas is
represented as
nR(T 1 − T 2)
W=
(ii) (Adiabatic process) PV = nRT
γ −1 Thermodynamic state variables are of two kinds,

Proof: Let gas expands by dx adiabatically than extensive and intensive. Extensive variables indicate
work done, the size of the system but intensive variables do
V2 v2 v2
KdV not indicate the size. Volume, mass, internal energy
dW = Fdx = ∫ PdV = ∫ V γ = K ∫ V dV
−γ

V1 v1 v1
of a system are extensive variables but pressure,
temperature and density are intensive variables.
As for adiabatic process,
PVγ = constant, K = P1V1γ = P2V2γ Any process in which the thermodynamic variables
of a thermodynamic system change is known as
V thermodynamic process.
V −γ +1 K
2
− γ +1 − γ +1
W =K = V2 − V1 Processes that are sufficiently slow and do
−γ + 1 V −γ + 1 not involve accelerated motion of piston
1

1 and/or large temperature gradient are

γ − γ +1 γ − γ +1
W= PV2 2 V2 − PV
1 1 V1 quasi-static processes. In this process, the change in
−γ + 1 pressure or change in volume or change in temperature
1 R of the system is very small.
W= PV2 2 − PV1 1 = T2 − T1
−γ + 1 −γ + 1 A change in pressure and volume of a gas without
any change in its temperature, is called an isothermal
W= T1 − T2 change.
A process in which no exchange of heat energy takes
place between the gas and the surroundings, is called
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature an adiabatic process.
of one mole of the substance by 1K is called molar A graph representing the variation of pressure with the
specific heat. variation of volume is called P-V diagram or indicator
Solids have only one specific heat and for gases we diagram. The work done by the thermodynamic
have two specific heats. For gases, the specific heat system is equal to the area under P-V diagram.
capacity depends on the process or the conditions
under which heat transfer takes place. These are D C
specific heat capacity at constant volume and specific P P
heat capacity at constant pressure.

CP A B
CP − CV = R and γ = U V
CV
 he specific heat capacity of a gas at constant
T
pressure is greater than the specific heat A process which can retrace so that the system passes
capacity of the gas at constant volume i.e. through the same states is called a reversible process,
CP > CV Reason is that when heat supplied to a gas otherwise it is irreversible. Irreversibility arises
at constant volume, no work would be done by the mainly from two causes:
gas against the external pressure and all the energy is (i) Many processes like free expansion
used to raise the temperature of the gas. On the other or an explosive chemical reaction take the
hand when the heat is supplied to the gas at constant system to non-equilibrium states.
pressure, its volume increases and the heat energy
supplied to it is used to increase the temperature  (ii) Most processes involve friction,
of the gas as well as in doing the work against the viscosity and other dissipative effects.
external pressure.
116
The principle which disallows certain phenomena (f) S
 ign convention:- Work done by system = +
consistent with the First law of thermodynamics ve Heat gained by system = +ve Increase in
is known as the second law of thermodynamics. internal energy = +ve
Following are the two statements of second law of
(g) Cyclic process - System returns to its initial
thermodynamics. Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is
impossible to construct an engine, operating in a state after under going a series of changes.
cycle, to extract heat from hot body and convert it (h) Non cyclic process - System does not return
completely into work without leaving any change to its initial state.
anywhere i.e., 100% conversion of heat into work is (i) Reversible process is the process that can be
impossible. Clausius Statement: It is impossible for a reversed without leaving any trace on the
self acting machine, operating in a cycle, unaided by surroundings
any external energy to transfer heat from a cold body
to a hot body. In other words heat cannot flow itself (j) Relation between adiabatic and isothermal
from a colder body to a hotter body. curve slope
For Isothermal change, PV = constant
Basic terminology & Relations:
A. System
dP P
PdV + VdP = 0 ⇒ =− (i )
dV V
Open Closed Isolated For Adiabatic change, PVγ = constant
γPVγ-1 dV + VγdP = 0
Both matter Matter can not Neither matter Vγ dP = -γPVγ-1dV
as well as be exchanged nor energy can dP P
energy can but energy can be exchanged = −γ (i )
be exchanged be exchanged with the
dV V
with the with the surroundings
Slope of adiabatic
surroundings surroundings =γ
Slope of isothermal
B. Relations
(a ) dW = PdV ⇒ W = ∫ dW = ∫ PdV Exercise
1. Which of the following process is used to do
dU maximum work done on the ideal gas the gas is
(b) = CV
dT compressed to half of its initial volume?
(c ) CP − CV = R (a) Isothermal
CP (b) Isochoric
(d ) =γ
CV (c) Isobaric
(d) Adiabatic
V 
( e) Wiso = 2.303nRT log  2  Ans. d
 V1 
(f) Wadia = nCv (T1 − T2 ) 2. Select the incorrect statement
nR (a) For the triple point of water, 1K is equal to
=
γ −1
(T1 − T2 ) 1/273.16.
(b) The first law of thermodynamics is also known
( g ) PV γ = constant , P1−γ T γ = constant as the law of thermal equilibrium
γ −1
TV = constant (c) The triple point of water is one of the reference
C. (a) The equation of state is PV = nRT point on the thermodynamic scale of temperature
(b) Isothernal process, Temperature constant (d) At room temperature, the heat of combustion is
(c) Isobaric process, Pressure constant not found
(d) Isochoric process, volume remians constant Ans. d
(e) Adiabatic process, no heat enters or leaves
the system 3. Select the factor that affects the heat of reaction
which is based on Kirchoff's equation

117
(a) Molecularity inversely proportional to change in temperature.
(b) Temperature 9. Assertion: Air quickly leaking out of a balloon
(c) Pressure becomes coolers.
(d) Volume Reason: The leaking air undergoes adiabatic
Ans. b expansion.
10. Assertion: Work and heat are two equivalent
4. Which of the following processes is reversible? form of energy.
(a) Isothermal compression  Reason: Work is the transfer of mechanical
(b) Electrical heating of a nichrome wire energy irrespective of temperature difference,
(c) Transfer of heat by radiation whereas heat is the transfer of thermal energy
(d) Transfer of heat by conduction. because of temperature difference only.
Ans. a
11. Mark True/False statements
5. If ∆U and ∆W represent the increase in internal (a) Temperature remains constant for an adiabatic
energy and work done by the system respectively process. (F)
in a thermodynamical process, which of the (b) Temperature does not change during an
following is true? isothermal process. (T)
(a) ∆U = -∆W, in a adiabatic process (c) Internal energy of the system decreases during
(b) ∆U = ∆W, in a isothermal process an adiabatic process. (T)
(c) ∆U = ∆W, in a adiabatic process 12. In changing the state of a gas adiabatically from
(d) ∆U = -∆W, in a isothermal an equilibrium state A to another equilibrium
Ans. a state B, an amount of work equal to 22.3 J is
done on the system. If the gas is taken from
6. Can we boil H2O without heating it? How? state A to B via a process in which the net heat
For 7-10 questions absorbed by the system is 9.35 cal, how much
is the net work done by the system in the latter
Directions: Each of these questions contain two case? (Take 1 cal = 4.19 J)
statements, Assertion and Reason. Each of these Ans. 16.88 J
questions also has four alternative choices, only one 13. A geyser heats water flowing at the rate of 5.0
of which is the correct answer. You have to select one litres per minute from 2 7°C to 127°C. If the
of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below. geyser operates on a gas burner, what is the
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the rate of consumption of the fuel if its heat of
reason is the correct explanation of the assertion. combustion is 4.0 x 104 J/g?
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason Ans. 15.75g/min
is not the correct explanation of the assertion. 14. A cylinder with a movable piston contains 5
(c) If assertion is true but reason is false. moles of nitrogen at standard temperature and
(d) If the assertion and reason both are false. pressure. The walls of the cylinder are made
of a heat insulator, and the piston is insulated
7. Assertion: In adiabatic compression, the by having a pile of sand on it. By what factor
internal energy and temperature of the system does the pressure of the gas increase if the gas
get decreased. is compressed to half its original volume?
 Reason: The adiabatic compression is a slow Ans. Pressure increased by 2.639
process. 15. P-V diagram of a gas is shown in the figure. In
8. Assertion: The specific heat of a gas is an this figure AB represents isobaric process and
adiabatic process is zero and in an isothermal AC represents isothermal process.
process is infinite.
Reason: Specific heat of a gas is directly
proportional to change of heat in system and

118
 7
(d) 2
7
Ans. (d) 2

20.  hen there is no change in temperature what

W
ever heat is taken in or given out than the heat
capacity of the substance is __________.
Ans. Infinite

a) Explain isobaric process and isothermal process. 21. A gas performs minimum work when it expands.
b) Using the above graph, find the process in which (a) adiabatically
the work done is maximum. Give the reason. (b) isothermally
16. a) Which law of thermodynamics implies that (c) isobarically
no heat engine can be 100% efficient? (d) isochorically
b) One mole of an ideal gas expands from volume Ans. (d) isochorically
V1 to volume V2 at a constant temperature T.
Derive an expression for the work done. 22. I n a cyclic process work done by the system is
17. Two moles of an ideal gas kept at a constant __________.
temperature of 400 K are compressed from the Ans. equal to heat given to it
volume of 20 litre to 10 litre.
a) Which thermodynamic process, is involved in 23.  n ideal gas is taken through a cycle ABCA as
A
this, process? shown in the figure the work done during the
b) Calculate the work done this gas to compress cycle is.
1
18. A thermodynamic system is taken from an (a)
 PV
2
original state to an intermediate state by the
linear process shown in Fig. Its volume is then (b) 2 PV
2P

reduced to the original value from E to F by an (c) 4 PV P

isobaric process. Calculate the total work done (d) PV 0 V 3V

by the gas from D to E to F. Ans. (d) PV V

Y
600 D 24. Assertion: Heat and work are two different
modes of changing state of a thermodynamic
300 system and change of internal energy of a
F E system which is at state variable
V(cc) x Reason: Change in thermodynamic state
0 2.0
P (atm)
5.0 variables is called thermodynamic process.
Which of the following is correct?
19. In an adiabatic change, the pressure P and (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct

temperature T of a diatomic gas are related by explanation of A
the relation P ∝ T where c equals.
C
(b) Both A and R are true and R is NOT the correct
5 explanation of A
(a) 3 (c) A is true and R is false
2 (d) A is false and R is also false.
(b) 5 Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R is the correct
3 explanation of A
(c) 5 25. If 100J of heat is added to a gaseous system
and temperature increase by 20J then find the
119
 amount of work done. 27. Calculate the fall in temperature of Helium
(a) 120J initially at 150C when it is suddenly expanded
(b) 80J to 8 times its original volume given γ = 5/3.
(c) 60J Ans. T V γ −1 = TV γ −1
2 2 1 1
(d) 100J γ −1 5 −1 2
Ans. (b) 80J V   1 3
 1 3
T2 = T1  1  = (288)   = (288)  
V 
2
 8  8
Note: 1
Relation between CP and CV: T2 = 288 × = 72 K
4

