Experiment No.

OBJECTIVE

This test is performed to determine the water content of soils.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 2) – 1973 Methods of test for soils: (Part 2) Determination of water content.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Thermostatically controlled oven, maintained at a temperature of 110C° ± 5° C

2. Weighing balance, with accuracy of 0.01g
3. Desiccator, with any suitable desiccating agent
4. Airtight containers made of non-corrodible material, with lid
5. Tongs

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen taken shall be representative of the soil mass.

THEORY

The water content (w) is the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the mass of “pore” or “free”
water in a given soil mass to the mass of the dry soil solids. It is equal to the mass of water
divided by the mass of soil solids and is expressed as a percentage.

M − M3 
w= 2   100
 M 3 − M1 

Where M1 = mass of empty container, with lid,

M2 = mass of the container with wet soil and lid,
M3 = Mass of the container with dry soil and lid.

SIGNIFICANCE

For many soils, the water content may be an extremely important index used for establishing the
relationship between the way a soil behaves and its properties. The consistency of a fine-
grained soil largely depends on its water content. The water content is also used in
expressing the phase relationships of air, water, and solids in a given volume of soil.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the empty container, dry it and weigh it with lid (M1).
2. Take the required quantity of the wet soil specimen in the container and close it with lid.
Take the mass (M2)
3. Place the container, with its lid removed in the oven for 24 hours till the mass becomes
constant.
4. When the soil has dried, remove the container from the oven, using tongs and cool it in a
desiccator with the lid.
5. Find the mass (M3) of the container with lid and dry soil sample.

OBSERVATIONS

S. No. Observations Trial Numbers

1 2 3
1. Container number

2. Mass of empty container, with lid, M1

3. Mass of container with wet soil, M2

4. Mass of container with dry soil, M3

CALCULATIONS

S. No. Calculations Trial Numbers

1 2 3
1 Mass of water, Mw = M2 – M3

2 Mass of solids, Ms = M3 – M1

3 M 
Water content, w =  w   100
 Ms 
4 Average water content (w)
%

RESULTS
 Experiment No. 2

OBJECTIVE

This test is performed to determine the specific gravity of soil solids.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 3 / Section 2) – 1980 Methods of test for soils. Part 3 Determination of specific
gravity, section 2 Fine, medium and coarse grained soils.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Pycnometer of about 1 litre capacity

Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 1 g
Glass rod
Wash bottle with distilled water
Vacuum pump

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen taken shall be representative of the soil mass.

THEORY

The specific gravity of solid particles is the mass density of solids to that of distilled water at
the standard temperature of 27oC. In other words, it is the ratio between the mass of given
volume of soil to that of equivalent volume of water. The specific gravity is denoted by the
symbol “G”. The pycnometer method can be used for the determination of the specific gravity
of solid particles of both fine-grained and coarse-grained soils. The specific gravity of solids
is determined using the relationship below.

 (M 2 − M 1 ) 
G= 
 (M 2 − M 1 ) − (M 3 − M 4 )

SIGNIFICANCE

The specific gravity of a soil is used in the phase relationship of air, water, and solids in a
given volume of the soil. It is necessary to compute the void ratio of the soil. It is also used in
Stoke’s law in particle size analysis and in the computations of unit weight of soil. The value
of specific gravity of most soils lie in the range of 2.65-2.80.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean and dry the pycnometer. Tightly screw its cap. Take its mass (M1) to the nearest 0.1
g.
2. Take about 200 g of oven-dried soil in the pycnometer and weigh it (M2).
3. Unscrew the cap and add sufficient amount of de-aired water to the pycnometer so as to
cover the soil and shake well the contents.
4. Connect the pycnometer to a vacuum pump, to remove the entrapped air, for about 20
minutes for fine- grained soils and for about 10 minutes for coarse-grained soils.
5. Disconnect the vacuum pump. Fill the pycnometer with water, about three fourths full.
6. Reapply the vacuum for about 5 minutes, till air bubbles stop spearing on the surface of
the water.
7. Fill the pycnometer with water completely, upto the mark. Dry it from outside. Take its
mass (M3).
8. Empty the pycnometer. Clean it and wipe it dry.
9. Fill the pycnometer with water only. Screw on the cap up to the mark. Wipe it dry. Take
its mass (M4).

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. Observation and calculation Trial Numbers

No. 1 2 3
Observations
1. Pycnometer number

2. Mass of empty pycnometer with lid, M1

3. Mass of pycnometer and dry soil, M2

4. Mass of pycnometer soil and water, M3

5. Mass of pycnometer and water, M4

Calculations
6. M2 – M1

7. M3 – M4

8. Specific gravity, G =
 (M 2 − M 1 ) 
 
 (M 2 − M 1 ) − (M 3 − M 4 )
9. Average specific gravity, (G)

RESULTS
 Experiment No. 3

AIM

The mechanical or dry sieve analysis is performed to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarser, larger-sized particles (≥ 75µ) size by sieving.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 4) – 1970 Methods of test for soils. Part 4 Grain size analysis.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Set of coarse sieves, 100 mm, 80 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, and 4.75 mm with lid and pan
Set of fine sieves, 2mm, 1mm, 600 μ 425 μ 150 μ, and 75 μ with lid and pan
Weighing balance, with accuracy of 0.1 g accuracy of the mass of sample
Oven
Mechanical sieve shaker
Trays
Brushes

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen shall be thoroughly mixed and taken for the test.

