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Antonio Ambrosetti, Shair Ahmad
Differential Equations
De Gruyter Textbook
Antonio Ambrosetti, Shair Ahmad
Differential Equations

A First Course on ODE and a Brief Introduction to PDE

ISBN 9783111185248
e-ISBN (PDF) 9783111185675
e-ISBN (EPUB) 9783111185781
Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche
Nationalbibliothek
The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the
Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are
available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.
© 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
Mathematics Subject Classification 2020: 34-01, 35-01, 34A12,
34A34, 34C10,
Contents
Memorial Dedicated to Professor Antonio Ambrosetti
Preface
Chapter Contents
1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus
1.1 First partial derivatives
1.2 Second partial derivatives
1.3 Line integrals
1.4 The divergence theorem
1.5 Fourier series
2 First order linear differential equations
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Linear homogeneous equations
2.2.1 Cauchy problem
2.3 Linear nonhomogeneous equations
2.4 Applications to RC electric circuits
2.5 Exercises
3 Analytical study of first order differential equations
 3.1 General first order differential equations
3.1.1 Initial value problem
3.2 Existence and uniqueness results
3.2.1 On uniqueness
3.2.2 Local vs. global existence
3.3 Qualitative properties of solutions
3.4 Appendix
3.5 Exercises
4 Solving and analyzing some nonlinear first order
equations
4.1 Separable equations
4.2 An application: the logistic equation in population
dynamics
The malthusian model: the exponential growth
The Verhulst model: the logistic equation
4.3 Exercises on separable variables
4.4 Homogeneous equations
4.5 Exercises on homogeneous equations
4.6 Bernoulli’s equation
4.7 Exercises on Bernoulli equations
4.8 Clairaut’s equation
 4.9 Exercises on Clairaut equations
5 Exact differential equations
5.1 Exact equations
5.2 Solving exact equations
5.2.1 The initial value problem for exact equations
5.3 General solutions of exact equations
5.4 Integrating factor
5.5 Appendix
5.6 Exercises
6 Second order linear differential equations
6.1 Preliminaries
6.2 General solution of L[x]=h
6.2.1 Linear dependence and independence
6.2.2 Exercises on linear dependence and independence
6.2.3 General solution of homogeneous equation
6.2.4 General solution of nonhomogeneous equation
6.2.5 Appendix: reduction of order method
6.3 Equations with constant coefficients
6.3.1 The homogeneous case
6.3.2 Applications
6.3.3 The non-homogeneous case
6.3.4 Exercises on equations with constant coefficients
 6.4 Euler’s equation
6.4.1 Exercises on Euler equations
7 Higher order linear equations
7.1 General results
7.2 Higher order linear equations with constant
coefficients
7.2.1 Euler equations
7.3 Exercises
8 Systems of first order equations
8.1 A brief review of matrices and determinants
8.2 General preliminaries
8.3 Linear systems
8.4 Linear systems with constant coefficients
8.5 Appendix: the exponential matrix
8.6 Exercises
9 Phase plane analysis
9.1 Preliminaries
9.2 Phase plane analysis: some examples
9.3 Periodic solutions
9.3.1 Remarkable examples
 9.4 Van der Pol’s equation
9.5 Homoclinic and heteroclinic solutions
9.6 On planar autonomous systems
9.6.1 The Lotka–Volterra prey–predator system
9.6.2 Limit cycles
9.7 Exercises
10 Introduction to stability
10.1 Definition of stability
10.2 Stability of linear systems
10.2.1 Stability of 2×2 linear systems
10.2.2 Stability of linear homogeneous equations with
constant coefficients
10.3 Stability of conservative systems
10.4 The Lyapunov direct method
10.5 Stability by linearization
10.6 Further remarks
10.6.1 Stable and unstable limit cycles
10.6.2 Hyperbolic equilibria: stable and unstable
manifolds
10.6.3 Change of stability: bifurcation of equilibria
10.7 Exercises
11 Series solutions for linear differential equations
 11.1 A brief overview of power series
11.2 Ordinary points
11.3 Bessel functions
11.3.1 Bessel functions of first kind
11.3.2 General solution of (Bm) and Bessel functions of
second kind
11.4 Singular points: the Frobenius method
11.5 Exercises
12 Laplace transform
12.1 Definition
12.2 Properties of ℒ
12.3 Inverse Laplace transform
12.4 Solving differential equations by Laplace transform
12.5 Exercises
13 A primer on equations of Sturm–Liouville type
13.1 Preliminaries
13.2 Oscillation for self-adjoint equations
13.2.1 Sturm separation and comparison theorems
13.2.2 Checking the oscillatory status of equations
13.3 Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue problems
 13.4 Exercises
14 A primer on linear PDE in 2D I: first order equations
14.1 First order linear equations in 2D
14.1.1 Linear transport equations
14.2 Appendix: an introduction to inviscid Burgers’
equation
14.3 Exercises
15 A primer on linear PDE in 2D II: second order equations
15.1 The Laplace equation
15.1.1 Dirichlet problem on a ball and the method of
separation of variables
15.1.2 The maximum principle
15.1.3 Uniqueness of the Dirichlet problem
15.1.4 Appendix: Dirichlet’s integral
15.2 The heat equation
15.2.1 Appendix: further properties of the heat equation
15.3 The vibrating string equation
15.3.1 An initial value problem for the vibrating string:
D’Alembert’s formula
15.3.2 Appendix: continuous dependence on the initial
conditions
15.3.3 The method of the characteristics
15.3.4 A boundary value problem for the vibrating string:
the method of separation of variables
 15.4 Exercises
15.4.1 Exercises on the Laplace equation
15.4.2 Exercises on the heat equation
15.4.3 Exercises on D’Alambert’s equation
16 The Euler–Lagrange equations in the Calculus of
Variations: an introduction
16.1 Functionals
16.2 The Euler–Lagrange equation
16.3 Least time principles
16.3.1 The brachistochrone
16.3.2 Fermat’s principle in geometrical optics
16.4 Stationary solutions vs. minima
16.5 On the isoperimetric problem
16.6 The Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue problem revisited
16.7 Exercises
Solutions
Solutions to Chapter 2
Solutions to Chapter 3
Solutions to Chapter 4
Solutions to Section 4.3
Solutions to Section 4.5
Solutions to Section 4.7
 Solutions to Section 4.9
Solutions to Chapter 5
Solutions to Chapter 6
Solutions to Section 6.2.2
Solutions to Section 6.3.4
Solutions to Section 6.4.1
Solutions to Chapter 7
Solutions to Chapter 8
Solutions to Chapter 9
Solutions to Chapter 10
Solutions to Chapter 11
Solutions to Chapter 12
Solutions to Chapter 13
Solutions to Chapter 14
Solutions to Chapter 15
Solutions to Section 15.4.1
Solutions to Section 15.4.2
Solutions to Section 15.4.3
Solutions to Chapter 16
Bibliography
Subject Index
Memorial Dedicated to Professor
Antonio Ambrosetti
Professor Antonio Ambrosetti was born in Bari, Italy in the year
1944. He died in Venice, Italy on November 20 in the year 2020.
He graduated from the University of Padua, Italy, in 1966. He has
established significant groundbreaking results in the general
area of nonlinear analysis, particularly related to pde, calculus of
variations, Hamiltonian systems, bifurcation theory, and
applications of pde to differential geometry.
Professor Ambrosetti was a co-founder of SISSA (the
International Center for Advanced Studies), where he taught.
SISSA has recently started an award in his honor; it is called the
Antonio Ambrosetti Medal. It is offered on a bi-annual basis to
exceptionally talented young researchers who have already
made significant contributions in the general area of Nonlinear
Analysis. He also won the Caccioppoli prize in 1982, and the
Amerio Prize by the Istituto Lombardo Accademia di Scienze e
Lettere in 2008.
Professor Ambrosetti was not only a great mathematician but
also a great educator. He has produced several Ph. D. students
who are internationally renowned mathematicians in their own
rights. His former students include (chronologically ordered):
1. Coti Zelati, Vittorio
2. Solimini, Sergio
3. Malaguti, Luisa
4. Majer, Pietro
5. Vitillaro, Enzo
6. Cingolani, Silvia
7. Berti, Massimiliano
8. Malchiodi, Andrea
9. Biasco, Luca
10. Secchi, Simone
11. Felli, Veronica
12. Baldi, Pietro
13. Calahorrano, Marco
14. Ianni, Isabella
15. Mercuri, Carlo

