ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

College of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Mechanical Vibration
MEng5103
Dr. Abdulbasit M.
Introduction
Vibration Measurement
Frequency Measurement
Vibration Exciters
Experimental Modal Analysis
 Learning Objectives

✓ Understand the types of transducers, vibration pickups,

and frequency measuring instruments.

✓ Know the working principles of shakers or exciters.

✓ Understand experimental modal analysis techniques.

 1. INTRODUCTION
✓ Measuring vibration is essential for several reasons:
• Equipment Health Monitoring
• Predictive Maintenance
• Quality Control
• Safety
• Structural Analysis
• Research and Development
• Environmental Impact
 2. VIBRATION MESUARMENT
✓ The basic features of a vibration measurement scheme.

Data
Display Unit, Analysis

Signal Recorder, or
Conversion Computer
Vibration
Transducer Instrument
Vibrating
Machine or or Pickup
Structure
✓ Vibration measuring instrument is Vibrometer, Velocity meter,
Accelerometer and Phase meter
 Transducers
✓ A transducer is a device that transforms values of physical
variables into equivalent electrical signals.
✓ Common the transducers used for vibration measurement:
▪ Variable Resistance Transducers
▪ Piezoelectric Transducers
▪ Electrodynamic Transducers
▪ Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) Transducer
 A. Variable Resistance Transducers
✓ Variable resistance transducers are devices that convert a
physical quantity (such as displacement, pressure, or
temperature) into a change in electrical resistance.
✓ It also known as resistive transducers or potentiometric
transducers,
✓ The operation principle is the resistance of a conductor
changes in response to variations in physical quantity.
✓ The schematic diagram of an electrical resistance strain gage
is shown in Figure.
✓ When the surface undergoes a normal strain (ε), the strain
gage also undergoes the same strain and the resulting
change in its resistance is given by

(4.1)

✓ Where:
∆R = Change in resistance
L = Initial length of the wire
 ∆L = Change in length of the wire
v = Poisson’s ratio of the wire
r = Resistivity of the wire
∆r = Change in resistivity of the wire ≈ 0 for Advance
✓ The value K (the gage factor ) is given by the manufacturer and
the value of P can be determined from ∆R and R are measured:

(4.2)
✓ In a vibration pickup, the strain at any point on the cantilever
is proportional to the deflection of the mass, x(t), to be
measured.
✓ The strain indicated by the strain gage can be used to find x(t).
✓ The change in resistance of the wire ∆R can be measured
using a Wheatstone bridge, potentiometer circuit, or voltage
divider.
(a) Strain gage as vibration pickup. (b) Wheatstone bridge
✓ The resulting voltage across the points b and d as given Fig (b) is

(4.3)

✓ Initially the resistances are balanced (adjusted) so that the

output voltage E is zero. Thus, for initial balance, Eq. (4.3) gives

(4.4)
✓ When the resistances (Ri) change by small amounts (∆Ri), the
change in the output voltage ∆E can be expressed as

(4.5)

✓ Where,

(4.6)
✓ If the strain gage leads are connected between the points a and
b, R1 = Rg, ∆R1 = ∆Rg, and ∆R2 = ∆R3 = ∆R4 = 0, & Eq. (4.5) gives

(4.7)

✓ Where Rg is the initial resistance of the gage. Eqs (4.2) and (4.7)
yield

(4.8)
 B. Piezoelectric transducers

✓ Piezoelectric transducers are devices that convert mechanical

energy (such as pressure, vibration, or strain) into electrical
energy and vice versa, based on the piezoelectric effect.
✓ The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials (like
quartz, ceramics, and certain polymers) to generate an
electrical charge when subjected to mechanical stress.
✓ Conversely, applying an electrical field can induce mechanical
deformation.
✓ The charge generated in the crystal due to a force Fx is given by

(4.9)

✓ where k is called the piezoelectric constant, A is the area on

which the force Fx acts, and px is the pressure due to Fx.
✓ The output voltage of the crystal is given by
(4.10)

✓ Where v is the voltage sensitivity & t is the thickness of crystal.