For 1 mole of gas which undergoes change in ∆T = 288 − 72 = 216 K
temperature by dT at constant volume we have, 28.  alculate the difference in the temperature of
C
dQ1 = nCvdT = CvdT water at the top and at the bottom of water fall
First law of thermdynamics states, 100m high.
dQ = dU + PdV Ans. mc∆T = mgh (energy conservation)
dQ1 = dU + P(O) gh 9.8 × 100
∴dU = CvdT (i) ∆T = = = 0.22 K
c 4200
If the same gas undergoes change in temperature
by dT at constant pressure then
dQ2 = nCPdT = CPdT
First law of thermodynamics
dQ = dU + PdV
dQ2 = dU + PdV = CPdT
⇒ CVdT + PdV = CPdT
∴PdV = CPdT - CVdT (ii)

Using ideal gas equation,

PV = nRT = (1) (RT)
PV = RT
⇒ PdV = RdT (iii)

from (ii) and (iii)

(CP - CV) dT = RdT
CP - CV =R

26.  hree moles of an ideal gas kept at a constant

T
temperature of 300K are compressed from a
volume of 4L to 1L. Calculate the work done.
Ans. V2 1
= = 0.25
V1 4
V 
W = nRT × 2.303 log  2 
 V1 
W = 3 × 8.31 × 300 × 2.303 × log (0.25)
W = −1.04 × 104 J
120
 13 Kinetic Theory
CHAPTER

 he kinetic theory gives a molecular interpretation of

T  vogadro's Hypothesis: Equal volumes of all gases
A
the pressure and temperature of a gas and is consistent under similar conditions of temperature and pressure
with gas laws and Avogadro's hypothesis. It correctly have the same number of molecules.
explains the specific heat capacities of many gases. If V1 = V2, T1 = T2 & P1 = P2 than
It also relates measurable properties of gases such as n1 = n2
viscosity, conduction, and diffusion with molecular
parameters, yielding estimates of molecular sizes and  raham's law of diffusion of gases: The rate of
G
masses. diffusion of gas in inversely proportional to the square
root of the density of the gas.
Gaseous state is characterised by weak intermolecular
forces, large intermolecular distance with no
1 Mass 1
definite shape and no definite volume. Gases can r ∝ As ρ= ⇒ρ∝
be compressed easily. Gases have neither a definite ρ Volume M
volume nor a definite shape. When a substance
r M2
is in the gaseous state, its density is very small in ∴ 1 =
comparison to the density in its solid or liquid state. r2 M1
Boyle's Law: At constant temperature, the volume V D  alton's law of partial pressure: The
of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to resultant pressure exerted by a mixture of
its pressure P, according to this law. non-interacting gases is equal to the sum of their
1 individual partial pressures.
V∝ P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...............
P
where temperature, T = constant Equation of State for an Ideal Gas: For a gas, the
Charles's Law:- At constant pressure the value of PV/T remains constant. Let this constant be
volume of the given mass of a gas increases by equal to K, then
1 PV
th part of its volume at 00C for 10C rise in =K
273 T
temperature is called Charles's law.
V PV = KT
= constant  here R = Nk, where N = Avogadro's number and k=
W
T Boltzmann constant.
V ∝T It is called the ideal gas equation or perfect gas
Perfect Gas (or ideal gas):- A gas whose properties equation.
are similar to the properties of a real gas at infinitely The gas equation for µ moles of gas will be
low pressure is called perfect gas or ideal gas. It PV = µ RT
strictly obeys Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and the The Fundamental assumptions of Kinetic theory
Dalton's law of pressure under all conditions of of gases:
temperature and pressure. Its pressure coefficient A gas is composed of a large number of tiny invisible,
and volume coefficient are exactly equal to each perfectly elastic particles, called the molecules.
other. Its molecules are infinitesimally small. There The molecules are always in a state of continuous
is no force of attraction between its molecules. motion with varying velocities in all possible
directions.
121
The molecules traverse in the straight path between B
any two collisions. The average kinetic energy of F
the molecule is directly proportional to the absolute E A Y
temperature. Z
v1
The size of the molecules is infinitely small compared w1
to the average distance traversed by a molecule C1 X
u1
between any two consecutive collisions. The distance
between any two consecutive collisions is called the H C
free path and the average distance between any two
D
consecutive collisions is called the mean free path. G
The time of collisions is negligible as compared with
the time taken to traverse the free path. c12 = u12 + v12 + w12 .................(1)
The collisions between molecules and with the walls The momentum of this molecule that strikes the wall
are perfectly elastic so that there is no loss of kinetic ABCD of the vessel is equal to mu,where m is its
energy in the collisions. This results in the pressure mass.
exerted by the gas. As the collision is elastic, the molecule will rebound
The molecules exert no force on each other except with same momentum i.e. mu1. The change in
when they collide and the whole of the molecular momentum due to impact is equal to mu1- (-mu1) =
energy is kinetic. 2mu1.
The volume of the molecules is negligible as compared It strikes the wall EFHG and returns back to ABCD
to the volume of a vessel containing gas. after travelling a distance 21.
The inter molecular distances in a gas is much larger The time between the successive collisions (time for
than that of a solid or liquid and the molecules of a gas 2l
are free to move in the entire space available to them. one collision) on ABCD is = .
u1
Pressure Exerted by an Ideal Gas Thus the number of collisions per second, this
When a certain mass of a perfect gas is confined with a u1
vessel the molecule frequently collides with the walls
molecule makes with ABCD is .
2l
of the vessel and is reflected from the walls. During the
Hence the rate of change of momentum = change in
collision with the walls each molecule suffers a change in
momentum x number of collisions per
momentum responsible for the force.
u1 mu12
second is equal to 2mu, x = .
Expression for Pressure of the gas: 2l l
Consider a gas contained in a cubical vessel of side From Newton's second law, rate of change of
with perfectly elastic walls containing a large number momentum = impressed force.
of molecules.
Let c1 be the velocity of a molecule in a direction as mu12
If f1 is the force, then f1 = along X- direction.
shown. This can be resolved into three components l
u1, v1 and w1 along X, Y and Z directions as shown. Similarly, the force on another molecule of velocity c2
Then whose components are u2, v2 and w2 due to impact is
mu22
f 3= along X - direction.
l
Hence the total force F, on the face ABCD due to
impacts of all the n molecules in the X-
direction is given by
m 2
Fx = (u1 + u22 + u32 .............. + un2 ) .......(2)
l
122
Since pressure is force per unit area, the pressure Px NOTE:
on ABCD is given by The pressure exerted by a gas of n molecules
Fx m 2 2 2 2
occupying volume V is given by
Px = = (u1 + u2 + u3 ........ + un ) ..(3) 1mn 2 1
l2 l3 P= C or P V = m n C2
( since P = F / A and A = l 2 ) 3 V 3
If V is the volume occupied by a gram molecule of
the gas and M is the molecular weight of the gas, then
Similarly, if Py and Pz are the pressures on faces EFBA M = m NA where NA is the Avogadro number.
and FBCH, then 1 2
Fy m PV = MC .....(1)
Py = 2 = 3 (v12 + v22 + v32 ........ + vn2 ) ....(4) 3
l l From the perfect gas equation PV = RT ......(2)
F m 1
Pz = 2z = 3 ( w12 + w22 + w32 ........ + vn2 ) ....(5) From (1) and (2) we get M C² = R T
l l 3
As the pressure exerted by the gas is same in all or M C² = 3 R T
directions, the average pressure P of the gas is Dividing the above equation on both the sides by 2
PX + Py + Pz 1 3
P= ..........(6) we get M C² = RT ......(3)
3 2 2
m 3
P = 3 (u12 + u22 + u32 ........ + un2 ) + or U = R T ......(4)
3l 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(v1 + v2 + v3 ........ + vn ) + ( w1 + w3 ........ + wn ) 1
where U = M C 2 is called the internal energy of
m the gas. 2
P = 3 (u12 + v12 + w12 ) + (u22 + v22 + w22 ) Dividing both sides of equation (3) by NA, which is
3l
the number of molecules in one gram molecule of
+ (un2 + vn2 + wn2 ) .........(7) the gas or one mole, called Avogadro number, we get
Since l = V, the volume of the cube and
3 1 M 2 3 R
2 2 2 2 C = T
c1 = u1 + v1 + w1 2 NA 2 NA
c12 = u22 + v22 + w22 and so on. As M/NA = m and R/NA = k, where k is Boltzmann
constant.
1 mn 2 2 c12 + c22 + c32 + ....... + cn2 1 3
or P = C where C =
3V n m C2 = k T ......(5) Also, C∝ T
2 2
known as the mean square velocity of the molecules. Thus the mean kinetic energy per molecule in a given
If M is the total mass of the gas, i.e. M = n m, then mass of gas is proportional to the absolute temperature
1M 2 of the gas. (Interpretation of temperature on the basis
P= C ........(9)
3V of Kinetic energy)
If ρ is the density of the gas, then pressure of the gas NOTE:
1 • Different gases at the same temperature have the
is P = ρ C2 same average Kinetic energy permolecule and
3 this energy is directly proportional to the absolute
C is called the root mean square velocity of the temperature of the gas.
molecules and it is equal to the square root of the • The root mean square speed of the molecules of
mean of the squares of the velocities of individual a gas is directly proportional to the square root of
molecules. the absolute temperature of the gas.
3P
It is given by = ρ

123
Law of Equipartition of Energy
It states that the total kinetic energy of a dynamical
system consisting of a large number of particles in σ
thermal equilibrium is equally distributed among σ
σ
all degrees of freedom, and the energy associated
1
with each degree of freedom is KT where K is the
2
But by experiment Maxwell found that
Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature 1
of the system. λ=
Root mean-Square (rms) Speed of gas molecule
2(πσ 2 n)
The speeds of the individual molecules of a gas vary The mean free path is inversely proportional to the
over a wide range. Let v1,v2, v3 ......vn be the speed number of molecules per unit volume (n) which is
of molecules of a gas. Then, the root-mean-square proportional to the density of the gas.
speed of the molecules is defined as the square root For N molecule of an ideal gas, we have
of the mean of the squares of the speeds of the all gas PV = NkT
molecules, and it is denoted by rms. N P
n= =
We know that the pressure of a gas is given by V kT
kT
v12 + v22 + .... + vη2 λ=
Vrms = 2π d 2 P
n
This is the mean free path of the molecules of a gas is
1 directly proportional to its absolute temperature and
P = ρu 2 inversely proportional to the pressure of the gas.
3
3P  vagadro's Number: The Avagadro's number is the
A
Vrms = u 2 =
ρ number of molecules in 1 mole of a substance. It is
denoted by N and its value is 6.0221 X 1023.
Mean free Path:- The average distance traversed The degrees of freedom of a dynamical system are
by a molecule between two successive collisions is defined as the total no of co-ordinates or independent
defined as the mean free path. quantities or relations required to describe completely
Thus, if λ1, λ2, λ3, ....λn are the successive free paths the position and configuration of the system
traversed in the total time t, then, OR
λ1 + λ1 +..... λ1 = vt The degrees of freedom are the possible independent
If N is the total no. of collisions suffered, then ways in which a system can have energy.
λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + .................λ n
λ=
N (a) I f a particle is moving along a straight line then it
vt has one degree of freedom.
= (b) If a particle is moving in a plane then it has two
N degrees of freedom.
Expression for Mean Free Path (c) If the particle is moving in a space then it has
We know that, three degrees of freedom.
total distance in time, t
λ= Monoatomic Gas has three degrees of freedom
number of collision in time, t
vt 1 Diatomic Gas has translatory motion about its centre
= =
of mass and has two rotation motion.
n × π d vt π nd
2 2