Preface
The first edition of this book was published in 2021, just prior to
the time when Antonio passed away. Perhaps the publication
was somewhat rushed due to the surge of the pandemic.
Antonio and I agreed that we would revise it as soon as feasible.
Unfortunately, Antonio passed away quite suddenly and
unexpectedly, at about the same time as the book was being
printed.
The revision has mostly addressed correcting some misprints
and errors that are fairly common in the first edition of a book.
Many new examples and exercises have been added or
substituted. Also, a lot of effort has been made to make the
presentation, especially of the first half, as lucid as possible. The
first half should be quite suitable for a one-semester
undergraduate course in differential equations, taught at most
universities in the US. It is suitable for a well-motivated student
with a minimal knowledge of Algebra and Calculus. Complete
solutions to all the even number problems are given in the back
of the book.
I wish to acknowledge the efficiency, competence, and courtesy
of the DeGruyter personnel; particularly Ute Skambraks and
Vilma Vaičeliūnienė. Their help and technical support were
indispensable. I also wish to thank Steven Elliot, the publishing
editor, for his support and advice.
Finally, I wish to dedicate this edition of the book to my former
students from Venezuela. They were a hard-working, fun-loving
and lively bunch who were totally dedicated to the cause of
advancing education in their country. Working with them was
fun and gratifying. All of them went on to play important roles as
teachers and administrators, including ranks of Deans, Vice
Presidents and Rectors of universities. Unfortunately, I cannot
name all of those wonderful people.
My six Ph. D. students from Venezuela include: Ramon
Mogollon, Ramon Navarro, Francisco Montes de Oca, Jorge
Salazar (deceased), Jose Sarabia, and Ennodio Torres. All of
them published in international journals and held professorial
ranks at various universities in Venezuela.
A few other friends and former students, who received their
terminal degrees under the supervision of other professors,
include Ernesto Asuaje, Jose Bethelmy, Yetja Cordero, Betty
and Wilfred Duran, Ramon Gomez, Justina Guierra (deceased),
Myriam Hernandez, Raul Lopez, Anna Montes de Oca, Rafael
Morello, and Cruz Daniel Zambrano.
Shair Ahmad
Chapter Contents
Chapter →1 contains a quick review of some topics from
multivariable calculus. It includes topics such as stationary
points, local extrema, mixed derivatives, gradient, line integral,
Implicit Function Theorem, and Fourier series.
Chapter →2 deals with first order linear differential
equations. It includes solving such equations by the method of
integrating factors. After introducing the notion of initial value
problem, simple proofs of existence and uniqueness of solutions
are given, using only elementary calculus. Several examples,
applications, and some important properties of solutions are
discussed.
Chapter →3 deals with theoretical aspects of the general first
order equations. Local as well as global existence and
uniqueness are discussed with some of the proofs presented in
an Appendix. It discusses the importance of learning to analyze
the qualitative behavior of solutions, particularly when dealing
with problems that cannot be readily solved by known methods.
This chapter may be considered optional, some instructors may
wish to simply state the existence and uniqueness results and
move on to the next chapter, depending on the backgrounds of
the particular students in the class.
Chapter →4 deals with separable equations and application
to the logistic equation, homogeneous equations, Bernoulli’s
equation, and Clairaut’s equation.
Chapter →5 is dedicated to the study of exact equations and
integrating factors. Examples are given to show that one can
choose among four options, some of which may be more
convenient for a given problem than others.
Chapter →6 is about linear second order equations,
homogeneous and nonhomogeneous, and includes the
Wronskian, linear independence, general solutions, equations
with constant coefficients, methods of variation of parameters
and undetermined coefficients.
Chapter →7 is essentially an extension of Chapter →6 to
higher order equations.
Chapter →8 is about systems of differential equations,
changing linear scalar equations to linear systems in matrix
form, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, etc.
Chapter →9 deals with phase space analysis of the
trajectories of second order autonomous equations, equilibrium
points, periodic solutions, homoclinic and heteroclinic solutions,
and limit cycles. Among applications, there is a discussion of the
mathematical pendulum, the Kepler problem, the Lienard
equation and the Lotka–Volterra system in population dynamics.
Chapter →10 treats the topic of stability, classifying stability
of the equilibrium of 2×2 linear systems based on properties of
eigenvalues. It includes Lyapunov direct method, a brief
discussion of stability of limit cycles, stable and unstable
manifolds, and bifurcation of equilibria.
Chapter →11 discusses how to obtain solutions by power
series methods. There is also a discussion of singular points,
ordinary points, the Frobenius method, and Bessel functions.
Chapter →12 introduces the basic properties of the Laplace
transform, its inverse and application to solving initial value
problems of linear differential equations, including a brief
introduction to the convolution of two functions. This deep
subject is presented in a simple and concise manner suitable for
readers with minimum background in calculus.
Chapter →13 treats oscillation theory of selfadjoint second
order differential equations, the Sturm–Liouville eigenvalue
problems. Once again, an effort is made to keep the
presentation at an elementary level, but it includes some
challenging examples and problems.
 Chapters →14 and →15 deal with a short introduction to
linear PDEs in two dimensions. The former contains first order
equations such as the transport equation, including an Appendix
on the inviscid Burgers’ equation. The latter deals with the most
classical linear second order equations such as the Laplace
equation, the heat equation and the vibrating string equation.
Chapter →16 gives an elementary introduction to the subject
of Calculus of Variation, starting with an explanation of a
functional and the Euler–Lagrange equation. There is also a
discussion of the brachistochrone problem, the Fermat problem
in optics and the isoperimetric problem.
A final section is devoted to revisiting the Sturm–Liouville
problem.
1 A brief survey of some topics in calculus
Here we recall some results from calculus of functions of two variables. Some additional
more specific results that we will need in this book will be stated later. For a textbook on
Calculus, see e. g. G. B. Thomas Jr., Calculus, 14th ed., Pearson, 2018.

1.1 First partial derivatives

Let F (x, y) denote a function of two variables, defined on an open set S ⊆ R
2
, which
possesses first partial derivatives F , F . x y

The gradient ∇F is the vector defined by setting

2
∇F = (F x , F y ) ∈ R .

We say that F if F , F exist and are continuous in S.

∈ C
1
(S) x y

A point (x , y 0is a stationary point of F if ∇F (x , y ) = (0, 0) , namely if

0) ∈ S 0 0

F (x , y ) = F (x , y ) = 0 .
x 0 0 y 0 0

A point (x , y ) ∈ S is a (local) maximum, resp. minimum, of F if there exists a

0 0

neighborhood U ⊂ S of (x , y ) such that 0 0

F (x, y) ≤ F (x 0 , y 0 ), ∀(x, y) ∈ U , resp. F (x, y) ≥ F (x 0 , y 0 ), ∀(x, y) ∈ U .

A stationary point of F which is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum is

called a saddle.
Theorem 1.1.
Suppose F (x, y) has first partial derivatives F , F at (x , y ) ∈ S . If (x x y 0 0 0, y0 ) is a local
maximum or minimum of F, then (x , y ) is a stationary point of F, that is,
0 0

∇F (x , y ) = (0, 0) , or F (x , y ) = F (x , y ) = 0 .
0 0 x 0 0 y 0 0

The following result allows us to solve, locally, the equation F (x, y) = 0 for x or y.
Theorem 1.2 (Implicit function theorem).
Let F (x, y) be a continuously differentiable function on S ⊆ R and let (x , y ) ∈ S be 2
0 0

given such that F (x , y ) = c . If F (x , y ) ≠ 0 , resp. F (x , y ) ≠ 0 , there exists a

0 0 0 y 0 0 x 0 0

neighborhood I of x , resp. neighborhood J of y , and a unique differentiable function

0 0

y = g(x) ( x ∈ I ), resp. a unique differentiable function x = h(y) ( y ∈ J ), such that

g(x ) = y and F (x, g(x)) = c for all x ∈ I , resp. h(y ) = x and F (h(y), y) = c for
0 0 0 0 0 0

all y ∈ J .

1.2 Second partial derivatives

Let F (x, y) possess second partial derivatives,
F xy

Theorem 1.3.

Theorem 1.4.

1.
2.
3.
0

0
F xx =

(x , y ) . Then:
0
yx
∂

∂x
2
F

2
, F yy =

and F are called mixed partial derivatives.

Suppose that the mixed partial derivatives F and F

The Hessian of F is the matrix

The determinant of H is given by

det (H ) =

If Theorem →1.3 applies, then we find simply

We say that F ∈ C
2
(S)
∂

∂y

if F
2
F

xx ,

Let (x , y ) ∈ S be a stationary point of F (x, y) and suppose F

∣
,

F xx

F yx
F xy =

xy

F xy , F yx , F yy

if det (H ) > 0 and F (x , y ) > 0 , then (x , y

xx

if det (H ) > 0 and F (x , y ) < 0 , then (x , y

xx

if det (H ) < 0 , then (x , y ) is a saddle point.

0

Another way to state the previous theorem is to consider the eigenvalues λ

the roots of the second order algebraic equation

i. e.,

Then
1.
2.
(F xx − λ)(F yy − λ) − F xy = 0,

λ1

λ1
det(H − λI ) =

2
or
0

F xx − λ

F yx

λ
0

2
∂

∂y

F xy (x 0 , y 0 ) = F yx (x 0 , y 0 ).

H = (
F xx

F yx

F xy

F yy

det (H ) = F xx F yy − F xy .
xy
(

F xy

F yy
∂F

∂x

F xy

F yy − λ
),

0
F yx =

are continuous at (x

).

= F xx F yy − F xy F yx .

exist and are continuous in S.

∈ C

0)

0)

= 0,
2

− (F xx + F yy )λ + F xx F yy − F xy = 0.

and λ are both positive ⇒ (x , y ) is a local minimum;

2

and λ are both negative ⇒ (x , y ) is a local maximum;

2
0

0
0

0
∂

∂x

0,
(
∂F

∂y

y0 ) ∈ S
).

in a neighborhood of

is a local minimum;
is a local maximum;

1,2
. Then

of H, namely

2
3. λ 1 ⋅ λ 2 < 0 ⇒ (x 0 , y 0 ) is a saddle point.

1.3 Line integrals

Let γ be a planar piecewise C (1) curve with components x(t) , y(t) , t ∈ [a, b] .
1

The length of γ is given by

b

ℓ(γ) = ∫ √ x ′ 2 (t) + y ′ 2 (t) dt.

In particular, if γ is a Cartesian curve with equation y = y(x) , x ∈ [a, b] , we find

b

ℓ(γ) = ∫ √ 1 + y ′ 2 (x) dx.