THEORY

This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
soil. Dry sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser particles, and
the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the finer particles (≤ 75 µ). The
soil is sieved through a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is determined.
The percentage of material retained on any sieve is given by
M
pn = n  100
M
Where Mn = mass of soil retained on sieve ‘n’, and M = Total mass of the sample.
The cumulative percentage of the material retained,

Cn = p1 + p2 + p3 + ……+ pn

Where p1 , p2 etc are the percentages retained on sieve ‘1’, ‘2’, etc. which are coarser than
sieve ‘n’. The percentage finer than the sieve ‘n’,

N n = 100 – Cn
The Indian standard classification of soil is given in the table below.
Indian standard classification (IS: 1498 – 1970)
Basic soil component Range of size, mm Symbol
Gravel 4.75 – 80 G
Sand 0.075 – 4.75 S
Silt 0.002 – 0.075 M
Clay ≤ 0.002 C
SIGNIFICANCE
The grain size analysis is used universally in the engineering classification of soils. The
distribution of different grain sizes affects the engineering properties of soil. Grain size
classification is used in partially establishing the suitability criteria for road, airfield and
embankment constructions. Soil-water movement can be predicted using the grain size
information. The susceptibility to frost action an extremely important consideration in cold
climate is dependent on grain size of soil. The proper gradation of filter materials in earth dam
construction is usually established from gradation tests of soils.

PROCEDURE

Part-I. Coarse sieve Analysis

1. Take the required quantity (200 – 300 g) of the soil sample. Sieve it through a 4.75 mm I
S sieve. Take the soil fraction retained on 4.75 mm I S sieve for the coarse sieve analysis
(part I) and that passing through the sieve for the fine sieve analysis (part II)
2. Sieve the sample through the set coarse sieves, by mechanical sieve shaker continuously
for about 10 minutes. The material retained on the sieves may be rubbed with the rubber
pestle in the mortar, if necessary. Care shall be taken so as not to break the individual
particles.
3. Determine the mass of the material retained on each sieve.
4. Calculate the percentage of soil retained on each sieve on the basis of the total of sample,
taken in step (1).
5. Determine the percentage passing through each sieve.

Part-II. Fine sieve Analysis

1. Take the portion of the soil passing 4.75 mm IS sieve. Oven dry at 105° to 100° C. Weigh
it to 0.1% of the total mass.
2. Sieve the soil through the set of fine sieves. The sieves should be agitated so that the
sample rolls in irregular motion over the sieves. However, no particles should be pushed
through the sieve. A minimum of 10 minutes of shaking is required if a mechanical shaker
is used.
3. Collect the soil fraction retained on each sieve in a separate container. Take the mass.
4. Determine the percentage retained, cumulative percentage retained, and the percentage
finer, based on the total mass taken in step (1).

GRAPH

Plot a graph between particle size as abscissa on log scale and percentage finer as ordinate.
The general slope and shape of the distribution curve can be described by means of the
coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and coefficient of curvature (Cc) given below.
D D 2 30
C u = 60 and Cc =
D10 D60  D10
A well graded soil has a coefficient of curvature (Cc) between 1 and 3, provided Cu ≥ 4 or 6
for gravel or sand respectively. D10 is defined as the effective grain size. The particle size
such that 10% of the particles are smaller than that size.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Total mass of dry soil = 5000 g for coarse aggregates

S. No. Observations Calculations
Aperture Mass of soil Percentage Cumulative Percentage
size, mm retained, g retained percent finer
retained
1 100
2 80
3 40
4 20
5 10
6 4.75
7 Pan

Total mass of dry soil = 1000 g

S. No. Observations Calculations
Aperture Mass of soil Percentage Cumulative Percentage
size, mm retained, g retained percent finer
retained
1 4.75
2 2.36
3 1.18
4 0.600
5 0.425
6 0.300
7 0.150
8 0.075
9 Pan
 Experiment No. 4

AIM

This test is performed to classify the plasticity characteristics of fine grained soil i.e. to determine
the liquid and plastic limits of the given soil.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 5) – 1985 Methods of test for soils: Part 5 Determination of liquid and plastic
limit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Casagrande’s liquid limit device

Grooving tool
Oven
Moisture cans 8 nos.
Evaporating dish
Glass plate
Brass rod 3 mm dia, 100 mm long
Spatula
425 μ IS sieve
Weighing balance, accuracy 0.01 g
Wash bottle with distilled water

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen for the test shall be sieved through 425 μ IS sieve.

THEORY

The Swedish soil scientist Albert Atterberg originally defined seven “limits of consistency” to
classify fine-grained soils, but in current engineering practice only two of the limits, the liquid
and plastic limits, are commonly used. (A third limit, called the shrinkage limit, is used
occasionally). The liquid limit of a soil is the water content at which the soil behaves
practically like a liquid, but has small shear strength against flowing. It flows to close the
groove in just 25 blows in Casagerande’s liquid limit device. The liquid limit (LL) is arbitrarily
defined as the water content, in percent, at which a pat of soil in a standard cup and cut by a
groove of standard dimensions will flow together at the base of the groove for a distance of 13
mm (1/2 in.) when subjected to 25 blows from the cup being dropped 10 mm in a standard liquid
limit apparatus operated at a rate of two blows per second. The plastic limit (PL) is the water
content, in percent, at which a soil can no longer be deformed by rolling into 3.2 mm (1/8 in.)
diameter threads without crumbling.