The degrees of freedom is five. (Gas is assumed to be

rigid rotator i.e no vibrations)
124
It can rotate also then two more vibrational degrees of Q1. A meter long narrow bore held horizontally
freedom. thus diatomic gas is vibrational mode (e.g (and closed at one end) contains a 76 cm long
high temperature) has 7 degrees of freedom. mercury thread which traps a 15 cm column
Polyatomic Gas has (3+3+2v) modes of vibration. of air. What happens if the tube is held
vertically with the open end at the bottom?
Specific heat Capacity : Ans. When the tube is held horizontally, the mercury
It is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass thread of length 76 cm traps a length of air =
absorbed or rejected by the substance to change its 15 cm. A length of 9 cm of the tube will be left
temperature by one unit. Its unit is J kg K .
-1 -1
at the open end. The pressure of air enclosed in
(a) Monoatomic gas: tube will be atmospheric pressure. Let area of
It is only three degrees of freedom cross-section of the tube be 1 sq. cm.
1 3 ∴ P1 = 76cm and V1 = 15cm3
∴U = 3 × K BT × N A = RT
2 2
dU 3
CV = = R
dT 2
3 5R
CP = R + CV = R + R =
2 2
C 5
γ= P=
CV 3
(b) Diatomic Gas When the tube is held vertically, 15 cm air gets
It has three translational and two rotational another 9 cm of air (filled in the right handside in the
i.e total 5 degrees of freedom horizontal position) and let h cm of mercury flows out
1 5 to balance the atmospheric pressure. Then the heights
∴U = 5 × K BT × N A = RT
2 2 of air column and mercury column are (24 + h) cm
dU 5 and (76 - h) cm respectively.
CV = = R The pressure of air = 76 - (76 - h) = h cm of mercury.
dT 2 V2 = (24 + h) cm3 and P2 =h cm
7R
CP = R + CV =
2 P1V1 = P2V2 or 76 x 15 = 4 x (24 +h)
C 7 or h2 + 24h -1140 = 0
γ= P= or
CV 5
−24 ± (24) 2 + 4 × 1140
(c) Polyatomic gas : h= = 23.8cm or − 47.8cm
In general, it has 3 translational, 3 rotational and 2
f vibrational modes Since h cannot be negative (because more
mercury cannot flow into the tube), therefore h
3 3  = 23.8cm.
∴U =  K BT + K BT + fK BT  × N A Thus in the vertical position of the tube, 23.8
2 2  cm of mercury flows out.
U = (3 + f ) RT Q2. Following figure shows plot of PV/T versus
du P for 1.00 x 10-3 kg of oxygen gas at two
CV = (3 + f ) R = different temperatures.
dT (a) What does the dotted plot signify?
CP = (4 + f ) R (b) Which is true: T1 > T2 or T1 < T2 ?
4+ f (c) What is the value of PV/T where the curves
∴γ = meet on the y-axis ?
3+ f
125
(d) If we obtained similar plots for 1.00 x 10-3 kg Q3. A container with a moveable piston contains
of hydrogen, would we get the same value 2 cubic meters of gas. The piston is pushed,
of PV/T at the point where the curves meet generating an average pressure of 500,000 Pa
on the y-axis? If not, what mass of hydrogen during which the volume of the container is
yields the same value of PV/T (for the low- reduced to 0.5 cubic meters. How much work
pressure high-temperature region of the was done on the gas?
plot) ? (Molecular mass of H2 = 2.02u, of O2 • P = 500000Pa
= 32.0u , R= 8.31J mol-1 K-1.) Ans. ∆V =0.5m3 -2m3 = -1.5m3
W=-P∆V=-(500,000 Pa)(-1.5 m3)=-750000 J
During this time, the work done on the gas
is +750,000 J meaning that energy went into
the gas.
Q4. A mass of diatomic gas (γ=1.4) at a pressure
of 2 atmospheres is compressed adiabatically
so that its temperature rises from 270C to
Ans. (a) The dotted plot corresponds to 'ideal' gas 9270C. The pressure of the gas in the final
behaviour as it is parallel to P-axis and it tells state is (Ans. 256 atm)
that value of PV/T remains same even when P Q5. Estimate the mean free path and collision
is changed. frequency of a nitrogen molecule in a
 (b) The upper position of PV/T shows that cylinder containing nitrogen at 2.0 atm
its value is lesser for T1 thus T1 > T2. This is and temperature 170C Take the radius of
because the curve at T1 is more close to dotted a nitrogen molecule to be roughly 1.0 A.
plot than the curve at T2 Since the behaviour of Compare the collision time with the time the
a real gas approaches the perfect gas behaviour, molecule moves freely between two successive
as the temperature is increased. collisions (Molecular mass of N2 = 28.0u)
(c) Where the two curves meet, the value of For one mole of a gas,
PV/T on y-axis is equal to µR. Since ideal gas RT 8.31 × 290
PV = RT ⇒ V = P = 2.026 × 105
equation for μ moles is PV = µRT
⇒ V = 1.189 x 10-2 m3
−3
1.00 × 10 kg 1 N
where µ= = Number of molecules per unit volume, n =
32 × 10−3 kg 32 V
PV 1
∴ Value of = µ R = × 8.31JK −1 = 0.26 JK 1 6.023 × 10 23
T 38 n= −2
= 5.06 × 1025 m −3
1.189 × 10
(d) If we obtained similar plots for 1.00 x 10-3 1 1
λ= =
kg of hydrogen, we will not get the same value 2π nd 2
2π nd 2 (2r ) 2
PV
of T at the point, where the curves meet on 1
=
the y-axis. This is because molecular mass of 1.414 × 3.14 × 5.06 × 1025 × (2 × 1 × 10−10 ) 2
hydrogen is different from that of oxygen. = 1.1 × 10−7 m
PV
For the same value of T , mass of hydrogen 3RT 3 × 8.31 × 290
Also, vrms = = = 5.08 × 102 ms −1
required is obtained from M 28 × 10−3

PV m Collision frequency
= nR = × 8.31 = 0.26 5.08 × 102
vrms
T 2.02 v= = = 5.08 × 109 s −1
2.02 × 0.26 λ 1.1 × 10 −7

m= g = 6.32 × 10−2 g Time between successive collisions =

8.31
126
 1 1
= 9
= 2.17 × 10−10 s 1
v 4.62 × 10 (c)
Also the collision time =
3
d 2 × 1 × 10−10 2
= s = 3.92 × 10−13 s (d)
vrms 5.08 × 10 −2
3
Q6. At what temperature is the root mean square 2
Ans.
speed of an atom in an argon gas cylinder 3
equal to the rms speed of a helium gas atom
at -200C ? (atomic mass of Ar = 39.9u , of He Mean square velocity of molecule = 3kT
= 4.0u). m
For gas A, x component of mean square velocity of
Answer : molecule = w2
3kT
Mean square velocity = 3w2 = ........(i )
3RT 3RT 3RT 3R × 253 m
C= = and C = =
M 39.9 M 4
But C C 3kT
For B gas mean square velocity = v2 = ........(ii )
3RT 3R × 253 m

39.9 4 3w2 2 w2 2
39.9 × 253 From (i) and (ii) 2 = so 2 =
T= = 2523.7 K v 1 v 3
Q9. A flask contains 10-3 m3 gas. At a temperature,
Q7. Estimate the total number of air molecules
the number of molecules of oxygen are 3.0 x
(inclusive of oxygen, nitrogen, water vapour
1022. The mass of an oxygen molecule is 5.3
and other constituents) in a room capcity
x 10-26 kg and at that temperature the rms
25.0 m3 at a temperature of 270C and 1 atm
velocity of molecules is 400 m/s. The pressure
pressure.
in N/m2 of the gas in the flask is
Answer:
(a) 8.48 x 104
According to gas equation
(b) 2.87 x 104
PV = µRT = µNA kB T
(c) 25.44 x 104
PV (d) 12.72 x 104
n = µ NA =
k BT Ans. (a)
5
1.01 × 10 × 25.0 V = 10-3 m3, N = 3.0 x 1022, m = 5.3 x 10-26kg,
26
N= −23
= 6.1 × 10 vrms = 400 m/s
(1.38 × 10 ) × 300
−26 22
Q8. N molecules each of mass m of gas A and P = 1 mN vrms 2 1 5.3 × 10 × 3.0 × 10
= × (400) 2 = 8.48 × 104 N / m 2
−3
2N molecules each of mass 2m of gas B are 3 V 3 10
contained in the same vessel at temperature Q10. A gas at a certain volume and temperature
T. The mean square of the velocity of has pressure 75 cm. If the mass of the gas is
molecules of gas B is v and the mean square
2 doubled at the same volume and temperature,
of x component of the velocity of molecules of its new pressure is
w 2
(a) 37.5 cm
gas a is w2. The ratio v 2 is
(b) 75 cm
(c) 150 cm
(a) 1
(d) 300 cm
Ans. (c)
(b) 2

127
 1M 2 MT Q13. A fresh air is having N2 (78%) and O2 (21%).
P= vrms ∴ P ∝ Find the rms speed of N2 and at O2 200C.
3V V Answer:
At constant volume and temperature, if the mass 3RT
of the gas is doubled then pressure will become twice. Vrms =
Q11. (a) Define M
(a) Most probable speed: It is the speed which is 3 × 8.314 × 293
possessed by maximum fraction of total number, For N 2 Vrms = = 511m / s
of molecules of the gas.
0.028
2 K BT 3 × 8.314 × 293
Cmp = For O2 Vrms = = 478m / s
M 0.032
(b) Mean speed : It is the average speed with which Q14. At what tempuature the rms velocity of a gas
a molecule of gas moves triples its value at STP.
2.56 K T Answer: Vrms ∝ T
Cav = B
2
M  V1  T1
(c)  oot mean square speed: It is the square root of
R  V  = T
2 2
the mean of the square of the random velocity
of the individual molecules of a gas V 2 273
= ⇒ T2 = 273 × 9 = 2457 K
3 K BT 9V 2 T2
Crms =
M
Q15. The gaseous mixture of monoatomic and
8
Ratio is 2 : : 3 diatomic gases is found to be proprortional
π to the cube of temperature find γ.
Q11. (b) Five cars have speed 40km/h, 60km/h, Answer:
60km/h, 60km/h and 80 km/h. Find Vav, Ump & Vrms P ∝ T3 (Given)
Answer: P1−γ T γ = constant
20 + 60 + 60 + 60 + 80
Vav = = 56km / h γ
5 ∴ = −3
1− γ
202 + 602 + 602 + 602 + 802
Vrms = = 59.33km / h 3
5 γ=
Vmp = 60km / h 2