The curvilinear abscissa of a point (u, v) = γ(τ ) is defined as the length of the arc
from γ(a, b) to (u, v) , namely
τ

s = ∫ √ x ′ 2 (t) + y ′ 2 (t) dt.

Introducing the arc differential

′2 ′2
ds = √ x (t) + y (t) dt,

we can simply write

b

ℓ(γ) = ∫ ds.

Given a continuous F (x, y) , (x, y) ∈ S and the piecewise C curve γ 1

: [a, b] ↦ R
2

such that γ([a, b]) ⊂ S , the curvilinear integral F on γ is defined by

b

′2 ′2
∫ F (x, y) ds = ∫ F (x(t), y(t)) ⋅ √ x (t) + y (t) dt.

γ a
 1.4 The divergence theorem
Given a vector field V : S ∋ (x, y) ↦ (F (x, y), G(x, y)) ∈ R with F , G ∈ C (S) , the
¯2 1

divergence of V is defined as div V = F + G .

¯
¯
x y

Theorem 1.5 (Divergence theorem).

¯1
Let V (x, y) be a C vector field defined on S and suppose Ω ⊂ S is a domain (i. e., a
bounded connected open set) such that its boundary ∂Ω is a piecewise continuous curve with
components (x(t), y(t)) . Then

¯
¯
¯
∫ div V dx dy = ∫ V ⋅ n ds

Ω ∂Ω

¯′ ′
where n = (y , −x ) denotes the outer unit normal at ∂Ω .

Using the components of , we find and .

¯
¯
¯ ′ ′
¯
F, G V div V = F x + G y V ⋅ n = F y − Gx

Hence the preceding equality can also be written more explicitly as

′ ′
(1.1)
∫ (F x + G y ) dx dy = ∫ (F y − Gx ) ds.

Ω ∂Ω

From the divergence theorem we can derive an important formula.

Let F = gf x and G = gf . Then F
y x = g x f x + gf xx and G y = g y f y + gf yy yield
F x + G y = g x f x + gf xx + g y f y + gf yy

and hence from (→1.1)

′ ′
∫ (g x f x + gf xx + g y f y + gf yy ) dx dy = ∫ (gf x y − gf y x ) ds

Ω ∂Ω

or, introducing the laplacian operator Δ = ∂ 2

xx
2
+ ∂ yy = div ∇ ,

′ ′
∫ (gΔf + ∇g ⋅ ∇f ) dx dy = ∫ (gf x y − gf y x ) ds.

Ω ∂Ω

Assuming that g = 0 on ∂Ω we find

∫ (gΔf + ∇g ⋅ ∇f ) dx dy = 0 ⇒ ∫ gΔf dx dy = − ∫ ∇g ⋅ ∇f dx dy,

Ω Ω Ω

which can be seen as an integration by parts for functions of two variables.

Exchanging the roles of f , g we find

∫ f Δg dx dy = − ∫ ∇f ⋅ ∇g dx dy,

Ω Ω

from which immediately follows that

∫ gΔf dx dy = ∫ f Δg dx dy.

Ω Ω

1.5 Fourier series

Fourier series are series associated to periodic functions. Recall that f (t) , t ∈ R , is T-
periodic if f (t + T ) = f (t) , ∀t ∈ R .
The Fourier series associated to a 2π -periodic function f (t) is the trigonometric series
∞

∑[a n sin nt + b n cos nt],

where
π π

1 1
an = ∫ f (t) sin nt dt, bn = ∫ f (t) cos nt dt, n ∈ N,
π π
−π −π

are called the Fourier coefficients of f. Here and below it is understood that f is such that the
previous integrals make sense.
In particular,
if f is 2π -periodic and odd, then the associated Fourier series is given by
sin nt ;
∞
∑ a
n
1

if f is 2π -periodic and even, then the associated Fourier series is given by

cos nt .
∞
∑ nb
0

If the Fourier series of f is convergent we will write

∞

f (t) = ∑[a n sin nt + b n cos nt].

We recall below some simple convergence criteria for Fourier series. It is understood that
f (t) is 2π -periodic.

Theorem 1.6.
If f is piecewise continuous, then
(Parseval identity) π

1
∑(a n + b n ) =
2 2
∫ f
2
(t) dt .
2π
−π

Therefore lim n→∞ a =lim n b n→∞ n = 0 .

Theorem 1.7.
Let f be piecewise continuous and let t 0 ∈ [−π, π] be such that
def f (t 0 + h) − f (t 0 +) def f (t 0 + h) − f (t 0 −)
′ ′
f (t 0 +) = lim and f (t 0 −) = lim
h→0+ h h→0− h

exist and are finite. Then

∞
1
∑[a n sin nt 0 + b n cos nt 0 ] = [f (t 0 +) + f (t 0 −)],
2
0

where
f (t 0 +) = lim f (t) and f (t 0 −) = lim f (t).
t→t 0 + t→t 0 −

Corollary 1.1.
If f is continuous, then the Fourier series of f converges pointwise to f (t) provided f is
differentiable at t.
Theorem 1.8.
If f is of class C then the Fourier series of f is uniformly convergent to f.
1

Theorem 1.9.
Suppose that for some integer k ≥ 1 one has
∞
k 2 2
∑ n (a n + b n ) < +∞.

Then f (t) = ∑ ∞
0
[a n sin nt + b n cos nt] is of class C and k

k ∞ k k
d f (t) d sin nt d cos nt
= ∑[a n + bn ].
k k k
dt dt dt
1

For example:
(1) If ∑ ∞
1
2
n(a n + b n ) < +∞
2
then f ′
(t) = ∑
∞
1
[na n cos nt − nb n sin nt] .
(2) If ∑ ∞
1
2
n (a n + b n
2 2
) < +∞ then

f
′′
(t) = ∑
∞
1
2
[−n a n sin nt − n b n cos nt]
2
.
If f (t) is T-periodic, all the preceding results can be extended, yielding, under the
appropriate assumptions,
∞
2π 2π
f (t) = ∑[a n sin ( nt) + b n cos ( nt)],
T T
0

where
T T
2 2

2 2π 2 2π
an = ∫ f (t) sin ( nt) dt, bn = ∫ f (t) cos ( nt) dt, n ∈ N.
T T T T
T T
− −
2 2

For a broader discussion on Fourier series we refer, e. g., to the book by S. Suslov, An
Introduction to Basic Fourier Series, Springer US, 2003.
2 First order linear differential equations
2.1 Introduction
A differential equation is any equation that expresses a relationship between a function
and its derivatives.
In this introductory chapter we focus on studying first order linear differential
equations of the form
′
x + p(t)x = q(t) (2.1)

where p, q are continuous functions defined on some interval I. The main features of
equation (→2.1) are:
1. it is an ordinary differential equation because there is only one
independent variable t and hence the derivative is ordinary;
2. it is first order, because the highest derivative of the function x(t) is
the first derivative;
3. it is linear, because the dependence on x and x is linear.
′

A solution to (→2.1) is a differentiable function x(t) , defined on the interval I, such that
′
x (t) + p(t)x(t) = q(t), ∀t ∈ I .

For example, x(t) = e is a solution of the differential equation x + 2x = 4e since

2t ′ 2t

replacing x(t) by e results in (e ) + 2e = 2e + 2e = 4e for all real

′
2t 2t 2t 2t 2t 2t

numbers t; hence it satisfies the equation x + 2x = 4e .

′ 2t

Let us point out explicitly that the fact that solutions are defined on the whole
interval I, where the coefficient functions p(t) and q(t) are continuous, is a specific
feature of linear equations.
If q = 0 , the resulting equation
′
x + p(t)x = 0 (2.2)

is called homogeneous, to distinguish it from the more general equation (→2.1), which
is a nonhomogeneous equation.
The rest of the chapter is organized as follows. In section →2.2 we deal with
homogeneous equations. In section →2.3 we address nonhomogeneous equations.
Finally, section →2.4 deals with applications to electric circuits.
2.2 Linear homogeneous equations
Let us consider the homogeneous equation (→2.2). First of all, we note that the zero
function x(t) ≡ 0 is a solution, regardless of what kind of a function p(t) might be.
The zero solution is also called the trivial solution. Of course, we are interested in
finding nontrivial solutions of (→2.2).
To outline the idea of the procedure for solving such equations, we first consider the
simple equation
′
x − 2x = 0.

We note that if we multiply both sides of the equation by the function μ(t) = e −2t
, we
obtain
−2t ′ −2t
e x − 2e x = 0,

which is equivalent to the equation

′
−2t
(e x) = 0.

Therefore, integrating both sides yields e x = c and x(t) = ce , c ∈ R .

−2t 2t

As we just saw, the function μ(t) played an important role in solving the above
equation for x(t) . We now search for a differentiable function μ(t) that will help us to
solve such linear equations in general.

Definition 2.1.
A differentiable function μ(t) is called an integrating factor of
′
x + p(t)x = 0

if
′ ′
μ(t)x + μ(t)p(t)x = (μ(t)x) .

In order for μ(t) to be an integrating factor, we must have

′ ′
μ(t)x + p(t)μ(t)x = (μ(t)x) ,

which is equivalent to
′ ′ ′
μ(t)x + p(t)μ(t)x = μ (t)x + μ(t)x .

Simplifying, we obtain
 ′
p(t)μ(t)x(t) = μ (t)x(t).

Let us further impose the condition that μ(t) ≠ 0 , x(t) ≠ 0 . Then we can write
′

= p(t) , or = p(t) dt . Integrating both sides and suppressing the constant

μ (t) dμ(t)

μ(t) μ(t)

of integrations, since we need only one function, we obtain ln |μ(t)| = ∫ p(t) dt , or

∫ p(t) dt
μ(t) = e .

