Types of Elementary Structures

In structural engineering, elementary structures are the basic building blocks that form the foundation of more
complex constructions. These structures are designed to carry loads, resist forces, and ensure stability.
Understanding their behavior and function is essential for designing safe and efficient buildings, bridges, and
other infrastructure.

1. Beams
Beams are horizontal structural members that transfer loads from above to supports such as columns or walls.
They primarily resist bending and shear forces, ensuring the even distribution of weight across a structure.
Depending on their support conditions, beams can be classified into several types:
• Simply Supported Beam – A beam supported at both ends with no restrictions on rotation. It
experiences bending but has no moment resistance at its supports.
• Fixed Beam – A beam that is rigidly fixed at both ends, preventing rotation and providing additional
moment resistance.
• Cantilever Beam – A beam that is fixed at one end and free at the other, commonly used in balconies
and overhangs.
• Continuous Beam – A beam that extends over multiple supports, reducing bending moments and
improving load distribution.
Beams are crucial in floor and roof structures, ensuring the stability of buildings and bridges. Their material
composition (wood, steel, reinforced concrete, etc.) significantly impacts their strength and efficiency.

2. Columns
Columns are vertical structural elements that primarily carry compressive loads. They transfer the weight from
beams and slabs down to the foundation, ensuring the structural integrity of buildings and other constructions.
The behavior of a column depends on its height, cross-section, and material.
• Short Columns – Fail due to crushing under excessive compressive stress. They are commonly used
in low-rise structures.
• Long (Slender) Columns – Prone to buckling, a failure mode where the column bends sideways
before reaching its full compressive capacity. These require careful design considerations, especially in
high-rise buildings.
Columns can be made from materials like concrete, steel, or timber, depending on the structural requirements.
Reinforced concrete columns, often used in modern buildings, contain embedded steel bars to improve strength
and ductility.

3. Trusses
Trusses are structural frameworks composed of interconnected members arranged in a series of triangles. They
distribute loads efficiently through axial forces (tension and compression), minimizing material usage while
maximizing strength.
Common types of trusses include:
• Pratt Truss – Uses vertical and diagonal members to transfer loads efficiently, often found in bridges
and roofs.
• Warren Truss – Features alternating diagonal members forming a repeating triangular pattern,
reducing material usage.
• King Post Truss – A simple triangular structure commonly used in small-scale applications like roofs
and pedestrian bridges.
Trusses are widely used in bridges, roof structures, and towers due to their lightweight yet high load-bearing
capacity. Their modular design makes them ideal for prefabrication and quick assembly.
4. Frames
Frames are structural systems composed of beams and columns interconnected to form a rigid structure.
They are designed to resist various forces, including vertical loads and lateral forces such as wind and
earthquakes.
• Rigid Frames – Have fixed connections between members, ensuring resistance to both bending and
shear forces. These are common in modern skyscrapers.
• Braced Frames – Use diagonal bracing to improve stability, particularly in earthquake-resistant
buildings.
• Portal Frames – Feature a distinct shape with wide-spanning beams, commonly used in warehouses
and industrial structures.
Frames allow for open interior spaces without the need for excessive load-bearing walls, making them ideal
for contemporary architecture.

5. Arches
Arches are curved structural elements that primarily carry loads through compression. Unlike beams, which
experience bending, arches distribute forces along their curve, reducing tensile stress.
Common types of arches include:
• Segmental Arch – A shallow, curved arch that is commonly used in bridges and doorways.
• Semi-Circular Arch – A classic Roman-style arch with a symmetrical shape, often seen in historic
architecture.
• Pointed Arch – Found in Gothic architecture, allowing for greater height and a more decorative
appearance.
Arches are known for their durability and ability to span large distances with minimal material. They are
commonly used in bridges, cathedrals, and aqueducts.