SIGNIFICANCE

The Atterberg limits are based on the moisture content of the soil. The liquid limit is the
moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a plastic to a viscous fluid state. The
plastic limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil changes from a semi-solid to a
plastic (flexible) state. The shrinkage limit is the moisture content that defines where the soil
volume will not reduce further if the moisture content is reduced. A wide variety of soil
engineering properties have been correlated to the liquid and plastic limits, and these Atterberg
limits are also used to classify a fine-grained soil according to the Unified Soil Classification
system or AASHTO system.

PROCEDURE

Part-I. Liquid limit

1. Adjust the drop of the cap of the liquid limit device by releasing the two screws at the top
and by using the handle of the grooving tool or a gauge.
2. The drop should be exactly 10 mm at the point of contact on the base. Tighten the screw
after adjustment.
3. Take about 120 g of the air-dried soil sample passing 425 μ IS sieve.
4. Mix the sample thoroughly with distilled water in an evaporating dish or a glass plate to
form a uniform paste. Mixing should be continued for about 15 to 30 minutes, till a
uniform mix is obtained.
5. Keep the mix under humid condition for obtaining uniform moisture distribution for
sufficient period. For some fat clay, this maturing time may be up to 24 hours.
6. Take a portion of the matured paste and remix it thoroughly. Place it in the cup of the
device by a spatula and level it to have a maximum depth of the soil as 10 mm at the point
of the maximum thickness. The excess soil, if any, should be transferred to the
evaporating dish.
7. Cut a groove in the sample in the cup by using the appropriate tool. Draw the grooving
tool through the paste in the cup along the symmetrical axis, along the diameter through
the centerline of the cam. Hold the tool perpendicular to the cup.
8. Turn the handle of the device at rate of 2 revolutions per second.
9. Count the number of blows until the two halves of the soil specimen come in contact at
the bottom of the groove along a distance of 12 cm due to flowing and not sliding.
10. Collect a representative specimen of the soil by moving spatula width-wise from one edge
to the other edge of the soil cake, at right angles to the groove. This should include the
portion of the groove in which the soil flowed to close the groove.
11. Place the specimen in an air-tight container for the water content determination.
Determine the water content.
12. Remove the remaining soil from the cup. Mix it with the soil left in evaporating dish.
13. Change the water content of the mix in the evaporating dish, either by adding more after if
the water content is to be increased, or by kneading the soil, if the water content is to be
decreased.
14. Repeat steps 5 to 13, and determine the number of blows (N) and the water content in each
case.

GRAPH

Plot the number of blows, N, as abscissa (on the log scale) versus the water content (w) as
ordinate on the Y axis. Draw the best-fit straight line through the plotted points and determine
the liquid limit (LL) as the water content corresponding to 25 numbers of blows.

Part-II. Plastic limit

1. Take about 30 g of air-dried a thoroughly mixed sample of the soil passing 425 µ sieve.
2. Mix the soil with distilled water in an evaporating dish or on a glass plate to make it
plastic enough to shape into a small ball.
3. Leave the plastic soil mass for some time for maturing. For some fat clay, this period may
be even upto 24 hours.
4. Take about 8 g of the plastic soil, and roll it with fingers on a glass plate. The rate of the
rolling should be about 80 to 90 strokes per minute to from a thread of 3 mm diameter,
counting one stroke when the hand moves forwarded and backward to the starting point.
5. If the diameter of the thread becomes less than 3 mm without cracks, it shows that the
water content is more than the plastic limit. Knead the soil to reduce the water content,
and roll it again into thread.
6. Repeat the process of alternate rolling and kneading until the thread crumbles, and the soil
can no longer be rolled into thread.
7. [Note. If the crumbling occurs when the thread has a diameter slightly greater than 3 mm,
it may be taken as the plastic limit provided the soil had been rolled into a thread of 3 mm
diameter immediately before kneading. Do not attempt to produce failure exactly at 3 mm
diameter.]
8. Collect the pieces of the crumbled soil thread in a moisture content container for
determination of water content.
9. Repeat the procedure at least twice more with fresh samples of plastic soil each
10. time and determine of water content.
11. Compute the average of the water contents to determine the plastic limit, PL.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. No. Observation and calculation Trail Number

1 2 3
Part-I. Liquid limit
(Observations)
1. No. of blows
2. Water content can No.
3. Mass of empty can, with lid, M1

4. Mass of can with wet soil, M2

5. Mass of can with dry soil, M3

Calculations
6. Mass of water, Mw = M2 – M3

7. Mass of dry solil, Ms = M3 – M1

8. M 
Water content, w =  w   100 % % %
 Ms 

Part-II. Plastic limit

(Observations)
1. Water content can No.

2. Mass of empty can, with lid, M1

3. Mass of can with wet soil, M2

4. Mass of can with dry soil, M3

Calculations
6. Mass of water, Mw = M2 – M3

7. Mass of dry soil, Ms = M3 – M1

8. M 
Water content, w =  w   100 % % %
 Ms 
9. Plastic limit (PL), the average water %
content (w)
10. Calculate the plasticity index,
PI=LL-PL.
 Experiment No. 5

AIM

This test is performed to determine the in-situ dry density by:

Sand replacement method

Core cutter method

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 28) – 1970. Methods of test for soils: Part 5 Determination of dry density of
soils, in place by sand replacement method.

IS 2720 (Part 2) – 1970. Determination of moisture content.