Notice that μ(t) > 0 so that the preceding calculations make sense. The function μ(t)
is an integrating factor since it can easily be verified, using the fundamental theorem
of calculus, that
′
∫ p(t) dt ′ ∫ p(t) dt ∫ p(t) dt
e x + p(t)e x = (e x) .

Remark 2.1.
1. Let us agree by convention that ∫ f (t) dt stands for a fixed
antiderivative of f (t) and not the whole family of antiderivatives.
When we wish to discuss the family of antiderivatives of a function
f (t) , we will write ∫ f (t) dt + c , where c is an arbitrary constant.

2. We often divide both sides of an equation by a function that may be 0

somewhere. To be correct, we should always mention that we are
assuming that it is not 0. For example, if we divide both sides of
tx + t = t by t, it would not be valid for t = 0 . But it gets to be
′ 2

rather cumbersome to keep saying that we are assuming …≠0. So, let
us implicitly agree that division is valid only if the divisor is not zero
without explicitly stating so each time.
Let x(t) be any nontrivial solution satisfying (→2.2). If we multiply both sides of the
equation by μ(t) = e , it will automatically make the left side of the equation to
∫ p(t) dt

be the exact derivative of the product e x(t) , yielding the equation

∫ p(t) dt

′
∫ p(t) dt
(e . x(t)) = 0.

Integrating both sides, we obtain e x(t) = c , or x(t) = ce

∫ p(t) dt
, where c is an − ∫ p(t) dt

arbitrary constant. Notice that if c = 0 , then x(t) is the zero solution. For c ≠ 0 , x(t)
never vanishes; it is either always positive or always negative.
We have shown that any nontrivial solution x(t) has to be of the form
x(t) = ce . On the other hand, it is easy to see that, for any constant c,
− ∫ p(t) dt

x(t) = ce is a solution, simply by substituting ce

− ∫ p(t) dt
for x(t) in (→2.2) − ∫ p(t) dt

and verifying that it satisfies the equation. Hence the family of solutions
 x(t) = ce
− ∫ p(t) dt
,
(2.3)

where c is an arbitrary constant, includes all the solutions and is called the general
solution of (→2.2).

Remark 2.2.
In determining the integrating factor, instead of using the indefinite integral,
t

sometimes it is convenient to use the definite integral, obtaining μ(t) = e ∫t

0
p(t) dt
and
t

the general solution x(t) = ce −∫

, where t is some number in I.
t0
p(t) dt
0

2.2.1 Cauchy problem

Both, in application and in theoretical studies, one often needs to find a particular
solution x(t) of a differential equation that has a certain value x at a fixed value t of
0 0

the independent variable t. The problem of finding such a solution is referred to as an

initial value problem or a Cauchy problem. The initial value problem for a homogeneous
first order equation can be expressed as
′
x + p(t)x = 0, x(t 0 ) = x 0 . (2.4)

Example 2.1.
(a) Solve the Cauchy problem
′
x − 2x = 0, x(0) = 3.

We have shown above that the general solution to this problem is given by
x(t) = ce . So, in order to find the solution satisfying x(0) = 3 , all we have to do is
2t

substitute the initial data into the equation and solve for the constant c. Thus we have
3 = ce = c and the desired solution is x(t) = 3e . The solution can be verified by
0 2t

noting that (3e ) − 2.3e = 6e − 6e = 0 and x(0) = 3 .

′
2t 2t 2t 2t

(b) Find k such that the solution of the Cauchy problem

′
x = kx, x(0) = 1

satisfies x(1) = 2 .
The general solution of x = kx is given by x(t) = ce . The initial condition yields
′ kt

1 = ce = c . Thus the solution of the Cauchy problem is x(t) = e . Since x(1) = 2

0 kt

we find 2 = x(1) = e whereby k =ln 2 . □

k

Lemma 2.1.
A nontrivial solution of the homogeneous equation (→2.4) cannot vanish anywhere.
 Proof.
Since x(t) is nontrivial, there exists a number t̄ in I such that x(t̄) = x̄ ≠ 0 . Recall
that the general solution is given by x(t) = ce . Therefore, there exists a − ∫ p(t) dt

constant c̄ such that x(t) = c̄e . Since x(t) is nontrivial, we must have c̄ ≠ 0 ,
− ∫ p(t) dt

otherwise we would have x(t) ≡ 0 because e ≠ 0 . This shows that x(t)

− ∫ p(t) dt

cannot vanish anywhere. □

Theorem 2.1 (Existence–uniqueness, homogeneous equations).
If p(t) is continuous in an interval I, then there is a unique solution to the initial value
problem
′
x + p(t)x = 0, x(t 0 ) = x 0 . (2.5)

Furthermore, the solution is defined for all t in I.

Proof.
Existence. Recall that the general solution is given by x(t) = ce . We claim that − ∫ p(t) dt

x(t) = x e 0 is a particular solution that satisfies the initial condition

− ∫t
0
p(t) dt

x(t ) = x . This can easily be verified by direct substitution, since using the
0 0
t ′ t

fundamental theorem of calculus, (x 0e

− ∫t
0
p(t) dt
) = −p(t)x 0 e
− ∫t
0
p(t) dt
, and hence
t ′ t t t
−∫ p(t) dt −∫ p(t) dt −∫ p(t) dt −∫ p(t) dt
t0 t0 t0 t0
(x 0 e ) + p(t)(x 0 e ) = −p(t)x 0 e + p(t)x 0 e = 0.

Finally, it is clear from x(t) = x e that x(t ) = x e = x and it is defined

0
− ∫t
0
p(t) dt
0 0
0
0

on the interval where p(t) is continuous.

t

An alternate proof is: using the integrating factor μ(t) = e , the general solution ∫t
0
p(t) dt

is given by x(t) = ce . Hence x(t ) = x implies that x = ce = c and

− ∫t
0
p(t) dt
0 0 0
0

therefore a solution satisfying the required initial condition is given by

t

x(t) = x e 0 , which can be checked by direct substitution.

−∫
t0
p(t) dt

Furthermore, x(t) = x e implies that x(t ) = x .

0
−∫
t
0
p(t) dt
0 0

Uniqueness. Suppose that x(t) and y(t) are both solutions. Then we must have
x + p(t)x = 0 , x(t ) = x , and y + p(t)y = 0 , y(t ) = x . Subtracting the second
′ ′
0 0 0 0

equation from the first, we obtain x − y + p(t)(x − y) = 0 . Let z(t) = x(t) − y(t) .
′ ′

Then z(t) satisfies the equation z + p(t)z = 0 and z(t ) = 0 . It follows from Lemma
′
0

→2.1 that z(t) ≡ 0 and hence x(t) − y(t) ≡ 0 , or x(t) ≡ y(t) . □

Remark 2.3.
¯
¯
x0 Let
x(t) be another initial value and let denote the corresponding solution of the
¯
ivp (→2.5). Evaluating |x(t) − x(t)| we find
¯
¯
¯
x(t) − x(t) = x 0 e

¯
¯
− ∫ t p(t) dt
0 − x0 e

(b)
(c)

Proof.

∣
− ∫ t p(t) dt
0 = e

For any bounded interval T

depending on T, we infer
max x(t) − x(t) ≤ C ⋅ |x 0 − x 0 |.
t∈T
0
t
− ∫ t p(t) dt

⊆ I
⋅ |x 0 − x 0 |.

, setting max
t

t∈T [e
−∫
t
t
0
p(t) dt

We will refer to this result by saying that the solutions of (→2.5) depend continuously on
the initial values.
The homogeneous equation x + p(t)x = 0 has some important properties that
′

do not hold in the nonhomogeneous case. We list them in a corollary.

Corollary 2.1.
(a) If x(t ) = 0 for some number t in I, then x(t) ≡ 0 for all t in I.
0

′
0

Every nontrivial solution is either always positive or always negative.

If x (t) and x (t) are any solutions of the homogeneous differential
1 2

equation x + p(t)x = 0 , then x(t) = c x (t) + c x (t) is also a

solution, where c and c are any constants.
1 2
1

(a) This immediately follows from Lemma →2.1; in fact, it is a contrapositive of the
statement there.
1

(b) Suppose that x(t) is a nontrivial solution such that it is neither always positive nor
always negative. Then there exist two numbers t , t such that x(t ) > 0 and
1 2

x(t ) < 0 . This, however, would imply the existence of a number t̄ , between t and t
2

, such that x(t̄) = 0 , by the intermediate value theorem, contradicting Lemma →2.1.
(c) This can be verified just by substitution and regrouping (see problem 22). □
None of the three properties listed above are valid for nonhomogeneous
equations (see exercises at the end of the chapter).

2.3 Linear nonhomogeneous equations

There are some significant differences between the homogeneous and
nonhomogeneous equations. For example, simple substitution shows that contrary to
the case for homogeneous equations, the zero function is not a solution of the
nonhomogeneous equation (→2.1). However, the method for solving the
nonhomogeneous equation (→2.1) is similar to that for solving the homogeneous
equation (→2.2), although the integration can be more complicated. First, some
examples are in order.
t

] = C

1
, a constant

1 2
Example 2.2.
(a) Solve
′
x + kx = h, h, k ∈ R.