Q12. Calculate the mean free path for O2 at 250C Q16. Compare the Kinetic energy of O2 and N2
& 1 atm pressure where σ = 3.61 x 10-10 m molecules at 300K.
Answer: Ans. As Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the
KT 1 absolute temperature hence both molecules will have
l= =
2πσ 2 P 2πσ 2 n same kinetic energies.
P
where n = = 2.46 × 1025
KT
1
l=
1.414 × 3.14 × (3.6 × 10−10 ) 2 × 2.46 × 1025
= 7.02 × 10−8 m

128
 14 Oscillations
CHAPTER

OA
The motion that repeats itself after regular interval In ∆OPA, = cos θ ⇒ OA = OP cos θ
OP
of time is called а periodic motion e.g. revolution
 θ 
of moon. The smallest time interval after which the x = r cos ωt (i )  as = w
t
motion repeats itself is called time period (T).
This to and fro motion of the particle abou mean or
equilibrium position is called oscillatory motion. eg. Also, PA
= sin θ ⇒ PA = OP sin θ
simple pendulum. OP
An oscillatory motion is necessarly periodic but every y = sin wt ..........(ii )
periodic is not oscillatory. e.g. Revolution of earth is
periodic but not oscillatory. In case initial phase is of ∅ then x = r cos (ωt +
A mathematical function which represents. periodic ∅) and y = r sin (ωt + ∅)
motion is called periodic function. Considering eq. (ii) we have y = r sin ωt
 2π  ∴ velocity, v =
dy
= rw cos wt = rw 1 − sin 2 wt
e.g. f (t ) = a sin wt = a sin   t
 T  dt
r 2 − y2
 2π  v = rw
∴ f (t1 ) = f (t + T ) = a sin  (t + T )  r2
T 
v = w r 2 − y2
 2π 
= a sin  t + 2π  dv
T  Also, accelevation, a = = − w2 r sin wt = − w2 y
dt
2π
= a sin t = f (t ) Thus acceleration is directly proportional to the
T displacement and opposite in direction
SHM (Simple Harmonic Motion) is the simplest form
Also, restoring force, F = ma = -mw2y
of oscillatory motion and a particle is said to possess
SHM if it moves to and fro about mean position. It
⇒ F∝y
may be linear or angular SHM depending upon the
If we use x = cos wt then also a = -w2x and
motions.
F = -mw2x
Simple harmonic motion is the projection of a uniform
At mean postion, displacement = y = 0 ⇒ a=0 (Min)
circular motion on diameter of uniform circular in
which circular motion takes place. ∴ v = ω r 2 − O 2 = rω = Maximum velocity
Let a particle of mass 'm' in SHM. At time, t the
At extreme position, displacement, y = r = amplitude
particle is at P (x, y). It has angular velocity ω. 2
∴ a = − w r ( Maximum)
v = w r 2 − r 2 = 0 ( Minimum Velocity )
r
Y Y

∫
Potential energy = Workdone = Fdy = mady
Y
∫
1 O O
PE= ∫ mw ydy = mw y
2 2 2

O
2
129
 Total energy, E = KE + PE =
1 1 r
mw2 (r 2 − y 2 ) + mw2 y 2 ∴ r sin wt =
2 2 2
1 1 π
E = mw2 r 2 sin wt = = sin  
2 2  4
At mean position, 2π t π
=
1 1 T 4
y = 0 ⇒ KE mw2 (r 2 − 0) ⇒ KE = mw2 r 2
2 2
1 T
Potential energy, PE = mw2 (O) 2 = 0 t=
2 8
1 Example of Simple Harmonic Motion:
Total Energy at mean postion = mw2r 2 a) oscillation of bob of pendulum
2 b) oscillation of block attached to the spring
At extreme position, c) oscillation of liquid in U-tube etc.
1 Simple Pendulum : It consists of a mass which is
y = r ⇒ KE = mw2 (r 2 − r 2 ) = 0 suspended from a rigid support with the help of a
2 flexible inextensible and massless string.
1
Potential energy = mw2r 2
2
1
Total Energy at extreme postion = mw2r 2
2
Conclusions :
1.  Total energy is constant though there is
transformation of Kinetic to potential &
potential to kinetic
∴Law of conservation of energy is obeyed
Example : y
At what point and time kinetic energy is half of
Let the bob of simple pendulum is displaced
total energy of particle in SHM.
from mean position O to extreme position 'A' so
Solution :
that displacement is 'y'. At 'A' the weight mg can
1
Given Kinetic Energy = (Total energy ) be resolved as
2 (i) mg cosθ which balances tension T in string
1 1 (ii) mg sinθ which acts as a restoring force.
2 2 2 2 2  1
mw (r − y ) =  mw r    Restoring force, F = -mg sinθ
2 2   2 y
2
r In case of small angle, sinθ≈θ (in rad) =
r 2 − y2 = l
2  y  − mg
r2 r2 ∴ F = − mg  = ( y)
r 2 − = y2 ⇒ y2 =  l l
2 2
⇒
⇒

130
⇒ acceleration ∝ displacement 2. Define phase of the particle in SHM.
oscillations are harmonic is nature.  It is a physical quantity, which completely
g 2π g express the position and direction of motion,
w2 = is w= = of the particle at that instant with respect to its
l T l mean position. y = a sin θ = a sin (ωt + φ0) here
l θ = ωt + φ0 = phase.
⇒ T = 2π g 3. 
There is change in the kinetic energy and
potential energy of the bob as it moves from one
In case of second's pendulum, T = 2s extreme position to the other. Draw the graph
For Earth's surface showing their variation.
l l
T = 2π = 2π
g 9.8
l 9.8 × (2) 2
T = 4π
2 2
⇒l = = 0.992m
g 4π 2
⇒ l ≈1.0 m on Earth's surface

Oscillations of a block attached to a spring : A block

of mass 'm' is attached to a spring of spring constant K 4. There is variation of quantities like displacement,
and free to move over a frictionless horizontal surface velocity, acceleration, K.E and P.E of systems
exhibiting S.H.M and this variation is due to
variation of amplitude at different point of
harmonic motion. Tabulate the variations.
Quantity At mean position At Extreme Position
x Displacement y = 0 (min) y = r (max)
Velocity v = rw v=0
The block is displaced by 'x' (small distance) and Acceleration a=0 a = w2r
released. On releasing it is found to oscillate about Kinetic Energy K.E = 1/2 mw2r2 K. E = 0
the mean position. Potential Energy P.E = 0 P.E = 1/2 mw2r2
Restoring force, F = -K x
Total Energy T.E = constant T.E constant
As F= ma
5.  Draw the phase relation between the
⇒ ma = -Kx
displacement, velocity and acceleration of the
k particle in SHM?
a = −  x
 m
acceleration ∝ displacement (condition for SHM)
k 2π k
w2 = or =
m T m
m
⇒ T = 2π
k

Questions
1. What is the condition for the particle to be in
SHM?
 Its acceleration (or restoring force) must be 6. Explain the series and parallel combination of
directly proportional to the displacement. the two springs.
131
a. Series combination  Resonance: When the frequency of external
force is equal to the natural frequency of the
K1
oscillator. Then this state is known as the state
K2 of resonance. And this frequency is known as
resonant frequency.
m
d) Maintained oscillation: The oscillation in
Restoring force in same which the loss of oscillator is compensated by
y = y1+ y2 supplying energy from external source is called
−F −F F 1 1 1 maintained oscillation.
= − ⇒ = + 8. Where is Kinetic energy of particle in SHM is
K K1 K 2 K K1 K 2
equal to maximum K.E?
m m( K1 + K 2 ) 1 1
T = 2π = 2π ⇒ mw2 (r 2 − y 2 ) = mw2 r 2
K K1K 2 2 2
2 2 2
b. Parallel combination r −y =r
y=0
K1 K2
2π
∴ 0 = r sin t ⇒ mean postion
T
9. A body describes simple harmonic motion with
m an amplitude of 5 cm and a period of 0.2s. Find
Displacement is same
F = F 1 + F2 the acceleration and velocity of the body when
-Ky = -K1y -K2y ⇒ K = K1 + K2 the displacement is (a) 5cm (b 3 cm (c) 0 cm
Answer:
m Here, r = 5 cm = 0.05m, T = 0.2 s;
T = 2π
K 2π 2π
w= = = 10π rad / s
m T 0.2
T = 2π When displcement is y, then
K1 + K 2
acceleration, A = -w2y
7. What are the different types of oscillations? velocity, V = w r 2 − y 2
Explain
a) Free oscillation: The oscillation of a particle Case (a ) When y = 5cm = 0.05m
with fundamental frequency under the influence A = −(10π ) 2 × 0.05 = −5π 2 m / s 2
of restoring force are defined as free oscillations.
V = 10π (0.05) 2 − (0.05) 2 = 0.
The amplitude, frequency and energy of
oscillation remains constant. Frequency of free Case (b) When y = 3cm = 0.03m
oscillation is called natural frequency. A = −(10π ) 2 × 0.03 = −3π 2 m / s 2
b) Damped oscillation: The oscillation of a body
whose amplitude goes on decreasing with time V = 10π (0.05) 2 − (0.03) 2
are defined as damped oscillation. Amplitude = 10π × 0.04 = 0.4π m / s
of oscillation decreases exponentially due to Case (c) When y = 0, A = − (10π ) 2 × 0 = 0
damping forces like frictional force, viscous
force, hystersis etc. V = 10π (0.05) 2 − 02
c) Forced oscillation: The oscillation in which = 10π × 0.05 = 0.5π m / s
a body oscillates under the influence of an 10. Plot the corresponding reference circle for each
external periodic force are known as forced of the following simple harmonic motions.
oscillation. Indicate the initial (t = 0) position of the particle,
132
 the radius of the circle, and the angular speed of 5. What is the number of degrees of freedom of an
the rotating particle: (x is in cm and t is in s) oscillating simple pendulum?
x = -2 sin (3t + Π/3) (a) One (b) Two
 π π (c) Three (d) More than three
(a) x = 2 cos  3t +  Ans. b
 3 2
6. A ball is dropped in a tunnel dug along the
Radius of the reference circle, r = amplitude of diameter of earth. When it is at the centre of
SHM = 2 cm earth, then it has
π −2 3 (a) mass (b) acceleration
At t = 0, x = −2sin = = − 3cm (c) weight (d) torque
3 2
Ans. a
Also ωt = 3t ⇒ ω = 3rad/s
3 7. A uniform spring of force constant k is cut into
cos φ0 = − , φ0 = 1500 two equal parts. Then each half has a force
2
constant equal to
t=0
(a) k (b) k/2
0
1500 (c) 2k (d) 4k
30
− 3 O Ans. c
2cm
8. The oscillations of a body are damped because
of:
(a) density of the body.
(b) weight of the body.
Exercise Questions (c) elasticity of the body.
1. In S.H.M, the vibration of which of the following (d) 
frictional forces offered by the surrounding
is not a sine curve? medium.
(a) Frequency (b) Velocity Ans. d
(c) Displacement (d) Acceleration
Ans. a 9. Phase constant is the
2.  Which of the following is not essential for (a) Vector (b) Scalar
S.H.M.? (c) Dimensionless (d) None
(a) Acceleration due to gravity Ans. c
(b) Restoring force
(c) Inertia (d) Material medium 10. 
…….. is the phase difference between the
Ans. a displacement and the velocity of a particle in
S.H.M.
3.  The restoring force acting on the particle Ans. π/2
executing S.H.M. is 11. 
Mark the True/False statements out of the
(a) directly proportional to displacement. following.
(b) inversely proportional to displacement. (a) 
Proportionality between restoring force and
(c) directed in the same direction as the displacement. displacement from equilibrium position is a
(d) independent of displacement. necessary and sufficient condition for S.H.M.
Ans. a (b) 
Motion of a particle performing a uniform
4. The amplitudes of two similar pendulums are 2 circular motion is periodic and but not S.H.M.
cm and 5 cm. The ratio of their energies is (c) 
All oscillatory motions are periodic but all
(a) 2:5 (b) 5:2 periodic motions are not oscillatory.
(c) 4:25 (d) None of the above (ALL ARE TRUE)
Ans. c

133
12. On what factors does the time period of the k1 m k2
oscillation of the pendulum depend?