1. Sand replacement method

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Sand- pouring cylinder

Calibrating container, 100 mm diameter and 150 mm height
Soil cutting and excavating tools, such as a scraper tool, bent spoon
Glass plate, 450 mm square, 9 mm think
Metal container to collect excavated soil
Metal tray, 300 mm square and 40 mm deep with a hole of 100 mm in diameter at center
Weighing balance
Moisture cans
Oven
Desiccator

SOIL SPECIMEN

Clean, uniform sand passing 1 mm IS sieve and retained on 600 micron IS sieve in sufficient
quantity.

THEORY

A hole of specified dimensions is excavated in the ground. The mass of the excavated soil is
determined. The volume of the hole is determined by filling it with clean uniform sand whose
dry density (ρs) is determined separately by calibration. The volume of the hole is equal to the
mass of the sand filled in the hole divided by its dry density. The dry density of the excavated
soil is determined as,

M
d = V
(1 + w)
Where M = mass of the excavated soil; V = volume of the hole; and w = water content.

SIGNIFICANCE
The in situ density is necessary for calculating borrow or cut and fill quantities of soil. It is
also required to establish the compaction control in the field.

PROCEDURE

Part-I Calibration

1. Determine the internal volume of the calibrating container by filling it with water upto
brim or by measuring the dimensions of the container.
2. Fill the sand-pouring cylinder with sand, within about 10 mm of its top. Determine the
mass of the cylinder (M1) to the nearest gram.
3. Place the sand-pouring cylinder vertically on the calibrating container.
4. Open the shutter to allow the sand run out from. When there is no further movement of the
sand in the cylinder close the shutter.
5. Lift the pouring cylinder from the calibrating container and weigh it to the nearest gram
(M3).
6. Open the shutter to allow the sand run out of the cylinder. When the volume of the sand
let out is equal to the volume of the calibrating container, close the shutter.
7. Place the cylinder over a plane surface, such as a glass plate. Open the shutter. The sand
fills the cone of the cylinder. Close the shutter when no further movement of sand takes
place.
8. Remove the cylinder collect the sand left on the glass plate.
9. Determine the mass of sand (M2) that had filled the cone by weighing the collected sand.
10. Determine the dry density of sand, as-shown in the data sheet, part-I

Part- II Determination of dry density

1. Expose an area of about 450 mm square on the surface of the soil mass. Trim the surface
down to a level surface, using a scraper tool.
2. Place the metal tray on the levelled surface.
3. Excavate the soil through the central hole of the tray, using the hole in the tray as a
pattern. The depth of the excavated hole should be about 150 mm.
4. Collect all the excavated soil in a metal container, and determine the mass of soil (M).
5. Remove the metal tray from the excavated hole.
6. Fill the sand-pouring cylinder within 10 mm of its top. Determine its mass (M1).
7. Place the cylinder directly over the excavated hole. Allow the sand to run out of the
cylinder by opening the shutter. Close the shutter when the hole is completely filled and
no further movement of sand is observed.
8. Remove the cylinder from the filled hole. Determine the mass of the cylinder (M4).
9. Take a representative sample of the excavated soil. Determine its water content.
10. Determine the dry density of soil as shown in the data sheet, part- II.
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Part I Calibration for dry density of sand

S. No. Observation and calculation Trail Number

1 2 3
Observations
1. Volume of calibrating cone (Vc)
2. Mass of pouring cylinder filled with sand (M1)
3. Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring sand
into the calibrating container and the cone (M3)
4. Mass of sand in the cone (M2)
Calculations
5. Mass of sand in the calibrating container
M c = (M 1 − M 3 − M 4 ) )

6. Mc
Dry density of sand  s =
Vc

Average dry density  s

Part II Dry density of soil

S. Observation and calculation Trail Number

No. 1 2 3
Observations
1. Mass of excavated soil (M)
2. Mass of pouring cylinder filled with sand
(M1)
3. Mass of pouring cylinder after pouring sand
into the hole and cone (M4)
Calculation
4. Mass of sand in the hole
M s = M1 − M 4 − M 2
5. Ms
Volume of sand in the hole V =
S
6. M
Bulk density  =
V
7. Water content, w

8. M
Dry density ρs = V
1+ w

9. Average dry density (  s )

Core cutter method

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Cylindrical core cutter, 100 mm internal diameter and 130 mm long

Steel rammer, mass 9 kg overall length, with the foot and staff about 900 mm
Steel dolley, 25 mm high and 100 mm internal diameter
Weighing balance, with accuracy of 1 g
Palette knife
Straight edge
Steel rule
Vernier caliper

THEORY

A cylindrical core cutter is a seamless steel tube. For determination of dry density of the soil,
the cutter is pressed into the soil mass so that it is filled with the soil. The cutter filled with the
soil is lifted up. The mass of the soil in cutter is determined. The dry density is obtained as
M
ρs = V
1+ w

Where M = mass of the wet soil in the cutter;

V = internal volume of the cutter, w = water content.

SIGNIFICANCE

This test is used to determine the in place density of soil. This test can also be used to
determine the density of compacted soils used in the construction of structural fills, highway
embankments or earth dams. This method is not recommended for organic soils.