In order to find the general solution, we multiply both sides of the equation by the
integrating factor μ(t) = e = e , obtaining
∫ k dt kt

′ kt kt kt
x e + kxe = he ,

which makes the left side the exact derivative of the product xe . So we have kt

′
(xe ) = he . Integrating both sides, we obtain xe + c.
kt kt kt kt h kt
= h∫ e dt = e
k

Therefore, the general solution is given by

−kt
h
x(t) = ce + .
k

If we let c = 0 in the general solution, we obtain the constant solution x(t) = . In h

the tx -plane, this solution traces out a straight horizontal line such that all other
solution curves either lie above it or below it. This is because of the uniqueness of the
solution to initial value problem, no two curves representing different solutions can
intersect. This will follow from the general property that we will see more precisely later
on: solution to initial value problem (→2.6) is unique and thus no two curves
representing different solutions can intersect. In this case, another, more direct way to
prove the claim is to notice that e > 0 and hence x(t) >
−kt
if c > 0 whereas
h

x(t) < if c < 0 , see →Fig. 2.1.

h

k
Figure 2.1 Plot of the general solution x(t) = ce + . In red the integrals for
−kt h

c > 0 , in blue the integrals for c < 0 , in black the line x = . h

(b) Solve
′
x − 2tx = t.

An integrating factor is now μ(t) = e . Repeating the preceding

2
∫ −2t dt −t
= e
′
calculation we find x e − 2te x = te whereby (e x) = te . Integrating
2 2 2 2 2
′ −t −t −t −t −t

both sides, we obtain e x(t) = − e + c . Therefore, the general solution is

2 2
−t 1 −t
2

given by
1 2
t
x(t) = − + ce .
2

Once again, the constant solution x(t) = − (corresponding to c = 0 ) divides the tx

1
2

-plane into two disjoint regions that contain all the non-constant solutions; see →Fig.
2.2.
Figure 2.2 Plot of the general solution x(t) = − + ce . In red are the integrals for
2
1 t
2

c > 0 , in blue are the integrals for c < 0 , in black is the line x = − . 1

(c) In order to solve

′
x + sin t ⋅ x =sin t,

we multiply both sides of the equation by the integrating factor

μ(t) = e
∫ sint
dt = e , obtaining
−cost

′ −cost −cost −cost

x e + e sin t ⋅ x = e sin t

which is equivalent to
−cost ′ −cost
(xe ) = e sin t.

Integrating both sides yields

−cost −cost
xe = e + c

and hence
cost
x(t) = 1 + ce
is the general solution.
If we let c = 0 in the general solution, we obtain the constant solution x(t) = 1 ,
which again divides all the solutions into two groups: those lying above the horizontal
line x = 1 and those lying below it. We note that, in this case, all solutions are bounded,
since −1 ≤cos t ≤ 1 . □
Similar to the case for homogeneous equations, we now consider the ivp for
nonhomogeneous equations, that is,
′
x + p(t)x = q(t), x(t 0 ) = x 0 . (2.6)

The initial condition x(t 0) = x0 corresponds to a unique constant c.

Examples →2.2 revisited.

(a) Solve
′
x + kx = h, x(0) = 0.

We know that the general solution is x(t) = ce −kt

+
h

k
. For t = 0 we obtain
x(0) = ce +
0 h

k
. Then x(0) = 0 yields 0 = c + h

k
. Solving for c, we get c = − h

k
and
thus the solution of the ivp is given by
h −kt
h h −kt
x(t) = − e + = ⋅ (1 − e ).
k k k

(b) Solve the ivp

′
x − 2tx = t, x(0) = 1.

If we put t = 0 and x(0) = 1 in the general solution x(t) = − + ce we obtain the

2
1 t
2

algebraic equation 1 = − + c , which we can solve for the constant c, obtaining

1

. Therefore, the desired solution is given by x(t) = − + e .

2
3 1 3 t
c =
2 2 2

(c) Solve the ivp

′
π
x + sin t ⋅ x =sin t, x( ) = −2.
2

Multiplying both sides of the equation by e and integrating, we find the general
−cost

solution x(t) = 1 + ce . Then we find the required solution by substituting t =

cost
2
π

and x = −2 in the general solution and solving for c, which yields x(t) = 1 − 3e . cost

□
Theorem 2.2 (Existence–uniqueness, nonhomogeneous).
 If p(t) and q(t) are continuous on an interval I, then there exists a unique solution x(t)
satisfying the initial value problem (→2.6). Furthermore, this solution is defined for all t in I.

Proof.
Existence. Multiplying both sides of the equation by the integrating factor
t

μ(t) = e
∫
t0
, we have
p(t) dt

′
(x(t)μ(t)) = μ(t)q(t).

Integrating both sides from t to t, we have 0

x(t)μ(t) − x(t 0 )μ(t 0 ) = ∫ μ(t)q(t) dt.

t0

Recall that μ(t) = e ∫

t0
p(t) dt
implies that μ(t 0) = e
0
= 1 and hence
t t

1 −∫
t
p(t) dt ∫
t
p(t) dt
t0 t0
x(t) = (∫ μ(t)q(t) dt + x 0 ) = e (∫ e q(t) dt + x 0 )
μ(t)
t0 t0

is the desired solution, which can be verified by substituting it in the equation.

Uniqueness. One can argue that the uniqueness of the solution can be derived from the
above discussion or by finding the general solution and then showing that there is only
one value of the constant that will satisfy the prescribed initial condition. But the
simple proof below shows that it is essentially a corollary of its own special case (the
homogeneous equation), which is an interesting phenomenon in its own right.
Suppose that x(t) and y(t) are any solutions of (→2.6). We will show that x(t) ≡ y(t) .
We have x + p(t)x = q(t) , x(t ) = x , and y + p(t)y = q(t) , y(t ) = x .
′
0 0
′
0 0

Subtracting the second equation from the first, we obtain x − y + p(t)(x − y) = 0 . ′ ′

Let z(t) = x(t) − y(t) . Then z(t) satisfies the homogeneous equation
z + p(t)z = 0 and z(t ) = 0 , which implies that z(t) ≡ 0 by the uniqueness part of
′
0

Theorem →2.1 (or from Lemma →2.1), and hence x(t) − y(t) ≡ 0 , or x(t) ≡ y(t) .
□

Remark 2.4.
Similar to homogeneous equations, solutions of (→2.6) also depend continuously on
the initial values. To see this, we can simply repeat the calculation carried out in
¯′
Remark →2.3. Another way is to set z = x − x and notice that, as before, z + pz = 0
¯
¯
0 0. Moreover, z(t ) = x(t ) − x(t ) = x − x . Thus, according to (→2.3),
0 0 0
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
a small majority, “that John, Lord Somers, by advising his Majesty to
conclude the Treaty of Partition, was guilty of a high crime and
misdemeanour.” Similar resolutions were passed against the Earl of
Orford and Lord Halifax, and all of them were impeached at the bar
of the House of Lords. The articles of impeachment against Lord
Somers principally charged him with having affixed the great seal to
the blank commission sent to the King in Holland, and afterwards to
the treaties; with having encouraged and promoted the piracies of
Captain Kidd; and with having received grants from the Crown for
his own personal emolument. To each of these articles Lord Somers
answered promptly and fully; to the two first he replied the facts of
each case as above related; and in answer to the third, he admitted
that the King had been pleased to make certain grants to him, but
denied that they had been made in consequence of any solicitation
on his part. After many frivolous delays and repeated disputes
between the two Houses, a day was fixed for the trial of the
impeachment; on which day the Commons not appearing to
prosecute their articles, the Lords, by a considerable majority,
acquitted Lord Somers of the charges and dismissed the
impeachment.
The violence and folly exhibited in the conduct of these proceedings
opened the eyes of the King to his error in having changed his
ministry at so critical a time. He found to his infinite disquietude that
instead of enabling him to manage the Commons as they had
promised, the Tory leaders had rendered them more intractable and
imperious than before; and that instead of sincerely endeavouring to
promote peace abroad and quiet government at home, they were
actuated entirely by motives of private passion and revenge. In this
state of affairs he again directed his attention to Lord Somers, in
consequence, probably, of the urgent advice of Lord Sunderland, and
wrote him a note from Loo, dated the 10th of October, 1701,
assuring him of the continuance of his friendship. By the united
exertions of Somers and Sunderland a negotiation was entered into
with a view to the formation of a Whig ministry; but after some little
progress had been made, the death of the King, in March 1702, put
an end to the project, and the succession of Queen Anne confirmed
the establishment of the Tory administration.
The state of parties for some years after the accession of Queen
Anne excluded Somers from taking any active part in political affairs.
It is probable that at this period of his life he devoted his attention
to literature and science, as in 1702 he was elected President of the
Royal Society. He afterwards applied himself with diligence to the
removal of several gross defects in the practice of the Courts of
Chancery and Common Law. In 1706 he introduced into the House
of Lords an extensive and effectual bill for the correction of such
abuses. In passing through the House of Commons “it was found,”
says Burnet, “that the interest of under-officers, clerks, and
attorneys, whose gains were to be lessened by this bill, was more
considered than the interest of the nation itself. Several clauses, how
beneficial soever to the subject, which touched on their profit, were
left out by the Commons.” Still the Act “for the Amendment of the
Law and the better advancement of Justice,” as it now stands
amongst the statutes of the realm, effected a very important
improvement in the administration of justice.
Lord Somers is said to have had a chief hand in projecting the
scheme of the Union with Scotland; and in discussing and arranging
the details of this great measure in the House of Lords, he appears
to have been one of the most frequent and distinguished speakers,
though he was then labouring under great bodily infirmity.
In the year 1708, on occasion of the temporary return of the Whigs
to power, Lord Somers again formed part of the administration and
filled the office of President of the Council. But the powers of his
mind were at this time much enfeebled by continual ill-health; and it
was probably with feelings of satisfaction that the change of parties
in 1710, by causing his dismissal from office, enabled him finally to
retire into private life.
Of the mode in which the remaining period of his life was spent after
his removal from public business, little is known. There is, however,
no doubt that the concluding years of his existence were darkened
by much sickness and some degree of mental alienation on the
accession of George I. he formally took his seat at the Council-
Board; but a paralytic affection, which had destroyed his bodily
health, had so impaired the faculties of his mind as to incapacitate
him entirely for business. At intervals, however, when the pressure
of disease was suspended, he appears to have recurred with strong
interest to passing events in which the welfare of his country was
involved. When the Septennial Bill was in progress, Lord Townshend
called upon him: Lord Somers embraced him, congratulated him on
the progress of the bill, and declared that “he thought it would be
the greatest support possible to the liberty of the country.” On a
subsequent occasion, when informed by the same nobleman of the
determination of George I. to adopt the advice of his ministry, by
executing the full rigour of the law against Lord Derwentwater, and
the other unfortunate persons concerned in the Rebellion of 1715,
he is said to have asked with great emotion, and shedding many
tears, “whether they meant to revive the proscriptions of Marius and
Sylla?”
He soon afterwards sunk into a state of total imbecility, from which,
on the 26th of April, 1716, he was happily released by death.
Engraved by R. Woodman.