13. What is the length of the second's pendulum? Note :

Does it depend on the planet on which the T  he oscillation whose ampltude decreases with time
experiment is carried out? is called damped oscllation.
The oscillations whose amplitude does not change
14. What is the amplitude and time period for the with time is undanped oscillation.
function f(t) = sin wt + cos wt?

15. Compare the time period of the two pendulums

one on the Earth and other on the surface of the
imaginary planet whose mass is double the earth
& radius is half of the earth.
Damped undamped
Vertical Spring :
Oscellations Oscellations

Note :
Inertia factor
1. T = 2π
K spring factor
2. 
The force constant of a spring is inversely
proportional to its length.
l 3. 
The displacement of a damped harmonic
m x oscillator is
m
− bt
Equilibrium
x = Ae 2m
cos ( wd t + φ0 )
 block of mass m when attached to the vertical 4. Displacement: Distance of a particle from mean
A
spring the spring elongates by 'l' position.
mg= k l  mplitude : Maximum displacement of particle from
A
mean position
Then block is displaced further by x and released It is Time Period : Time taken by an oscillating particle to
found to oscillate with harmonic oscllations. complete one oscillation.
Restoring Force, F = -kx = ma Frequency : No of oscillations or vibrations completed
k in 1s.
⇒ a = −  x
 m Angular Frequency = πν
hus acceleration is directly proportional to the
T
displacement, oscillations are harmonic.  hase : The argument of the sine function or cosine is
P
called phase.
K K
w = ⇒ω =
2 5. In case
m m K
2π m
= K / m ⇒ T = 2π m1 m2
T k
Note : 1 K m1m2
v= where µ =
The following combination of springs give the 2π µ m1 + m2
same result as parallel combination.

134
 15 Wave Motion
CHAPTER

 ave is a form of disturbance which propagates due

W
to repeated periodic vibrations of the particles of the C R C R
medium about their mean positions and the motion There is formation of compression (C) and rarefaction
is handed over from one particle to the other without (R).
any net transport of the medium. Speed of transverse wave in a string under tension is
Waves
T
v= where µ = linear mass density.
Mechanical wave Non mechanical µ
or or
elastic waves electromagnetic waves Speed of longitudinal wave through a medium
E
Medium is required Medium is not required is v = where E = modulus of elasticity
ρ
e.g. sound waves e.g. Light ρ = density of medium
Speed of sound in air is given by
γP C
v= where γ = P = 1.4( for air )
Waves ρ CV
Transverse waves longitudinal waves
P = pressure
ρ =density
The particles of the medium through The particles of the medium
which the wave is travelling vibrate in the
direction perpendicular
through which the wave is travelling
vibrate in the direction According to Newton, conditions during sound
to the direction of propagation of wave of the propagation of wave P
progation are isothermal and hence v = P
Direction of

this comes to be 280m/s which is much less than 332

wave propagation
Particle
Direction of
wave propagation Direction of Vibration m/s.
 Laplace stated the conditions of sound
Transverse waves propagation are adiabatic as air is bad conductor.
Travel in the medium which has elasticity and Factors affecting sound propagation
inertia. The functional resistance amongst the various a) Pressure : It has no effect on speed of sound
particles of the medium should be small. There is γP γ PV  γ PV 
formation of crest and trough. v= = = constant as  = constant 
ρ M  M 
Crest
b) Temperature : Speed increases with temperature
increase.
γP γ PV γ RT
v= = = ⇒v∝ T
λ Trough
ρ M M
wavelength
Vt Tt t + 273  t 
Longitudinal waves = = = 1 + + ......
VO TO 0 + 273  546 
Travel is the medium which has elasticity, inertia and
the value of functional resistance amongst the various For 10C Change temperature speed increases
particles of the medium should be small. by 61cm/s

135
c) Humidity : It decreases the density and hence n 1 2
speed increases. ∴t = = 0, , ,.........
d) Nature of gas : It is more in case of H2 than N2. ν1 − ν 2 ν1 − ν 2 ν1 − ν 2
e) Wind velocity : In the same direction, speed Time between two successive maxima
increases and vice versa. 1 1
Example : At what temperature speed of sound in O2 = −0=
is same as speed in H2 at 546K.
ν1 − ν 2 ν1 − ν 2
Answer: Number of maximum per second = ν1-ν2 =
VH 2 = VO 2 Beat frequency.
Similarly for minimum,
T T
  =    2n − 1
M H 2  M  O2 cos π (ν1 − ν 2 )t = 0 = cos  π
 2 
546 T
=  2n − 1  1 
2 32 ∴t = 
T = 546 × 16 = 8736 K  2   ν1 − ν 2 
1 3 5
Principle of superposition states that when two t= , ,
2(ν1 − ν 2 ) 2(ν1 − ν 2 ) 2(ν1 − ν 2 )
or more waves meet at a point, the resultant wave
has a displacement which is the vector sum of the Time between two successive minima
displacements of each wave. It gives rise to beats, 3 1
standing waves and interference. = −
2(ν1 − ν 2 ) 2(ν1 − ν 2 )
y = y1 + y2 + y3 + ...
1
=
Beats:- Beats are formed as a result of superposition ν1 − ν 2
of the waves travelling in the same medium and Number of minimum per second = ν1 - ν2
direction with slightly different frequency. Intensity varies periodically with time.

Beat Frequency = | ν1-ν2 | Stationary Waves

When two waves of the same type having same
Consider two waves travelling in the same medium
amplitude and same period travel with the same speed
and same direction with slightly different frequencies.
along the same straight line, in opposite direction
At any instant 't'.
they superimpose upon each other to give rise to a
y1 = r sin 2 πν1t new type of waves called standing waves.
y2 = r sin 2 πν 2t The disturbance is confined to a particular region
No energy is transferred. The amplitude of vibration
According is principle of superposition of waves,
of the particles changes from zero (node) to
y = y1 + y2 maximum (antinode). Twice during each vibration,
v −v  v +v  all the particles pass through their mean positions
= 2r cos 2π  1 2  t sin 2π  1 2  t simultaneously.
 2   2 
Examples:
 ν1 + ν 2  a) String
y = A sin 2π   t
 2
where A = 2r cos π (ν1 − ν 2 )t N N
Fundamental Mode
= resultant amplitude 'A' is maximum when
A
or
cos π (ν1 − v2 )t = ±1 = cos nπ First harmonic
λ/2 = l

136
 N A A N
N
Second harmonic y
2λ
2
=l O P

Propagation
x
N N

Third harmonic
N A A A N

2π
3λ/2 = l

b) Organ pipes: Open pipe y ( x, t ) = A sin (vt − x)

λ
OR
Fundamental Mode
A A
 t x
y ( x, t ) = A sin 2π  − 
N
or
First harmonic T λ
λ
l=
2 - ve sign indicates that the wave is propagating along
+ x axis.
Second harmonic
A A A
Note :
N N
or
Open pipe case :
First overtone
l=
2λ y1 (x, t) = A sin (wt - kx)
2
y2 (x, t) = A sin (wt + kx)
Third harmonic y = y1 + y2
A
N
A
N
A
N
A
or y = 2A cos kx sin wt
Second overtone For maximum amplitude
c) Closed pipe cos kx = ±1 = cos nπ
2π x nλ
Fundamental mode = nπ or x=
N A
or λ 2
l =λ/4 First harmonic For x = 0 & x = l we have antinode
Third harmonic nλ 2l
N
∴l = or λ=
2 n
N A A
or
l =3λ/4 First overtone v nv
Fifth harmonic
ν = =
N A
N
A A λ 2l
N
or ⇒ All harmonics are present
l =5λ/4 Second overtone Note :
Thus in a closed pipe (closed at one end) odd Closed pipe case :
harmonics are abtained whereas in open pipe all y1 (x1 t) = A sin (wt - kx)
harmonics are obtained. y2 (x1 t) = -A sin (wt +W kx)
Note y = y1 + y2
The displacement relation is expressed as a y = 2 A sin kx cos wt
combined function of postion and time as At closed end x = 0 hence amplitude = 0
y (x, t) = A sin (kx -wt) or A sin (wt - kx) At open end sin kl = ± 1
sin kl = sin (2n-1)π/2

137
 π
sin kl = sin(2n − 1)
2
λ N N
l = (2n − 1)
A

4
odd harmonics are obtained. l
Open pipe
λ
Also, l = ⇒ λ = 2l
A
N
A 2
v 1 T
l= λ
2 Frequency, ν= =
Closed pipe λ 2l µ

A N Law of length: ∝

l= λ
4
Law of tension: v ∝ T
Example : 1
Law of mass density: v ∝
A harmonic wave is expressed as µ

y (x, t) = 7 x 10 sin 800π t −
-6 π x  Additional point :
 