6. Cables and Suspension Systems

Cables are structural elements that carry loads exclusively through tension. Unlike rigid structures, cables
naturally form a catenary shape under their own weight, efficiently distributing forces.
Examples include:
• Suspension Bridges – Feature cables that support the deck, with towers providing vertical load-
bearing capacity.
• Cable-Stayed Bridges – Use multiple cables connected directly to the towers, improving stability and
reducing material usage.
• Tensile Roofs – Lightweight structures made of fabric or membranes supported by cables, used in
stadiums and exhibition halls.
Cables provide high strength-to-weight ratios, making them ideal for long-span structures. They allow for
innovative and aesthetically striking architectural designs.
7. Domes
Domes are three-dimensional curved structures that distribute loads uniformly in all directions. Their shape
allows them to resist external forces efficiently while providing large, open interior spaces.
Types of domes include:
• Geodesic Dome – A modern, lightweight structure made of interconnected triangles, offering high
strength with minimal material.
• Monolithic Dome – A single continuous shell structure known for its durability and energy efficiency.
• Onion Dome – Found in Eastern Orthodox and Mughal architecture, featuring a distinctive bulbous
shape.
Domes are used in religious buildings, sports arenas, and planetariums due to their ability to enclose vast
spaces without internal supports.

Nature of Supports and Their Reactions

Supports in structural systems provide stability by restricting movement and absorbing loads. Different types
of supports offer varying degrees of movement restriction, affecting how forces are distributed.

1. Fixed Support
A fixed support completely restrains both translation and rotation, meaning it provides three reaction
components:
• Horizontal reaction (resists lateral movement)
• Vertical reaction (supports vertical loads)
• Moment reaction (resists rotational forces)
Fixed supports are commonly used in cantilever beams and rigid frame structures, ensuring maximum
stability and structural integrity.

2. Pinned Support
A pinned support prevents translation in both horizontal and vertical directions but allows free rotation. It
provides two reaction forces:
• Horizontal reaction
• Vertical reaction
Pinned supports are often found in bridge structures and hinged connections, allowing movement without
excessive stress buildup.

3. Roller Support
A roller support restricts only vertical movement while allowing free horizontal motion. It provides a single
reaction force:
• Vertical reaction
Rollers are commonly used in bridges and expansion joints, where movement due to thermal expansion must
be accommodated.
4. Hinged Support
Hinged supports function similarly to pinned supports but sometimes allow slight rotational movement under
load. These are commonly used in:
• Arch structures, to transfer loads efficiently.
• Mechanical linkages, where controlled movement is required.
Hinged supports help distribute forces more evenly while maintaining stability.

5. Simple Support
A simple support provides minimal restriction, allowing free rotation and some lateral movement. It is mostly
used in simply supported beams, where the beam rests on the support without being fixed.
Simple supports are ideal for temporary structures and situations where flexibility is needed.

Conclusion
Understanding elementary structures and their support conditions is crucial for designing efficient and stable
buildings, bridges, and other infrastructure. Each structural element serves a specific purpose, whether it’s
carrying loads, distributing forces, or providing stability. By selecting appropriate materials and support types,
architects and engineers can create structures that are not only functional but also sustainable and
aesthetically pleasing.
ILLUSTRATIONS

BEAM
COLUMN

FRAMES ( BRACED FRAME)

TRUSSES
 ARCHES

CABLE & SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

DOMES
References

Ching, F. D. K. (2014). Building construction illustrated (5th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

Ghali, A., Neville, A. M., & Brown, T. G. (2018). Structural analysis: A unified classical and matrix approach (7th
ed.). CRC Press.

Hibbeler, R. C. (2022). Structural analysis (11th ed.). Pearson.

McCormac, J. C., & Csernak, S. F. (2018). Structural steel design (6th ed.). Pearson.

Seth, S. (2017). Structural elements design manual: Working with Eurocodes. Elsevier

Timoshenko, S. P., & Gere, J. M. (2012). Theory of elastic stability (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.

Wang, C.-K. (1983). Introduction to structural engineering. McGraw-Hill.

 UNIVERSITY OF LA SALETTE INC
College of Engineering and Architecture
Santiago City, Philippines

REINFORCED
CONCRETE DESIGN
RESEARCH ACTIVITY

Submitted to:

ENGR. KARL A. IGNACIO

Instructor

Submitted by:

CAMANTE, RANDALL GABRIELLE A.

Student