JOHN SMEATON.

From an original Picture

ascribed to Mortimer,
in the possession of the
Royal Society.

Under the Superintendance

of the Society of the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Pall Mall
East.
 SMEATON.

John Smeaton will long be remembered as one of the most laborious

and most successful civil engineers whom Britain has produced: a
class to which our country is deeply indebted for its commercial
greatness. He was born at Austhorpe, near Leeds, May 28, 1724. His
father was an attorney, and intended to bring his son up to his own
profession: but the latter finding, to use his own words, “that the
law did not suit the bent of his genius,” obtained his parent’s consent
that he should seek a more congenial employment.
From a very early age he had shown great fondness for mechanical
occupations. “His playthings,” it is said by one long acquainted with
him, “were not the playthings of children, but the tools men work
with; and he appeared to have greater entertainment in seeing the
men in the neighbourhood work, and asking them questions, than in
any thing else.” At the age of eighteen he was in the habit of forging
iron and steel, and melting metal for his own use: and he possessed
tools of every sort for working in wood, ivory, and metal. Some of
these were of his own construction; and among them an engine for
rose-turning, and a lathe by which he had cut a perpetual screw, a
thing little known at that time.
In the year 1750 he established himself in the Great Turnstile in
Holborn, as a philosophical instrument-maker. While he followed this
trade, he became known to the scientific circles by several ingenious
inventions; among which were a new kind of magnetic compass, and
a machine for measuring a ship’s way at sea. He was elected fellow
of the Royal Society in 1753; and contributed several papers to the
Philosophical Transactions, one of which, entitled ‘An Experimental
Enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn
mills and other machines, depending on a circular motion,’ obtained
the gold medal in 1759.
In 1755 the Eddystone light-house was destroyed by fire. At this
time Smeaton had never practised as an architect or engineer. But
the proprietors, to use his own words, “considered that to reinstate
it would require, not so much a person who had been merely bred,
or who had rendered himself eminent in this or that given
profession, but rather one who from natural genius had a turn for
contrivance in the mechanical branches of science.” Thinking thus,
they applied to the President of the Royal Society to recommend a
fitting person, and he without hesitation named Smeaton. We shall
speak hereafter of the difficulties which attended this work, and the
method of its execution; the nature of it is familiar to every reader.
Two light-houses had been destroyed within half a century: his own,
after the lapse of seventy-three years, stands unimpaired;—a proud
monument of the power of man to overcome the elements. This
building was finished in 1759, and established his reputation as a
civil engineer: but it was some time before he devoted his attention
solely to practising in that capacity. In 1764 he was appointed one of
the Receivers of the Greenwich Hospital Estates, and in the
discharge of his duty, he suggested various improvements which
were of material service to the property. He resigned that office
about 1777, in consequence of the increase of his other business. In
1766 he was employed to furnish designs for new light-houses at the
Spurn Head, at the mouth of the Humber, and after considerable
delay, was appointed Surveyor of the Works in 1771. These were
completed in April, 1777. Among other undertakings he repaired and
improved the navigation of the river Calder; he built the bridge over
the Tay, at Perth, and some others on the Highland road, north of
Inverness; he laid out the line, and superintended the execution of a
considerable portion of the great canal connecting the Forth and
Clyde. His high reputation was shown shortly after the two centre
arches of old London bridge had been thrown into one. The
foundations of the piers were discovered to be damaged, and the
danger of the bridge was esteemed so imminent that few persons
would venture to pass over it. The opinions of the architects on the
spot were deemed unsatisfactory; and Smeaton, being at the time in
Yorkshire, was summoned by express, to say what should be done.
He found that the increased volume of water passing through the
centre arch had undermined the piers; and removed the danger by
the simple expedient, the success of which he had proved on the
river Calder, of throwing in a large quantity of rough stone about
them. The interstices of the heap soon are filled up by sand and
mud, and the whole is consolidated almost into one mass, and forms
a secure and lasting barrier. The best known of Smeaton’s works,
after the Eddystone light-house, is the magnificent pier and harbour
of Ramsgate. This undertaking was commenced in 1749, and
prosecuted for some time with very imperfect success. In 1774
Smeaton was called in; and he continued to superintend the
progress of the works till their completion in 1791. The harbour is
now enclosed by two piers, the eastern nearly 2000, the western
1500 feet in length, and affords a safe and a much needed refuge to
ships lying in the Downs, even of five and six hundred tons, which
before, when driven from their anchors by stress of weather, were
almost certain to be cast ashore and wrecked.
It would be vain to enumerate all the projects in which he was
consulted, or the schemes which he executed. The variety and
extent of his employments may be best estimated from his Reports,
of which a complete collection has been published by the Society of
Civil Engineers, in consequence of the liberality of Sir Joseph Banks,
who had purchased, and presented them to the Society for this
purpose. They fill three quarto volumes, and constitute a most
interesting and valuable series of treatises on every branch of
engineering; as draining, bridge-building, making and improving
canals and navigable rivers, planning docks and harbours, the
improvement of mill-work, and the application of mechanical
improvements to different manufactures. His papers in the
Philosophical Transactions are published separately, and fill another
quarto volume. They contain descriptions of those early inventions
which we have mentioned, and of an improved air-pump, and a new
hygrometer and pyrometer; together with his treatise on Mill-work,
and some papers which show that he was fond of the science of
astronomy, and practically skilled in it.
His health began to decline about 1785, and he endeavoured to
withdraw from business, and to devote his attention to publishing an
account of his own inventions and works; for as he often said, “he
thought he could not render so much service to his country as by
doing that.” He succeeded in bringing out his elaborate account of
the Eddystone Light-house, published in 1791. But he found it
impossible to withdraw entirely from business: and it appears that
over-exertion and anxiety did actually bring on an attack of paralysis,
to which his family were constitutionally liable. He was taken ill at his
residence at Austhorpe, in September, 1792, and died October 28, in
the sixty-ninth year of his age. He had long looked to this disease as
the probable termination of his life, and felt some anxiety concerning
the likelihood of out-living his faculties, and in his own words, of
“lingering over the dregs after the spirit had evaporated.” This
calamity was spared him: in the interval between his first attack and
his death, his mind was unclouded, and he continued to take his
usual interest in the occupations of his domestic circle. Sometimes
only he would complain, with a smile, of his slowness of
apprehension, and say, “It cannot be otherwise: the shadow must
lengthen as the sun goes down.”
His character was marked by undeviating uprightness, industry, and
moderation in pursuit of riches. His gains might have been far larger;
but he relinquished more than one appointment which brought in a
considerable income, to devote his attention to other objects which
he had more at heart; and he declined the magnificent offers of
Catharine II. of Russia, who would have bought his services at any
price. His industry was unwearied, and the distribution of his hours
and employments strictly laid down by rule. In his family and by his
friends he was singularly beloved, though his demeanour sometimes
appeared harsh to strangers. A brief, but very interesting and
affectionate account of him, written by his daughter, is prefixed to
his Reports, from which many of the anecdotes here related have
been derived.
Of the many great undertakings in which Smeaton was engaged, the
most original, and the most celebrated, is the Eddystone light-house.
The reef of rocks known by the name of the Eddystone lies about
nine miles and a half from the Ram Head, at the entrance of
Plymouth Sound, exposed to the full swell of the Atlantic, which,
with a very moderate gale, breaks upon it with the utmost fury. The
situation, directly between the Lizard and Start points, makes it of
the utmost importance to have a light-house on it; and in 1698 Mr.
Winstanley succeeded in completing one. This stood till 1703, but
was entirely carried away in the memorable storm of November 26,
in that year. It chanced, by a singular coincidence, that shortly
before, on a doubt of the stability of the building being uttered, the
architect expressed himself so entirely satisfied on that point, that
“he should only wish to be there in the greatest storm that ever blew
under the face of the heavens.” He was gratified in his wish; and
perished with every person in the building. This building was chiefly,
if not wholly of timber. In 1706 Mr. Rudyerd commenced a new light-
house, partly of stone and partly of wood, which stood till 1755,
when it was burnt down to the very rock. Warned by this accident,
Smeaton resolved that his should be entirely of stone. He spent
much time in considering the best methods of grafting his work
securely on the solid rock, and giving it the form best suited to
secure stability; and one of the most interesting parts of his
interesting account, is that in which he narrates how he was led to
choose the shape which he adopted, by considering the means
employed by nature to produce stability in her works. The building is
modelled on the trunk of an oak, which spreads out in a sweeping
curve near the roots, so as to give breadth and strength to its base,
diminishes as it rises, and again swells out as it approaches to the
bushy head, to give room for the strong insertion of the principal
boughs. The latter is represented by a curved cornice, the effect of
which is to throw off the heavy seas, which being suddenly checked
fly up, it is said, from fifty to a hundred feet above the very top of
the building, and thus to prevent their striking the lantern, even
when they seem entirely to enclose it. The efficacy of this
construction is such, that after a storm and spring tide of unequalled
violence in 1762, in which the greatest fears were entertained at
Plymouth for the safety of the light-house, the only article requisite
to repair it was a pot of putty, to replace some that had been
washed from the lantern.
To prepare a fit base for the reception of the column, the shelving
rock was cut into six steps, which were filled up with masonry, firmly
dovetailed, and pinned with oaken trenails to the living stone, so
that the upper course presented a level circular surface. This part of
the work was attended with the greatest difficulty; the rock being
accessible only at low water, and in calm weather. The building is
faced with the Cornish granite, called in the country, moorstone; a
material selected on account of its durability and hardness, which
bids defiance to the depredations of marine animals, which have
been known to do serious injury by perforating Portland stone when
placed under water. The interior is built of Portland stone, which is
more easily obtained in large blocks, and is less expensive in the
working. It is an instructive lesson, not only to the young engineer,
but to all persons, to see the diligence which Smeaton used to
ascertain what kind of stone was best fitted for his purposes, and
from what materials the firmest and most lasting cement could be
obtained. He well knew that in novel and great undertakings no
precaution can be deemed superfluous which may contribute to
success; and that it is wrong to trust implicitly to common methods,
even where experience has shown them to be sufficient in common
cases. For the height of twelve feet from the rock the building is
solid. Every course of masonry is composed of stones firmly jointed
and dovetailed into each other, and secured to the course below by
joggles, or solid plugs of stone, which being let into both, effectually
resist the lateral pressure of the waves, which tends to push off the
upper from the under course. The interior, which is accessible by a
moveable ladder, consists of four rooms, one over the other,
surmounted by a glass lantern, in which the lights are placed. The
height from the lowest point of the foundation to the floor of the
lantern is seventy feet; the height of the lantern is twenty-one feet
more. The building was commenced August 3, 1756, and finished
October 8, 1759; and having braved uninjured the storms of
seventy-three winters, is likely long to remain a monument almost as
elegant, and far more useful, than the most splendid column ever
raised to commemorate imperial victories. Its erection forms an era
in the history of light-houses, a subject of great importance to a
maritime nation. It came perfect from the mind of the artist; and has
left nothing to be added or improved. After such an example no
accessible rock can be considered impracticable: and in the more
recent erection of a light-house on the dangerous Bell-rock, lying off
the coast of Forfarshire, between the Frith of Tay and the Frith of
Forth, which is built exactly in the same manner, and almost on the
same model, we see the best proof of the value of an impulse, such
as was given to this subject by Smeaton.