PROCEDURE

1. Determine the internal diameter and height of the core cutter accurately.
2. Determine the mass (M1) of the cutter to the nearest gram.
3. Expose a small area of the soil mass to be tested. Level the surface about 300 mm square
in area.
4. Place the dolley over the top of the cutter and press the core cutter into the soil mass using
the rammer. Stop the process of pressing when about 15 mm of the dolley protrudes above
the soil surface.
5. Remove the soil surrounding the core cutter, and take out the core cutter. Some soil would
project from the lower end of the cutter.
6. Remove the dolley. Trim the top and bottom surface of the core cutter carefully using a
straight edge.
7. Weigh the core cutter filled with the soil to the nearest gram (M2).
8. Remove the core of the soil from the cutter. Take a representative sample for water
content determination and determine the water content.
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. No. Observation and calculation Trail Number

1 2 3
Observations
1. Core cutter number
2. Internal diameter (D)
3. Internal height (h)
4. Mass of empty core cutter (M1)
5. Mass of core cutter with soil (M2)
Calculations
6. Mass of wet soil M = M2- M1
7. D 2
Volume of cutter, V = h
4
8. Water content of the soil, w
9. M
Dry density, ρs = V
1+ w
10. Average dry density (ρs)
 Experiment No. 6

AIM

This laboratory test is performed to determine the relationship between the moisture content
and the dry density of a soil for a specified compactive effort.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 7) – 1980 Methods of test for soils: Part 7 Determination of water content –dry
density relation using light compaction.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Compaction mould 1000 ml capacity

2.6 kg rammer
Detachable base plate
Collar 60 mm high
I S sieve 4.75 mm
Oven
Moisture cans
Dessicator
Weighing balance with accuracy of 1 g
Large mixing pan
Straight edge
Spatula
Graduated jars
Mixing tools, spoons, trowels
Steel rule
Vernier caliper

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen used must pass through 4.75 mm I. S. sieve.

THEORY

The Proctor’s compaction test is conducted in the laboratory to asses the water content and
dry density relationship of a soil for a specified compactive effort. Compaction is the
mechanical process of densification through reduction of air voids in the soil mass The
compactive effort is the amount of mechanical energy that is applied to the soil mass. Several
methods are used to compact soil in the field, and some examples include tamping, kneading,
vibration, and static load compaction. This laboratory test will employ the tamping or impact
compaction method using the type of equipment and methodology developed by R. R. Proctor
in 1933, therefore, the test is also known as the Proctor test. Generally two types of
compaction tests are performed: (1) The Standard Proctor test, and (2) The Modified Proctor
test. In the Standard Proctor Test, the soil is compacted by a 2.6 kg rammer falling at a
distance of 310 mm into a soil filled mould. The mould is filled with three equal layers of
soil, and each layer is subjected to 25 blows of rammer. The Modified Proctor Test is
identical to the Standard Proctor test except it employs, a 4.89 kg rammer falling at a distance
of 450 mm, and uses five equal layers of soil instead of three.
SIGNIFICANCE

Mechanical compaction is one of the most common and cost effective means of stabilizing
soils. An extremely important task of geotechnical engineers is the performance and analysis
of field control tests to assure that compacted fills are meeting the prescribed design
specifications. Design specifications usually state the required density (as a percentage of the
“maximum” density measured in a standard laboratory test), and the water content. In
general, most engineering properties, such as the strength, stiffness, resistance to shrinkage,
and imperviousness of the soil, will improve by increasing the soil density. The optimum
water content is the water content that results in the greatest density for a specified
compactive effort. Compacting at water contents higher than (wet of ) the optimum water
content results in a relatively dispersed soil structure (parallel particle orientations) that is
weaker, more ductile, less pervious, softer, more susceptible to shrinking, and less susceptible
to swelling than soil compacted dry of optimum to the same density. The soil compacted
lower than (dry of) the optimum water content typically results in a flocculated soil structure
(random particle orientations) that has the opposite characteristics of the soil compacted wet
of the optimum water content to the same density.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean and dry the mould with base plate and weigh it to the nearest 1 gm.
2. Apply grease on the mould, base plate and collar completely.
3. Take about 16 -18 kg of air dried pulverized soil.
4. Add 4% of water to the soil if the soil is sandy and about 8% if it is clayey and mix it
thoroughly. Keep the soil in an air tight container and allow it to mature for about an hour.
5. Take about 3 kg of the processed soil and divide it soil into approximately three equal
portions.

6. Put one portion of the soil into the mould and compact it by applying 25 number of
uniformly distributed blows.
7. Scratch the top surface of the compacted soil using spatula before filling the mould with
second layer of soil. Compact the soil in the similar fashion as done in for the first layer
and scratch it.
8. Repeat the same procedure for the third layer also.
9. Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil projecting above the mould using straight
edge.
10. Clean the mould and base plate from outside and weigh it to the nearest gram.
11. Remove the soil from the mould.
12. Take the soil samples from top, middle and bottom of the cake and determine the average
water content.
13. Add about 3% water on a fresh portion of the processed soil and repeat the steps from 5 to
12.

GRAPH

Draw a graph between water content “w” as abscissa and dry density “ρd” as ordinate.
From the graph determine the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content.
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. Observation and calculation Trail number

No. 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observations
1. Diameter of mould, (D)
2. Height of mould, (H)
3. Mass of empty molud and base
plate
4. Mass of molud , base plate
and compacted soil
Calculations
5. Volume of mould,
2
D
V= H
4
6. Mass of compacted soil,
M = (2) − (1)
7. Bulk density,  = M
V
8. Water content, w
9. 
Dry density,  d =
(1 + w)
10. G  w
Void ratio, e = −1
d
11. Dry density at 100% saturation
(Theoretical max ρd ) =
(G w )
(1 + wG )
12. Degree of saturation,
wG
S=  100
e
 Experiment No. 7

AIM

The purpose of this test is to determine the permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of soil by:
1. Constant head test method and
2. Variable head test method

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 17) – 1986 Methods of test for soils: Part 17 Laboratory determination of
permeability of soils.