42.5  mass of wire volume × density
we know µ = =
Calculate length length
a) amplitude
b) frequency µ = π r 2ρ
c) wave length 1 T 1 T
d) wave velocity ∴ν = =
2l µ 2l π r 2 ρ
e) Phase difference b/w two points separated by 17
cm distance 1
⇒ν ∝ (law of density )
Ans. ρ
a) Ampletide = 7 x 10-6 cm 1
w ν∝ (law of diameter )
b) w = 800π ⇒ ν = = 400 Hz D
2π Example:
π 2π 42.5 × 2π If the two wires which are identical in nature are
c) k= ⇒λ = = = 85cm stretched by 25 kgwt and 9 kgwt respectively. And if
42.5 k π resonating length for first wire was found to be 20cm
w 800π × 42.5 then what will be the resonating length for the second
d) v= = = 34000 cm / s
k π wire.
2π 2π 2 Solution: Given that,
e) ∆φ = ∆x = × 0.17 = π For first wire, T1 = 25 kgwt and L1 = 20cm
λ 0.85 5 For second wire, T2 = 9 kgwt and L2 = ?
Example : State the laws of vibrations of a string. We have from the law of tension,
√T1/√T2 = L1/L2
Let l= length of the string which is vibrating in the Thus, √25/√9 = 20/L2
fundamental mode when two of its ends are fixed & Thus, 5/3 = 20/L2
are under tension 'T'. Let µ be the linear mass density And hence, L2 = 20*3/5 = 12cm
we know that Thus, the resonating length for the second wire was
T found to be 12 cm.
Speed of wave is string, V =
µ
138
Example: Exercise
Find the temperature at which the speed of sound in 1. A wave travelling along a string is described by,
O2 will be same as that in N2 at 200C y = 0.002sin (75x-5t) where x and y are in metre
Answer. and t is in second Calculate
γ RT a) amplitude
ν= b) wavelength
M c) period
T T d) frequency
⇒  =  e) wave velocity
 M  02  m  N 2
Ans.
x 293
=
32 28 a) 0.002 m
293 × 32 b) 0.084 m
x= = 335K c) 1.257s
28
d) 0.796 Hz
Example: e) 0.067 m/s
A transverse wave moves with a speed of 300m/s on
a wire which is under tension of 500N. If speed of 2. A transverse harmonic wave on a string is
312m/s is required then find tension. π
described by y = 3.0 sin (36t + 0.018x + )
T 4
⇒ν =
µ where x and y are in centimetre and t is
in second. Calculate; amplitude, wave
500 500 + T
∴ 300 = and 312 = velocity, frequency and initial phase
µ µ at the origin.
1 1 Ans. a = 3 cm
312  500 + T  2  T  2 ν = 573 Hz
=  = 1 + 
300  500  500  φ = π/4
v = 2000 cm/s
312 T  T 
⇒ = 1+ = 1 + 
300 2 × 500  1000  3. A string of mass 3 kg is under a tension of
T 312 12 1 150 N. The length of the stretched string is 27 m.
= −1 = = If the transverse jerk is struck at one end of the
1000 300 300 25 string, calculate the speed of the wave and the time
1000 taken by the wave to reach the other end of the string.
T= = 40 N
25 Ans. 36.742 ms-1, 0.735 s
Example:
A wave is described by 4. Calculate the speed of sound in air at STP
y(x, t) = 0.05 sin (40x-5t) The mass of 1 mole of air is 29x10-3 kg, and ratio of
 where SI units are taken. Calculate the specific heats of air is 1.4.
displacement at x = 35cm & t = 10s Ans. 331 m/s
Answer.
y = 0.05 sin (40 x 0.35 - 5 x 10) 5. A stretched string emits a note of fundamental
= 0.05 sin (14-50) frequency of 256 Hz. When the tension is increased
= 0.05 sin (-36) by 2 kgwt, the frequency of the fundamental rises to
= 0.05 sin (-36 + 12π) 312 Hz. Find the initial tension and the length of the
= 0.05 sin (1.699 rad) wire. (Linear density of the string is 1.5 x 10-3 kg/m¹)
= 0.05 sin 97 = 0.05 x 0.9925 Ans. 4.12 kgwt, 0.32 m
y = 0.05m
139
6. A pipe of 24.5 cm long is closed at one end. 13. A wave is travelling in the positive x-direction
Which harmonic mode of the pipe resonates with a having displacement along y-axis as 1m wavelength
1
source of frequency 345 Hz ?. Will the same 2πm and frequency λ Hz is represented by
source be in resonance with the pipe if both ends a) y = sin (x-2t)
are open? (speed of sound in air is 340 m/s) b) y = sin (2πx-2πt)
Ans. First harmonic of the pipe resonates with the c) y = sin (10πx-20πt)
source, Pipe cannot resonate with the source.) d) y = sin (2πx+2πt)

7. Two organ pipes one open at both ends and the 14. A hollow pipe of length 0.8m is closed at
other closed at one end give their fundamental notesone. At its open end a 0.5m long uniform string is
of frequencies which differ by 27 Hz. The length of vibrating in its second harmonic and it resonates with
the closed pipe is 0.76 m. Calculate the length of the
the fundamental frequency of the pipe. If the tension
open pipe, if the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s.
in the wire is 50N and speed in 320m/s the mass of
Ans.1.224 m
string is
a) 5g
π b) 10g
8. If y = 3sin (50t − x) then ratio of maximum c) 20g
2
d) 40g
particle velocity to wave velocity is
a) 2π 15. The equation of a wave on a string of linear
b) 3π/2 mass density 0.04 kg/m in given by
c) 3π
  t x 
d) 2π/3 y = 0.02sin 2π   − 
  0.04 0.50  
9. Two sound waves are represented by The tension in the string is
y1 = a sin (wt - kx) and a) 6.25 N
y2 = b cos (wt - kx) b) 4.0N
The phase difference between the waves is c) 12.5N
a) π/2 d) 0.5N
b) π/3
c) π Q. The frequencies of two tuning forks A and B are
d) 3π/4 250 Hz and 255 Hz respectively. Both are sounded
together. How many beats will be heard in 5 seconds?
10. Which of the following is correct for the wave Ans. f1 = 250 Hz, f2 = 255 Hz
 t x π No. of beats per second or beat frequency
y = 4sin π  − +  Assume SI units
 5 9 6 = 255-250 = 5
No. of beats heard in 5 seconds = 5 x 5 =25
a) V = 5m/s Q. In an experiment, it was found that a tuning
b) A = 0.04 cm fork and a sonometer wire gave 5 beats per second,
c) λ = 18m both when the length of the wire was 1m, and 1.05m.
d) ν = 50Hz Calculate the frequency of the fork.

11. If a wave is represented by

1 T
Ans. I case : ν1 = ........(i )
2π x 2πνt 2 ×1 µ
y = A cos sin then t is a
λ λ 1 T
II case : ν 2 = ........(ii )
a) Progressive wave 2 × 1.05 µ
b) Stationary wave Let ν be the frequency of the tuning frok, therefore,
c) Longitudinal progressive wave
d) Transverse progressive wave
140
 ν1 − ν = 5 and ν − ν 2 = 5 Q. The equation for the transverse wave on a
 t x
or ν1 = ν + 5 string is y = 4 sin 2π  −  with length
 0.05 50 
ν1 5 + ν expressed in cm and time in second. Calculate the
and ν 2 = ν − 5 or =
ν2 ν − 5 wave velocity and maximum particle velocity.
From (i) and (ii), we have  2π t 2π x 
Ans. y = 4 sin  − cm
5+ν 1  0.05 50 
= × 2 × 1.05 = 1.05
ν −5 2 ω 2π / 0.05
wave velocity = =
ν + 5 105 21 k 2π / 50
or = =
ν − 5 100 20 50
= cm / sec
⇒ ν = 205 Hz 0.05
Q. Define standing wave. Displacement of a string = 1000 cm / sec
in which standing wave is formed is given as y = (20
sin 157x cos 314 t) Find (a) Amplitude of individual = 10 ms −1
waves (b) Velocity of wave. Particle velocity
Ans. A standing wave is a pattern generated due to dy 2π  2π t 2π x 
the superposition of two waves moving in opposite = 4× = cos  − 
dt 0.05  0.05 50 
direction. It has varying amplitude.
Y = 20 sin 157x cos 314t Maximum particle velocity
On comparison with Y = 2A sin kx cosωt
We have 2π
(i) Amplitude = 10
= 4× = 502.4 cms −1
0.05
ω
314 Q. The air columns (of resonance tubes) 100 cm
(ii) Velocity of wave = = =2
k 157 and 101 cm long give 17 beats in 20 seconds, when
Q. Sound wave travelling along a string is described each is sounding its fundamental note. Calculate
by y (x, t) = 5 x 10-3 sin (80x - 3t) in which numerical velocity of sound.
constants are in S.I. unit. Calculate Ans. No. of beats per second, n = 17/20
(i) the amplitude. Let ν1, ν2 be the fundamental frequencies of vibration
(ii) the wave length. of two air columns
(iii) the period and frequency of the wave. ν ν ν
−3 ∴ ν1 = = =
Ans. y ( x, t ) = 5 × 10 sin (80 x − 3t ) 4l1 4 × 1 4
On comparing the equation with
y ( x, t ) = A sin (kx − ωt ) ν ν
and ν2 = =
4 × 1.01 4.04
(i) Amplitude = 5 x 10-3 m
2π π ν1 − ν 2 = n
(ii) k = 80, ∴ λ = m= m
80 40 ν ν 17
∴ − = or ν = 343.4 ms −1
2π 4 4.04 20
(iii) ω = 3(i.e.)2πν = =3
T
Q. A wave Y = A sin (ωt-kx) allowed through a
2π string gets reflected from a rigid support and forms
∴Time period = T = seconds
T stationary wave. Derive the experession for the
3 standing wave.
Frequency, ν = Hz Ans. Yi = A sin (ωt - kx)
2π Reflected wave :
141
 Yr = A sin (ωt - kx + π) (i) How amplitude of vibration vary in stationary
= -A sin (ωt - kx) wave ?
Yi (ii) What is energy of stationary wave ?
(iii) 
What is distance between consecutive node
antinode and between node and antinode ?
Yr (iv) What is phase difference between particles
y = Y1 + Y2 vibrating in a segment of stationary wave and
= A sin (ωt - Kx) -A sin (ωt + Kx) between adjoining segments ?
y = 2 A sin Kx cos ωt (v) Why is a stationary wave so called ?
Since amplitude 2 A sin Kx varies with position, it Ans.
represents a standing wave. (i) Amplitude of vibration of particles from zero at
nodes to maximum at antinodes.
Q. The principle of super position of waves (ii) The total energy associated with a stationary
enables us to determine the net waveform when any wave is twice the energy of each of incident and
number of individual waveforms overlap. The net reflected wave.
displacement at a given time is the algebraic sum of (iii)  Two consecutive nodes or antinodes are
the displacements due to each wave at that time is y = λ
y1 + y2 When two sets of progressive wave trains of the separated by a distance of and the distance
same type having the same amplitude and same time 2
period travelling with the same speed along the same λ
between a node and adjoining anti-node is .
straight line in opposite directions superimpose a new 4
set of waves are formed. These are called stationary
(iv) All particles in one particular segment vibrate in
waves. The resultant waves do not propagate in any
the same phase while particles in the consecutive
direction, nor there is any transfer of energy in the
segment differ in phase by 1800.
medium. In stationary waves, there are nodes and
(v) This because is a stationary wave, disturbance
antinodes point where particles are at rest and have
is not propagated. It is confined in a particular
largest amplitude respectively.
region.

142
 SAMPLE QUESTION PAPER
TIME: 3HRS MM: 70

General Instructions:
1. There are 35 questions in all. All questions are compulsory
2. This question paper has five sections: Section A, Section B, Section C, Section D and Section E. All the sections are
compulsory.
3. Section A contains fifteen MCQ and three Assertion – Reason questions of 1 mark each, Section B contains seven questions
of 2 marks each, Section C contains five questions of 3 marks each, section D contains three long questions of 5 marks
each and Section E contains 2 case study based questions of 4 marks each.