Light-houses of (1) Winstanley, (2)

Smeaton, and (3) Rudyerd.
 Engraved by Robert Hart.

BUFFON.

From an original Picture by

Drouais in the
collection of the Institute of
France.

Under the Superintendance

of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Pall Mall
East.
 BUFFON.

Buffon is reported to have said—and the vanity which was his

predominant foible may have given some colour to the assertion—“I
know but five great geniuses, Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montesquieu,
and myself.” Probably no author ever received from his
contemporaries so many excitements to such an exhibition of
presumption and self-consequence. Lewis XV. conferred upon him a
title of nobility; the Empress of Russia was his correspondent; Prince
Henry of Prussia addressed him in the language of the most
exaggerated compliment; and his statue was set up during his life-
time in the cabinet of Lewis XVI., with such an inscription as is rarely
bestowed even upon the most illustrious of past ages[2]. After the
lapse of half a century we may examine the personal character, and
the literary merits, of this celebrated man with a more sober
judgment.

2. Majestati naturæ par ingenium.

The history of Buffon is singularly barren of incident. At an early age
he devoted himself to those studies of natural history which have
rendered his name so famous; and at eighty years old he was still
labouring at the completion of the great plan to which he had
dedicated his life.
George Lewis le Clerc Buffon was born at Montbar, in Burgundy, on
the 7th September, 1707. His father, Benjamin le Clerc, was a man of
fortune, who could afford to bestow the most careful education upon
his children, and leave them unfettered in the choice of an
occupation. The young Buffon had formed an acquaintance at Dijon
with an Englishman of his own age, the Duke of Kingston. The tutor
of this nobleman was, fortunately, an accomplished student of the
physical sciences; and he gave a powerful impulse to the talents of
Buffon, by leading them forward in their natural direction. Without
the assistance of this judicious friend, the inclination of his mind
towards honourable and useful exertion might have been suppressed
by the temptations which too easily beset those who have an ample
command of the goods of fortune. It was not so with Buffon.
Although he succeeded, at the age of twenty-one, to the estate of
his mother, which produced him an annual income of 12,000l., he
devoted himself with unremitting assiduity to the acquisition of
knowledge. Having travelled in Italy, and resided some little time in
England, he returned to his own country, to dedicate himself to the
constant labours of a man of letters. His first productions were
translations of two English works of very different character—‘Hales’
Vegetable Statics,’ and ‘Newton’s Fluxions;’ and, following up the
pursuits for which he exhibited his love in these translations, he
carried on a series of experiments on the strength of timber, and
constructed a burning mirror, in imitation of that of Archimedes.
The devotion to science which Buffon had thus manifested marked
him out for an appointment which determined the course of his
future life. His friend, Du Fay, who was the Intendant of the ‘Jardin
du Roi’ (now called the ‘Jardin des Plantes’), on his death-bed
recommended Buffon as the person best calculated to give a right
direction to this establishment for the cultivation of natural history.
Buffon seized upon the opportunities which this appointment
afforded him of prosecuting his favourite studies, with that energetic
perseverance for which he was remarkable. He saw that natural
history had to be written in a manner that might render it the most
attractive species of knowledge; and that philosophical views, and
eloquent descriptions, might supersede the dry nomenclatures, and
the loose, contradictory, and too-often fabulous narratives which
resulted from the crude labours of ill-informed compilers. To carry
forward his favourite object, it was necessary that the museum, over
which he had now the control, should be put in order and rendered
more complete. He obtained from the government considerable
funds for the erection of proper buildings; and the galleries of the
‘Jardin des Plantes,’ which now hold the fine collection of mammals
and birds, were raised under his superintendence. Possessing,
therefore, the most complete means which Europe afforded, he
applied himself to the great task of describing the animal, vegetable,
and mineral kingdoms of nature. A large portion of this immense
undertaking was left unperformed, although, to use his own words,
he laboured fifty years at his desk; and much of what he
accomplished was greatly diminished in value by his determination
to see natural objects only through the clouded medium of his own
theories. But, nevertheless, he has produced a work which, with all
its faults, is an extraordinary monument of genius and industry, and
which will long entitle him to the gratitude of mankind. “We read
Buffon,” says Condorcet, “to be interested as well as instructed. He
will continue to excite a useful enthusiasm for the natural sciences;
and the world will long be indebted to him for the pleasures with
which a young mind for the first time looks into nature and the
consolations with which a soul weary of the storms of life reposes
upon the sight of the immensity of beings peaceably submitted to
necessary and eternal laws.”
Buffon was in some particulars unqualified for the laborious duty he
had undertaken. He delighted to indulge in broad and general views,
and to permit his imagination to luxuriate in striking descriptions.
But he had neither the patience, nor the love of accuracy, which
would have carried him into those minute details which give to
natural history its highest value. He, however, had the merit and the
good fortune, in the early stages of his undertaking, to associate
himself with a fellow-labourer who possessed those qualities in
which he was deficient. The first fifteen volumes of ‘L’Histoire
Naturelle,’ which treat of the theory of the earth, the nature of
animals, and the history of man and viviparous quadrupeds, were
published between 1749 and 1767, as the joint work of Buffon and
Daubenton. The general theories, the descriptions of the phenomena
of nature, and the pictures of the habits of animals, were by Buffon.
Daubenton confined himself to the precise delineation of their
physical character, both in their external forms and their anatomy.
But Daubenton refused to continue his assistance in the ‘History of
Birds;’ for Buffon, unwilling that the fame which he had acquired
should be partaken by one whom he considered only as a humble
and subordinate labourer, allowed an edition of the History of
Quadrupeds to be published, of which the descriptive and
anatomical parts had been greatly abridged. In the History of Birds,
therefore, Buffon had to seek for other associates; and the form of
the work was greatly changed from that of the previous volumes.
The particular descriptions are here very meagre, and anatomical
details are almost entirely excluded. In some of the volumes, Buffon
was assisted by Guéneau de Montbeillard, who, instead of
endeavouring to attain the accuracy of Daubenton, affected to
imitate the style of his employer. To the three last volumes of the
Birds the Abbé Bexon lent his aid. The nine volumes of Birds
appeared between 1770 and 1783. Buffon published alone his
‘History of Minerals,’ which appeared in five volumes, between 1783
and 1788. Seven volumes of Supplements complete the Natural
History. The first appeared in 1773; the last was not published till
the year after its author’s death, in 1789. The fifth volume of these
Supplements is a distinct work, the Epochs of Nature[3].