1. Constant head test method

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Permeameter mould 1000 ml capacity, (100 mm dia)

Detachable collar
Dummy plate
Drainage base with porous disc
Drainage cap porous disc
Compaction equipment (Rammer)
Constant head water supply reservoir
Constant head collecting chamber
Vacuum paump
Stop watch
Large funnel
Weighing balance with accuracy 0.1 g
Filter paper

SOIL SPECIMEN

A 2.5 kg of air dried or oven dried soil sample of maximum grain size 9.5 mm is required.

THEORY

Permeability (or hydraulic conductivity) refers to the ease with which water can flow through a
soil. There are two general types of permeability test methods that are commonly performed in
the laboratory: (1) the constant head test method, and (2) the falling head test method. The
constant head test method is used for permeable soils (k > 10-4 cm/s) and the falling head test is
mainly used for less permeable soils (k < 10-4 cm/s). The coefficient of permeability (k) is equal
to the rate of flow of water through a unit cross sectional area under a unit hydraulic gradient.
In the constant head test, the head causing flow through the specimen remains constant
throughout the test. The coefficient of permeability (k) is obtained from the relation
QL
k=
Aht

Where
Q = total volume of water
t = time period
h = head causing flow
L = length of the specimen
A = cross sectional area of soil
SIGNIFICANCE
The knowledge of permeability of soils is essential in the solution of many engineering
problems involving flow of water through soils such as:
1. Dewatering and drainage of excavations, backfills and sub grades
2. Determining yield of water bearing strata
3. Assessing seepage through the body of earth dams, under sheet pile walls, through waste
storage facilities (landfills)
4. Computing losses from canals and
5. Calculation of rate of settlement of clayey soil deposits.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the mould, collar and the dummy plate.

2. Measure the internal dimensions of the mould and take the weight of it with dummy plate.
3. Apply little grease inside the mould. Clamp the mould, collar and the dummy plate.
4. Take about 2.5 kg of the soil sample from a thoroughly mixed wet soil in the mould and
compact it to the required density.
5. Remove the collar and base plate and trim the excess soil and level it to the top of the
mould.
6. Clean the mould and dummy plate from outside and weigh it with soil to the nearest gram.
7. Saturate two numbers of porous stones and place it on the drainage base with a filter paper
on the porous discs.
8. Remove the dummy plate and place the mould with soil on the drainage base.
9. Place a filter paper, a porous disc and fix the drainage cap using washers.
10. Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the base and allow the water to flow upwards
to saturate the soil. Excess water must be allowed to flow out. Now, disconnect the
reservoir from the outlet at the bottom.
11. Connect the constant head reservoir to the drainage cap inlet, open the valve and allow
water to flow through the soil downwards so that all the air is removed.
12. Close the valve and allow the water to flow through the soil till a steady state is attained.
13. Start the stop watch and collect the water flowing out of the base in a measuring jar for a
convenient time interval.
14. Repeat this thrice keeping the time interval same. Check the quantity of water collected
from the bottom is approximately same each time.
15. Measure the difference of head (h) in levels between the constant head reservoir and the
outlet in the base.
16. Repeat the test for at least two more different time intervals.
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. No. Observation and calculation Trail Number

1 2 3
Observations
1. Mass of empty mould with base plate, M1
2. Mass of mould, soil and base plate, M2
3 Diameter of mould, (D)
4 Height of mould, (H)
5. Hydraulic head (h)
6. Time interval (t)
7. Quantity of flow (Q)
a) First time in period t
b) Second time in period t
c) Third time in period t
8. Average Q
Calculations
9. Mass of soil M = M2 – M1
10. D 2
Volume of mould, V = H
4
11. M
Bulk density,  =
V
12. Water content , w
13. 
Dry density,  d =
(1 + w)
14. ( G )
Void ratio, e = w − 1
d
15. QL
Coefficient of permeability, k =
Aht

Average k

Variable head test method:-

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Permeameter mould 1000 ml capacity, (100 mm dia)

Detachable collar
Dummy plate
Drainage base with porous disc
Drainage cap porous disc
Compaction equipment (Rammer)
Constant head water supply reservoir
Constant head collecting chamber
Vacuum paump
Stop watch
Large funnel
Weighing balance with accuracy 0.1 g
Filter paper
Graduated glass stand pipes 5 to 20 mm diameter
Supporting frame for the stand pipe and the clamp.

SOIL SPECIMEN

A 2.5 kg of air dried or oven dried soil sample of maximum grain size 9.5 mm is required.

THEORY

The variable head permeability method is used for relatively less permeable soils. The
coefficient of permeability is given by

 2.3aL 
log 10  1 
h
k= 
 At   h2 

Where
h1 = initial head
h2 = final head
t = time interval
a = cross sectional area of the stand pipe
A = cross sectional area of the soil specimen
L = length of the soil specimen

SIGNIFICANCE

To determine the coefficient of permeability of fine grained soils, variable head permeability
method is best suited than the constant head method.