1. Name the physical quantity which have c) Lifts it vertically upwards

dimensional formula MLT-1 (1) d) None of these
a) work b) moment of inertia
c) impulse d) moment of force 7. The two spheres, one of which is hollow and
other solid, have identical masses and moment of
2. At any instant, the velocity and acceleration of a inertia about their respective diameters. The ratio of
particle moving along a straight line are v and a. The their radii is given by (1)
speed of the particle is increasing if (1) a) 5 : 7 b) 3 : 5
a) v > 0, a > 0 b) v < 0, a > 0 c) √3 : √5 d) 3 : 7
c) v > 0, a < 0 d) v > 0, a = 0
8. The universal gravitational constant (G)
3. A boy throws a ball with a velocity u at an angle depends upon (1)
θ with the horizontal. At the same instant he starts a) Size of the bodies
running with uniform velocity to catch the ball before b) Gravitational mass
it hits the ground. To achieve this he should run with c) Distance between the bodies
a velocity of: (1) d) None of these
a) u cos θ b) u sin θ
c) u tan θ d) u2 tan θ 9. The value of Young’s modulus for a perfectly
rigid body is (1)
4. Which of the following is self-adjusting force? a) 1 b) Less than 1
(1) c) Zero d) Infinite
a) Static friction b) Limiting friction
c) Kinetic friction d) Rolling friction 10. The stress strain graphs for two materials A and
B are shown in figure. The graphs are drawn to the
5. A body of mass M hits normally a rigid wall same scale. Select the correct statement (1)
with velocity v and bounces back with the same
velocity. The impulse experienced by the body is (1)
a) Zero b) Mv
c) 1.5Mv d) 2Mv

6. A man carries a load on his head through a

distance of 5 m. The maximum amount of work is a) Material A has greater Young’s Modulus
done when he (1) b) Material A is ductile
a) Moves it over an inclined plane c) Material B is brittle
b) Moves it over a horizontal surface d) All of these

143
11. Figure shows two processes a and b for a given Question No. 16 to 18 are Assertion – Reason
sample of gas. If ΔQ1, ΔQ2 , are the amount of heat questions
absorbed by the system in the two cases; and ΔU1, Read the two statements marked A-Assertion and
ΔU2 are changes in internal energy respectively, then R-Reason carefully to mark the correct option out of
the options given below:
(A) If A-Assertion is true, R-Reason is true;
R-Reason is correct explanation for A-Assertion.
(B) If A-Assertion is true, R-Reason is true;
R-Reason is not correct explanation for A-Assertion.
(C) If A-Assertion is true, R-Reason is false.
a) ΔQ1= ΔQ2 & ΔU1 = ΔU2 (D) If A-Assertion is false, R-Reason is false
b) ΔQ1> ΔQ2 & ΔU1 > ΔU2
c) ΔQ1< ΔQ2 & ΔU1 < ΔU2 16. A: When unit of measurement for a physical
d) ΔQ1> ΔQ2 & ΔU1 = ΔU2 quantity is changed, its numerical value also changes.
R: Product of numerical value and unit of
12. The bodies of mass m and 4m are placed at a measurement for a physical quantity remains constant.
distance of 6 m apart. P is the point on the line joining (1)
two bodies where gravitational field is zero. The 17. A: Work done by a gas in isothermal expansion
gravitational potential at this point is is more than the work done by the gas in the same
3 5 expansion adiabatically.
a) − Gm b) − Gm
2 2 R: Temperature remains constant in isothermal
9 7 expansion and not in adiabatic expansion. (1)
c) − Gm d) − Gm
2 2 18. A: In simple harmonic motion, the velocity is
13. A real gas behaves as an ideal gas at (1) maximum when the displacement is minimum.
a) Very low pressure and high temperature R: Displacement and velocity of S.H.M. differ
b) High pressure and low temperature in phase by π/2. (1)
c) High pressure and high temperature
d) Low pressure and low temperature SECTION B
19. Find the dimensions of a × b in the given
14. Four molecules of a gas have speeds 1, 2, 3 2
equation: = a − t , where P is the power, x is the
and 4 km/s. The value of the r.m.s. speed of the gas bx b
molecules is
distance and t is the time. (2)
1 1
a) 15km / s b) 10km / s
2 2 20. Express the value of following physical quantity
in their SI units.
15
c) 2.5 km/s d) km / s Power of electric lamp = 2 × 109 erg s-1
2 OR
Express the value of following physical quantity in
15. A transverse wave travels along x-axis. The their SI units.
particles of medium move (1) Surface tension of water = 72 dyne cm-1 (2)
a) only along x-axis
b) only along y-axis 21. Figure shows a projectile thrown with speed u =
c) only along z-axis 20 m/s at an angle 30° with horizontal from the top of
d) Either along y-axis or z-axis a building 40 m high. Then find the horizontal range
of projectile. (2)

144
 ur
22. Given two vectors A = $i + $j + k$ and 29. A cord of negligible mass is wound round the
ur ur rim of a flywheel of mass 20 kg and radius 20 cm. A
B = $i + $j + k$ . Find angle between vectors A and steady pull of 25 N is applied on the cord as shown
ur
B . (2) in the adjacent figure. The flywheel is mounted on a
horizontal axle with frictionless bearings. (3)
23. Find the tension T1and T2 in the strings given (a) Compute the angular acceleration of the
in the figure. (2) wheel.
(b) Find the work done by the pull, when 2 m
of the cord is unwound.
(c) Find also the kinetic energy of the wheel at
this point. Assume that the wheel starts from rest.
24. A metre stick is balanced on a knife edge at its
centre. When two coins, each of mass 5 g are put one 30. Write Newton’s formula for the speed of sound
on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is wave in air. What are the limitations of this formula?
found to be balanced at 45.0 cm. What is the mass of Explain how Laplace corrected this formula and
the metre stick? (2) derive the expression for the corrected speed of sound
in air.
25 The thermodynamical behaviour of a gas is OR
represented by a right-angled triangle ABC on a P–V What are beats? Discuss the graphical method of
diagram in the adjoining figure. Calculate the work formation of beats. Derive the expression for the beat
done during the process from A to B, B to C and C frequency. (3)
toA. Also, compute the net work done in the complete
cycle ABCA. (2) SECTION D
31. a) What are conservative forces? Show that
gravitational forces are conservative in nature.
b) A bucket of water tied to one end of a rope
of length 3 m is rotated in a vertical circle about the
other end in such a way that water in it does not spill.
Calculate the minimum velocity of the bucket at
which this happens.
SECTION C
OR
26. An object is moving with uniform acceleration
a) What are elastic collisions? Show that two
‘a’ and initial velocity ‘u’, derive velocity-time
identical bodies moving on a straight line exchange
and displacement time relation for its motion using
their velocities after colliding elastically with each
graphical method. (3)
other.
b) A truck of mass 1000 kg moving with a speed
27. An object of mass m is raised from the surface
of 72 km/hr collides with a stationary truck of the
of the earth to a height equal to the radius of the earth,
same mass. After the collision, the trucks get stick
that is, taken from a distance R to 2 R from the centre
together and move. Calculate their common speed
of the earth. What is the gain in its potential energy?
after collision. (5)
OR
Obtain the expression of acceleration due to gravity,
32. a) State and prove Bernoulli’s theorem for the
if an object is taken to a depth ‘h’ below the surface
streamline flow of liquid in a tube of variable cross
of earth (3)
sectional area.
b) A fully loaded Boeing aircraft has a mass of
28. Calculate an expression for the work done by an
3.3 × 105 kg. Its total wing area is 500 m2. It is in
ideal gas when it expands adiabatically from initial
level flight with a speed of 960 km/h. Estimate the
volume V1 to final volume V2. (3)
fractional increase in the speed of the air on the upper
surface of the wing relative to the lower surface.
145
(density of air: ρ = 1.2 kg m–3) (5) friction.
OR (d) Coefficient of sliding friction has
a) What is excess pressure? Explain how it dimensions of length.
arises. Derive an expression of excess pressure inside
a soap bubble. ii) Calculate retardation of block during upward
b) A soap bubble is blown from a radius of 1 cm motion.
to 2 cm. Calculate the work done in doing so, if the (a) g sinθ − μg cosθ
surface tension of the soap solution is 42 dyne/cm. (b) g sinθ + μg cosθ
(c) g cosθ − μgsinθ
33. a) What is simple harmonic motion. Show (d) g cosθ + μg sinθ
that the motion of a simple pendulum is for small iii)  Calculate acceleration during downward
oscillation is simple harmonic in nature. motion.
b) A particle executes S.H.M. with a time period (a) g sinθ – μg cosθ
of 2 s and amplitude 20 cm. Calculate the minimum (b) g sinθ + μg cosθ
time required for the particle to move between two (c) g cosθ – μg sinθ
points 10 cm on either side of the mean position. (d) g cosθ + μg sinθ
OR OR
a) What are stationary waves? Show that in case iv) Select the correct option.
of stationary waves produced in a closed organ pipe, (a) t1 = t2 (b) t1 > t2
only odd harmonics are present. (c) t1 < t2 (d) None of these
b) Calculate the fundamental frequency of an
organ pipe, of length 0.8 m open at both ends if the 35. A cubical box of side 1 m contains helium gas
velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s. What will be (atomic weight 4) at a pressure of 100 N/m2. During
the fundamental frequency if one end of the pipe is an observation time of 1s, an atom travelling with the
closed? root mean square speed parallel to one of its edges
of the cube was found to make 500 collisions with
SECTION E (Case based questions) a particular wall, without any collision with other
atoms. Taking R = (25/3) J/mol–K and k = 1.38× 10–23
34. FRICTION J/K. Evaluate
Frictional Force refers to the force generated i) The temperature of the gas is
by two surfaces that contact and slide against each (a) 160 K (b) 210 K
other. In the case of an incline, the force of gravity is (c) 280 K (d) 320 K
not perpendicular to the surface. As the angle of the ii) The root mean square speed of the gas molecules
incline increases, the normal force decreases, which is
decreases the frictional force? The incline can be (a) 1000 m/s (b) 1200 m/s
raised until the object just begins to slide. (c) 1500 m/s (d) 1800 m/s
Imagine a situation in which, a block placed at iii) The average kinetic energy per atom is
the bottom of a rough inclined plane is projected up (a) 1.612 × 10–21J (b) 3.312 × 10–21J
the plane with some initial speed along the incline. (c) 3.521 × 10–21J (d) 4.20 × 10–21J
Coefficient of friction between block and the plane is OR
μ. Block moves up the plane and comes to rest after iv) The total mass of helium gas in the box is
time t1. Then it again starts sliding down and reaches (a) 0.1 g (b) 0.2 g
the bottom in further time t2. (c) 0.3 g (d) 0.4 g
i)  Which one of the following statements is
incorrect?
(a) Frictional force opposes the relative motion.
(b) Limiting value of static friction is directly
proportional to normal reaction.
(c) Rolling friction is smaller than sliding
146
 MARKING SCHEME

1. d) impulse (1) (0.5)