3. The best edition of the works of Buffon is the first, of 36 vols.

4to.
The study of natural history, and the composition of his great work,
occupied the mind of Buffon from his first appointment as Intendant
of the ‘Jardin du Roi,’ to within a few days of his death. In the
prosecution of the plan he had laid down, he never permitted the
slightest interruption. Pleasure and indolence had their attractions;—
but they never held him for many hours from his favourite pursuits.
Buffon spent the greater part of his time at Montbar, where, during
some years, his friend Daubenton also resided. It was here that
Buffon composed nearly the whole of his works. Many interesting
details have been preserved of his habits of life, and his mode of
composition. He was, like all men who have accomplished great
literary undertakings, a severe economist of his time. The
employment of every day was fixed with the greatest exactness. He
used almost invariably to rise at five o’clock, compelling his man-
servant to drag him out of bed whenever he was unwilling to get up.
“I owe to poor Joseph,” he used to say, “ten or twelve volumes of
my works.” At the end of his garden was a pavilion which served him
as a study. Here he was seated for many hours of every day, in an
old leathern chair, before a table of black birch, with his papers
arranged in a large walnut-tree escritoire. Before he began to write
he was accustomed to meditate for a long time upon his subject.
Composition was to him a real delight; and he used to declare that
he had spent twelve or fourteen hours successively at his desk,
continuing to the last in a state of pleasure. His endeavours to
obtain the utmost correctness of expression furnished a remarkable
proof of the persevering quality of his mind. He composed, and
copied, and read his works to friends, and re-copied, till he was
entirely satisfied. It is said that he made eleven transcripts of the
Epochs of Nature. In his domestic habits there was little to admire in
the character of Buffon. His conversation was trifling and licentious,
and the grossness which too often discloses itself in his writings was
ill-concealed in his own conduct. He paid the most minute attention
to dress, and delighted in walking to church to exhibit his finery to
his wondering neighbours. Although he was entirely devoid of
religious principle, and constantly endeavoured in his writings to
throw discredit upon the belief of a great First Cause, he regularly
attended high mass, received the communion, and distributed alms
to pious beggars. In his whole character there appears a total
absence of that simplicity which is the distinguishing attribute of
men of the very highest genius.
The literary glory of Buffon, although surpassed, or even equalled,
during his life, by none of his contemporaries, with the exception
perhaps of Voltaire and Rousseau, has not increased, and is perhaps
materially diminished, after having been tried by the opinions of half
a century. In literature, as well as in politics, as we have learnt to
attach a greater value to accurate facts, have we become less
captivated by the force of eloquence alone. Buffon gave an
extraordinary impulse to the love of natural history, by surrounding
its details with splendid images, and escaping from its rigid
investigations by bold and dazzling theories. He rejected
classification; and took no pains to distinguish by precise names the
objects which he described, because such accuracy would have
impeded the progress of his magnificent generalizations. Without
classification, and an accurate nomenclature, natural history is a
mere chaos. Buffon saw the productions of nature only in masses.
He made no endeavour to delineate with perfect accuracy any
individual of that immense body, nor to trace the relations of an
individual to all the various forms of being by which it is surrounded.
Although he was a profound admirer of Newton, and classed Bacon
amongst the most illustrious of men, he constantly deviated from
the principle of that philosophy upon which all modern discovery has
been founded. He carried onward his hypotheses with little
calculation and less experiment. And yet, although they are often
misapplied, he has collected an astonishing number of facts; and
even many of his boldest generalities have been based upon a
sufficient foundation of truth, to furnish important assistance to the
investigations of more accurate inquirers. The persevering obliquity
with which he turns away from the evidence of Design in the
creation, to rest upon some vague notions of a self-creative power,
both in animate and inanimate existence, is one of the most
unpleasant features of his writings. How much higher services might
Buffon have rendered to natural history had he been imbued not
only with a spirit of accurate and comprehensive classification, but
with a perception of the constant agency of a Creator, of both of
which merits he had so admirable an example in our own Ray.
The style of Buffon, viewed as an elaborate work of art, and without
regard to the great object of style, that of conveying thoughts in the
clearest and simplest manner, is captivating from its sustained
harmony and occasional grandeur. But it is a style of a past age.
Even in his own day, it was a theme for ridicule with those who knew
the real force of conciseness and simplicity. Voltaire described it as
‘empoulé;’ and when some one talked to him of ‘L’Histoire Naturelle,’
he drily replied, ‘Pas si naturelle.’ But Buffon was not carried away by
the mere love of fine writing. He knew his own power; and, looking
at the state of science in his day, he seized upon the instrument
which was best calculated to elevate him amongst his
contemporaries. The very exaggerations of his style were perhaps
necessary to render natural history at once attractive to all
descriptions of people. Up to his time it had been a dry and repulsive
study. He first clothed it with the picturesque and poetical; threw a
moral sentiment around its commonest details; exhibited animals in
connection with man, in his mightiest and most useful works; and
described the great phenomena of nature with a pomp of language
which had never before been called to the service of philosophical
investigation. The publication of his works carried the study of
natural history out of the closets of the few, to become a source of
delight and instruction to all men.
Buffon died at Paris on the 16th April, 1788, aged 81. He was
married, in 1762, to Mademoiselle de St. Bélin; and he left an only
son, who succeeded to his title. This unfortunate young man
perished on the scaffold, in 1795, almost one of the last victims of
the fury of the revolution. When he ascended to the guillotine he
exclaimed, with great composure, “My name is Buffon.”
A succinct and clear memoir of Buffon, by Cuvier, in the Biographie
Universelle, may be advantageously consulted. Nearly all the details
of his private life are derived from a curious work by Rénault de
Séchelles, entitled Voyage à Montbar, which, like many other
domestic histories of eminent men, has the disgrace of being
founded upon a violation of the laws of hospitality.
Engraved by R. Woodman.

SIR THOMAS MORE.

From an Enamel after

Holbein,
in the possession of
Thomas Clarke Esq.
Under the Superintendance
of the Society for the
Diffusion of Useful
Knowledge.

London, Published by
Charles Knight, Pall Mall
East.
 MORE.

This great man was born in London, in the year 1480. His father was
Sir John More, one of the Judges of the King’s Bench, a gentleman
of established reputation. He was early placed in the family of
Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and Lord Chancellor of
England. The sons of the gentry were at this time sent into the
families of the first nobility and leading statesmen, on an equivocal
footing; partly for the finishing of their education, and partly in a
menial capacity. The Cardinal said more than once to the nobility
who were dining with him, “This boy waiting at table, whosoever
lives to see it, will one day prove a marvellous man.” His eminent
patron was highly delighted with that vivacity and wit which
appeared in his childhood, and did not desert him on the scaffold.
Plays were performed in the archiepiscopal household at Christmas.
On these occasions young More would play the improvisatore, and
introduce an extempore part of his own, more amusing to the
spectators than all the rest of the performance. In due time Morton
sent him to Oxford, where he heard the lectures of Linacer and
Grocyn on the Greek and Latin languages. The epigrams and
translations printed in his works evince his skill in both. After a
regular course of rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, at Oxford, he
removed to London, where he became a law student, first in New
Inn, and afterwards in Lincoln’s Inn. He gained considerable
reputation by reading public lectures on Saint Augustine, De Civitate
Dei, at Saint Lawrence’s church in the Old Jewry. The most learned
men in the city of London attended him; among the rest Grocyn, his
lecturer in Greek at Oxford, and a writer against the doctrines of
Wickliff. The object of More’s prolusions was not so much to discuss
points in theology, as to explain the precepts of moral philosophy,
and clear up difficulties in history. For more than three years after
this he was Law-reader at Furnival’s Inn. He next removed to the
Charter-House, where he lived in devotion and prayer; and it is
stated that from the age of twenty he wore a hair-shirt next his skin.
He remained there about four years, without taking the vows,
although he performed all the spiritual exercises of the society, and
had a strong inclination to enter the priesthood. But his spiritual
adviser, Dr. Colet, Dean of St. Paul’s, recommended him to adopt a
different course. On a visit to a gentleman of Essex, by name Colt,
he was introduced to his three daughters, and became attached to
the second, who was the handsomest of the family. But he
bethought him that it would be both a grief and a scandal to the
eldest to see her younger sister married before her. He therefore
reconsidered his passion, and from motives of pity prevailed with
himself to be in love with the elder, or at all events to marry her.
Erasmus says that she was young and uneducated, for which her
husband liked her the better, as being more capable of conforming
to his own model of a wife. He had her instructed in literature, and
especially in music.
He continued his study of the law at Lincoln’s Inn, but resided in
Bucklersbury after his marriage. His first wife lived about seven
years. By her he had three daughters and one son; and we are
informed by his son-in-law, Roper, that he brought them up with the
most sedulous attention to their intellectual and moral improvement.
It was a quaint exhortation of his, that they should take virtue and
learning for their meat, and pleasure for their sauce.
In the latter part of King Henry the Seventh’s time, and at a very
early age, More distinguished himself in parliament. The King had
demanded a subsidy for the marriage of his eldest daughter, who
was to be the Scottish Queen. The demand was not complied with.
On being told that his purpose had been frustrated by the opposition
of a beardless boy, Henry was greatly incensed, and determined on
revenge. He knew that the actual offender, not possessing anything,
could not lose anything; he therefore devised a groundless charge