PROCEDURE

1. Clean the mould, collar and the dummy plate.

2. Measure the internal dimensions of the mould and take the weight of it with dummy plate.
3. Apply little grease inside the mould. Clamp the mould, collar and the dummy plate.
4. Take about 2.5 kg of the soil sample from a thoroughly mixed wet soil in the mould and
compact it to the required density.
5. Remove the collar and base plate and trim the excess soil and level it to the top of the
mould.
6. Clean the mould and dummy plate from outside and weigh it with soil to the nearest gram.
7. Saturate two numbers of porous stones and place it on the drainage base with a filter paper
on the porous discs.
8. Remove the dummy plate and place the mould with soil on the drainage base.
9. Place a filter paper, a porous disc and fix the drainage cap using washers.
10. Connect the water reservoir to the outlet at the base and allow the water to flow upwards
to saturate the soil. Excess water must be allowed to flow out. Now, disconnect the
reservoir from the outlet at the bottom.
11. Connect the specimen through the top inlet to a selected stand pipe filled with water.
Open the stop cock at the top and allow water to flow out till all the air in the mould is
removed.
12. Close the top and bottom outlets when the specimen is saturated and refill the stand pipe
with water. Now the set up is ready for the falling head permeability test.
13. Open the bottom outlet and measure the time interval required for the water level to fall
from a known initial head to final head as measured above the centre of outlet.
14. Refill the stand pipe with water and repeat the test till three successive observations give
the same time interval. The time interval should be recorded for the drop in head from the
same initial to final values as in the first determination.

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

S. No. Observation and calculation Trail Number

1 2 3
Observations
1. Diameter of soil specimen, (D)
2. Height of soil specimen, (H)
3 Diameter of stand pipe, (d)
4 Mass of empty molud and base plate, M1
5. Mass of molud , base plate and soil, M2
6. Initial head, h1
7. Final head, h2
8. Time interval from h1 to h2
9. Water content of the soil sample, w
Calculations
10. Mass of soil, M = (M2 - M1)
11. D 2
Area of soil specimen, A =
4
12. D 2
Volume of mould, V = H
4
13. d 2
Area of stand pipe, a =
4
14. Mass of soil, M = M2 - M1
15. M
Bulk density,  =
V
16. 
Dry density  d =
(1 + w))
17. ( G )
Void ratio, e = w − 1
d
18. Coefficient of permeability,
 2.3aL 
log 10  1 
h
k= 
 At   h2 

Average k
 Experiment No. 8
AIM

This test is conducted to determine the shear strength of soils with a maximum particle size of
4.75 mm by direct shear test.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 13) – 1986 Methods of test for soils: Part 13 Direct shear test.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Shear box, divided into two halves by a horizontal plane, and fitted with locking and spacing
screws
Box container to hold the shear box
Base plate plane, having cross grooves on its top surface
Grid plates, perforated, 2 nos
Porous stones, 6 mm thick, 2 nos
Loading pad
Loading frame
Loading yoke
Proving ring, capacity 2 kN
Dial gauges, accuracy 0.01 mm, 2 nos
Static or dynamic compaction device
Spatula
Set of weights
Vernier caliper

SOIL SPECIMEN

Clean sand of any gradation may be used to perform the test.

THEORY

The direct shear test is a simple test to perform. The test is conducted by placing a soil sample
into the shear box. Shear strength of a soil is its maximum resistance to shearing stresses. The
shear strength is expressed as
τ = c’ + σ’ tan φ’
Where c’ = effective cohesion σ’ = effective stress; and φ’ = effective angle of shearing
resistance.
The shear tests can be conducted under three different drainage conditions. The direct shear
test is generally conducted on sandy soils as a consolidated-drained test.
SIGNIFICANCE:-Shear strength evaluation is necessary in most of the soil stability
problems. The Direct shear test is one of the method through which the shear strength
parameters can be determined easily. The Direct shear test is a simple and straight forward
test to perform.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the intemal dimensions of the shear box. Also determine the average thickness of
the grid plates.
2. Fix the upper part of the box to the lower part using the locking screws. Attach the base
plate to the lower part.
3. Place the grid plate in the shear box keeping the serrations of the gird at the direction of
shear. Place a porous stone over the gird plate
4. Weigh the shear box with base plate, gird plate and porous stone.
5. Place the soil specimen in the box. Tamp it directly in the shear box at the required
density. When the soil in the top half of the shear box is filled upto 10 to 15 mm depth,
level the soil surface.
6. Weigh the box with the soil specimen.
7. Place the box inside the box container, and fix the loading pad on the box. Mount the box
container on the loading frame.
8. Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring. Check the contact by
giving a slight movement.
9. Mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on the loading pad.
10. Mount one dial gauge on the loading yoke to record the vertical displacement and another
dial gauge on the container to record the horizontal displacement.
11. Place the weights on the loading yoke to apply a normal stress of 25 kN/m2.
12. Remove locking screws. Using the spacing screws, raise the upper part slightly above the
lower part such that the gap is slightly larger than maximum particle size.
13. Remove the spacing screws.
14. Adjust all the dial gauges to read zero. The proving ring should also read zero.
15. Apply the horizontal shear load at a constant rate of strain of 0.2 mm/minute.
16. Record reading of the proving ring, the vertical displacement dial gauge and the horizontal
displacement dial gauge at regular time intervals. Take the first few readings at closer
intervals.
17. Continue the test till the specimen fails or till a strain of 20% is reached.
18. Repeat the test on identical specimens under the normal stresses of 50, 100, 200, 400,
kN/m2, etc.