[a × b] = [ M 0 LT
1 2
][ M −1L−2T −5 ]
2. a) v > 0, a > 0 (1)
3. a) u cos θ (1) = [ M −1L−1T −3 ]
4. a) Static friction (1)
5. d) 2Mv (1) 20. (0.5)
6. c) Lifts it vertically upwards (1)
7. c) √3 : √5 (1)
8. d) None of these (1)
9. d) Infinite (1) (0.5)
10. d) All of these (1)
11. d) ΔQ1> ΔQ2 & ΔU1 = ΔU2 (1)
12. a) − 32 Gm (1)
13. a) Very low pressure and high temperature (1)

14. d) 15
km / s
2
15. d) Either along y-axis or z-axis (1) (0.5)
16. a) A: TRUE R: TRUE , and R is the correct
explanation of A (1)
17. b) A: TRUE R: TRUE , but R is not the correct
explanation of A (1)
18. a) A: TRUE R: TRUE , and R is the correct (0.5)
explanation of A (1)
OR
19. [ P] = [ ML2T −3 ] (0.5) (0.5)
t  2

 b  = [ P]
 
(0.5)
[T ]2 (0.5)
= [ ML2T −3 ]
[b]
[T ]2
[b] = 2 −3
= [ M −1L−2T 5 ]
[ ML T ]
a
 bx  = [ P ]
(0.5) (0.5)

[a ] = [ P ][bx ]
= [ ML2T 3 ][ M −1L−2T 5 ][ L]
(0.5)
= [ M 0 LT
1 2
]

147
21. (0.5)

(0.5)
The 45 cm mark is the C.G. of metre stick and
two coins.
For equilibrium about point C (1)
(50-45) mg = (45-12)(10 gram)g
(1)
5 mg = (330 gram)g
m = 60 gram (0.5)
(0.5)
ur ur 25. (i) Work done duing the process from A to B
 A.B  (Expansion of gas) is
22. Sol. We know that cos θ = (0.5)
 AB  WAB = Area under AB
= Area of ∆ABC + Area of CBQP
ur ur 1
Here A.B = ($i + $j + k$ ).($i + $j − k$ ) (0.5) = × BC × AC + PQ × PC
2
= 1 × 1 + 1 × 1 + 1 × (−1) = 1 1
= × 3l × 2 Nm −2 + 3l × 1Nm −2
and A = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 (0.5) 2
1
B = 12 + 12 (−1) 2 = 3 = × 3 × 10−3 m3 × 2 Nm −2 + 3 × 10−3 m3 × 1Nm −2
2
= 6 × 10−3 J
and A = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3 (0.5) The gas expands, so work done will be positive
(0.5)
B = 12 + 12 (−1) 2 = 3 (ii) 
Work done during the process from B to C
 1 (compression of gas) is
or θ = cos − 1  Ans. (0.5)
 3 WBC = -Area under BC
= -Area fo rectangle CBQP
23. Acceleration of the system
= -3 x 10-3 J (0.5)
Fext 120  The gas compresses, so work done will be
a= = = 8m / s 2
M Total 3 + 5 + 7 (1) negative.
(iii) 
Work done during the process from C to A is
Writing equation for 7 kg mass (0.5) WCA = 0 since there is no change in volume
T2 = 7(8) form C to A. (0.5)
= 56 N (iv) Net work done in complete cycle ABCA
WABCA = Area of ∆ABC
= WAB + WBC + WCA
= 3 x 10-3 J
 W is positive since ABCA is traced in the
Writing equation for 5 kg mass clockwise direction. (0.5)
T1 = T2 + 5(a)
= 56 + 5(8) = 96 N (0.5) 26. We know that the slope (tan θ) of v-t graph
gives the acceleration
Ans. Let mass of the metre stick = m
24. (a)  For the given v-t graph we can write the
∴ Weight of the stick, W = mg following: (0.5)

This weight is acting at the centre of the stick at
50 cm from the edge as shown in the figure.
148
  
 M  4 
M '=   π ( R − h)3 
4 3 3
 π R   
3
(1) M ( R − h)3
M '= .......(6)
CD R3
tan θ = Force applied by the earth on point object kept at
AD
a depth h below its surface can be written as follows:
v−u
⇒ a= GM ' m
t F=
( R − h) 2
⇒ v = u + at .......(1)
(0.5) Substituting M' from equation (6), we get the
x = Area under the graph AC = Area within
 following:
ACDEOA
M
1 G ( R − h)3 m
⇒ x = × (OA + CE ) × OE F= R
3
2 ( R − h) 2
1
⇒ x = × (u + v) × t GM ( R − h)m
2 (0.5) ⇒ F=
R3
Substituting value of v from equation (1) we get
the following: If g' is the acceleration due to gravity at the
point where the given object is placed, then we can
1
⇒ x= × (u + u + at ) × t write the following (1)
2
1 GM ( R − h)m
⇒ x = × (2u + at ) × t (1) ⇒ F= = mg '
2 R3
1 GM ( R − h)
⇒ x = ut + at 2 ...........(2) ⇒ g'=
2 R3
Using equation (1) we can write the above
Ans. P.E. of the object at height R from the expression in terms of acceleration due to gravity (g)
27. 
surface of earth (1) near the surface of the earth as follows: (1)
GmM
[ P.E.]R = −
2R  h
g ' = g  1 −
 R 
∴ Gain in P.E. = ( P.E.) 2 R − [ P.E.]R ⇒ ........(7)
GmM GmM V2
=− +
2R R 28. ∆W = ∫ PdV .....(4)
GmM V1
=+
2R For adiabatic process
1 2 PV 1 = k (cons tan t )
= mgR [Q GM = gR ]
2
⇒ P = kV − γ ....(5)
OR
If we assume that the mass of earth is uniformly Substituting P from equation (5) in equation (4)
distributed over its entire volume, then the mass of we get the following: (1)
sphere of radius (R-h) can be calculated as follows:

149
 V2

∆W = ∫ kV − γ dV 1 2
∴Kinetic energy gained, K = Iω
V1 2
V2
 V − γ +1  1
⇒ ∆W =  k  = × 0.4 × 250 = 50 J
 −γ + 1 V2 2
30. Newton, s formula (expression) (0.25)
 kV2 − γ +1 − kV1− γ +1  Explanation (1)
⇒ ∆W =  
−γ + 1 Derivation for Laplace formula (1.5)
 
OR
 kV2 − γ − kV1− γ V1  Definition of beats (0.25)
⇒ ∆W =  
−γ + 1 Correct graphical explanation (1)
 
Derivation of beat frequency (1.5)
Using equation (5) we can understand that
P2 = kV2− γ and P1 = kV1− γ . Hence, above equation 31. Definition of consercative force (0.5)
can be rewritten as follows: Proof of consercvative nature of gravitational
 PV − PV  forces (2.5)
⇒ ∆W =  2 2 1 1  Solution: In order to prevent the water from
 −γ + 1  spilling, centripetal force must be equal to the
 PV − PV  weight of the water.
⇒ ∆W =  1 1 2 2
 ....(6) mv 2
 γ −1  = mg
r
Using equation of state (PV = µRT) for ideal
gas, above equation can also be written as follow: (1) ⇒ v = rg
Givne, radius, r = 3m
 µ R(T1 − T2 ) 
⇒ ∆W =   .....(7) g = 10m / s 2
 γ −1  (1)
∴ v = 3 × 10 = 5.47 m / s
29. Solution: Given M = 20 kg
Angular Speed,
R = 20 cm = 0.2 m
v 5.47
F = 25 N ω= = = 1.823 rad / s (1)
(a) Torque, τ = F.R = 25 x 0.2 = 5.0 Nm r 3
Moment of inertia of the wheel about its axis is OR
2 2
MR 20 × (0.2) Definition of elastic collision (0.25)
I= = = 0.4 kgm 2 Derivation (2.5)
2 2
Solution: Given,
We know, τ = Ia
m1 = 1000kg = m2
τ
5.0
∴ a= = = 12.5rad / s 2 72 × 5
I 0.4 (1) u1 = 72km / h = = 20m / s
(b) Work done by the pull, W = F.s
18
= 25 x 2 = 50s u2 = 0
(c) Angular displacement of the wheel, Let v1 = v2 = v be the speed of the combined
Length of string unwounded 2 bodies of truck after collision
θ= = = 10 radians
Radius of wheel 0.2 Using law of conservation of momentum, (1)
Initial angular velocity of wheel, ω0 = 0
Using, ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ, we get
ω2 = 0 + 2 x 12.5 x 10 = 250 (rad/s)2
150
 m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2 )V Increase in surface = 2 × 4π ( r22 − r12 ) (1)
⇒ 1000 × 20 + 1000 × 0 = (1000 + 1000) = 8π (22 − 12 )
20000
⇒ = = 24π cm 2
2000
V 10m / s (1) Work done = σ x Increases in surface area (1)
= 42 x 24 x 3.14
32. Statement (1) = 3165.12 erg
Proof (2) 33. Defination of SHM (1)
Solution: For a Boeing aircraft in a level flight, the Proof (2)
weight of aircaft is balanced by the upward force due Solution: If the particle starts from men position, its
to pressure difference displacement at instan t is given by
∆P × A = mg y = A sin ωt
Here, A = 20cm, T = 2 s, y = 10cm
= 3.3 × 105 × 9.8
2π 2π
3.3 × 105 × 9.8 ω= = = π rad / s
⇒ ∆P = T 2
500 ∴ 10 = 20sin π t
= 6.5 × 103 N / m 2 (1) 1 = sin
Bernoulli's principle ⇒ πt
2
1 1
p1 + ρν12 = p2 ρν 22  1 π
2 2 ⇒ π t = sin −1  
 2 6
1
⇒ p1 − p2 = ρ(ν 22 − ν12 ) 1
2 ⇒ t= s
1 6 (1)
= ρ(ν 2 + ν1 )(ν 2 − ν1 ) So, the time taken by the particle to move between
2
two points 10 cm on either side of teh mean position
1 is given by
where ν av = (ν 2 + ν1 ) = 960 km / hr
2 1 1
2t = 2 × = s = 0.33s
= 266.67 m / s 267 m / s 6 3
p −p OR
∴ (ν 2 − ν1 ) / ν av = 1 2 2 Definition of stationary waves (1)
ρν av Derivation (2)
6.5 × 103 Solution: Speed of sound, v = 330 m/s
= 0.08 Length of pipe, L =0.5 m
1.5 × (267) 2 (1) Fundamental frequency of the open pipe
OR v 330
Definition (0.5) ν= = = 330 Hz
Explanation (1)
2 L 2 × 0.5 (1)
Derivation (1.5) Fundamental frequency of the closed pipe
v 330
ν= = = 165 Hz
Solution: Given, 2 L 4 × 0.5 (1)
r1 = 1 cm 34. i) (d) Coefficient of sliding friction has
r2 = 2 cm dimensions of length. (1)
σ = 42 dyne/cm ii) (b) g sinθ + μg cosθ (1)
iii) (a) g sinθ – μg cosθ (2)
OR
151
iv) (c) t1 < t2 (2)
35 i) (a) 160 K (1)
ii) (a) 1000 m/s (1)
iii) (b) 3.312 × 10 J
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