19. Use different data sheet for different normal stresses and determine the shear stress at
failure in each case. Summarize the results.

GRAPH

Plot a graph (Coulomb envelope) between normal stress as abscissa and shear stress at failure
as ordinate. From the graph determine cohesion intercept (c’) and angle of internal friction (
' ) .

OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

Size of box
Area of box
Thickness of specimen
Volume of specimen
Mass of soil specimen
Bulk density
Water content
Dry density
Void ratio
Rate of strain
Least count of vertical deformation dial gauge
 Least count of horizontal deformation dial gauge
Calibration factor for the proving ring
Total normal load PV
Normal stress  n

Vertical Vertical Horiz Horizontal Correcte Proving Shear Shear

dial displace ontal displaceme d area ring dial load stress,
ment V H A=
 1 =  Ph A 
reading dial nt, reading Ph
,mm readin ,mm (
A0 1 − H
3
)  
g

S.No. Normal stress Shear stress at

failure
1
2
3
4
5
 Experiment No. 9
AIM

This test is conducted to determine the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of cohesive
soil in the laboratory.

STANDARD REFERENCE

IS 2720 (Part 10) – 1973 Methods of test for soils: Part 10 Determination of unconfined
compressive strength.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Unconfined compression apparatus, (loading frame) proving ring type

Proving capacity 1 kN
Dial gauge accuracy 0.01mm
Weighing balance
Oven
Stop watch
Sampling tube
Split mould 38 mm dia and 76 mm long
Sample extractor
Knife
Vernier caliper
Large mould
Stop watch

SOIL SPECIMEN

The soil specimen can be disturbed or undisturbed clay.

THEORY

The UCS (qu) is the load per unit area at which a cylindrical specimen of a cohesive soil fails
in compression.
qu = P
A
Ao
Where P= axial load at failure, A = corrected area = , where Ao is the initial cross
(1 −  )
sectional area of the specimen;  = axial strain= change in length / original length. The
q
undrained shear strength (s) of the soil is equal to one half of the UCS. i.e. s = u 2
SIGNIFICANCE

Shear strength of soil is the most important engineering property. To determine the shear
strength of a soil triaxial shear test is conducted. Unconfined compression test is also a triaxial
shear test with confining pressure zero. It is quick and easy test to perform. The consistency
of clay can be determined using the value of unconfined compressive strength, of soil.
Following table gives the various consistency limits of clay depending on its UCS values.
Typical values of unconfined compressive strength

S. No. Consistency of clay Unconfined compressive strength, (kN/m2)

1. Very soft ≤ 25
2. Soft 25 -50
3. Medium 50 – 100
4. Stiff 100 -200
5. Very stiff 200 – 400
6. Hard ≥ 400

PROCEDURE

1. Prepare the soil specimen at the desired water content and density in the large mould.
2. Push the sampling tube into the large mould, and remove the sampling tube filled with the
soil. For undisturbed samples, push the sampling tube into the clay sample.
3. Saturate the soil sample in the sampling tube by a suitable method.
4. Coat the split mould lightly with a thin layer of grease. Weigh the mould.
5. Extrude the sample out of the sampling tube into split mould, using the sample extractor
and the knife.
6. Trim the two ends of the specimen in the split mould.
7. Weigh the mould with the specimen.
8. Remove the specimen from the split mould by splitting the mould into two parts.
9. Measure the length and diameter of the specimen with venire calipers.
10. Place the specimen on the bottom plate of the compression machine.
11. Adjust the upper plate to make contact with the specimen.
12. Adjust the dial gauge and the proving-ring gauge to zero.
13. Apply the compression load to cause an axial strain at the rate of ½ to 2% per minute.
14. Record the dial gauge reading and the proving ring reading every thirty seconds upto a
strain of 6% the reading may be taken after every 60 seconds for a strain between 6% to
12%, and every 2 minutes or so beyond 12%.
15. Continue the test until failure surfaces have clearly developed or until an axial strain of
20% is reached.
16. Measure the angle between the failure surface and the horizontal, if possible.
17. Take the sample from the failure zone of the specimen for the water content
determination.

GRAPH

Draw a graph between axial strain  , as abscissa and axial stress  as ordinate and determine
peak stress. . If there is no definite peak, stress corresponding to 20% of axial strain is the
peak stress. The tangent and secant modulus can be computed using the slope of the stress-
strain curve.
Description of sample:-
Initial length of the specimen, L0
Initial diameter of the specimen, D0
Initial area of the specimen, A0
Initial volume of the specimen, V0
Mass of empty spilt mould
Mass of empty spilt mould and specimen
Mass of specimen = M
Dry mass of specimen after oven drying = M1
(M − M 1 )  100
Water content, w =
M1
M
Bulk density,  =
V0
Specific gravity, G =

Dry density  d =
(1 + w))
( G )
Void ratio, e = w − 1
d
 wG 
Degree of saturation S =    100
 e 
Rate of strain
Least count of dial gauge
Calibration factor for the proving ring
OBSERVATION AND TABULATION

UCS TEST
Strain
Lc (m) rate(mm/min) Dry Wt. (kg)
Ac (m2) P.R 0325 Dry Den.(kN/m3)
Vo(m3) L.C. m

D.D.G.R P.R.R Ax. strain strain % Area m2 Dev. Stress