 C. Electrodynamic Transducers

✓ Electrodynamic transducers are devices that convert electrical

energy into mechanical energy or vice versa using the
principles of electromagnetism.
✓ They are also known as electromagnetic transducers
✓ They are widely used in various applications, including audio
systems, sensors, and actuators.
✓ When an electrical conductor, in the
form of a coil, moves in a magnetic
field a voltage E is generated in the
conductor.
✓ The value of E in volts is given by

(4.11)
✓ where D, l and v are the magnetic flux density, length of the
conductor and velocity of conductor relative to magnetic field.
✓ Eq.(4.11) can be rewritten as

(4.12)

✓ Where F is the force acting on the coil while carrying a current I

 D. LVDT Transducer

✓ A LVDT is a type of electromechanical transducer used to

convert linear displacement (position) into an electrical signal.
✓ It is widely used in various applications due to its accuracy and
reliability
✓ They consist of a primary coil and two secondary coils arranged
symmetrically around the primary coil.
✓ A movable ferromagnetic core (the armature) is located within
the coils.
✓ As the core moves, it alters the magnetic coupling between the
coils, resulting in a change in the output voltage.
✓ LVDTs are known for their high sensitivity and excellent linearity
over a wide range of displacements, typically from a few
millimeters to several centimeters.
 Vibration Pickups
✓ When a transducer is used in conjunction with another device
to measure vibrations, it is called a vibration pickup.
✓ They are devices used to detect and measure vibrations in
various mechanical systems.
✓ They convert mechanical vibrations into electrical signals,
allowing for monitoring, analysis, and diagnostics of
equipment and structures.
✓ The commonly used vibration pickups are known as seismic
instruments.
✓ A seismic instrument consists of a mass-spring-damper system
mounted on the vibrating bod, as shown in Figure.

✓ The vibrating body is assumed to

have a harmonic motion:

(4.13)
✓ The equation of motion of the mass m can be written as

(4.14)
✓ By defining the relative displacement z as
(4.15)
✓ Eq. (4.14) can be written as
(4.16)
✓ Equations (4.13) and (4.16) lead to
(4.17)
✓ Hence the steady-state solution is given by

(4.18)

✓ Where Z and ϕ are given by

(4.19)
 (4.20)

✓ Where r and ζ are

(4.21)

(4.22)
 Vibrometer
✓ A vibrometer is an instrument used to measure the vibration
of an object.
✓ It provides valuable data about the frequency, amplitude, and
overall movement of vibrating structures, which is essential in
various applications.
✓ For an exact analysis, we consider Eq. (4.19). We note that
(4.23)
(a) Response of a vibration measuring instrument (b) Variation ofϕ with r
✓ If

(4.24)

✓ A comparison of Eq. (4.23) with y(t) = Y sin ωt shows that z(t) gives
directly the motion y(t) except for the phase lag ϕ.
✓ This phase lag can be seen to be equal to 180° for ζ = 0.
✓ Thus the recorded displacement z(t) lags behind the displacement
being measured y(t) by time t′ = ϕ/ω.
 Accelerometer

✓ An accelerometer is an instrument that measures the

acceleration of a vibrating body.
✓ Accelerometers are widely used for vibration measurements
and also to record earthquakes.
✓ The accelerometer record, the velocity and displacements are
obtained by integration.
✓ Equations (4.18) and (4.19) yield

(4.25)

✓ Equations (4.18) and (4.19) yield

(4.26)

✓ Eq. (4.25) becomes

(4.27)
✓ By comparing Eq. (4.27) with 𝒚(𝒕)
ሷ = − 𝒀𝝎𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕, we find that
the term 𝒛(𝒕)𝝎𝒏 𝟐 gives the acceleration of the base 𝒚,ሷ except for
the phase lag ϕ.
✓ Thus the instrument can be made to record (give) directly the
value of 𝒚ሷ = 𝒛(𝒕)𝝎𝒏 𝟐 .
✓ The time at record lags the acceleration is given by t′ = ϕ/ω.
 Velometer
✓ A velometer measures the velocity of a vibrating body, and
the Eq. (4.13) gives the velocity of the vibrating body
(4.28)

✓ And Eq. (4.18) gives

(4.29)
✓ If
(4.30)

✓ Then

(4.31)

✓ A comparison of Eqs. (4.28) and (4.31) shows that, except for

the phase difference 𝜙, 𝑧ሶ 𝑡 gives directly 𝑦(𝑡),
ሶ provided that
Eq. (4.30) holds true and r must be very large.
 Phase Distortion
✓ For Eq. (4.18), all vibration-measuring instruments exhibit
phase lag.
✓ The response or output of the instrument lags behind the
motion or input it measures.
✓ The time lag is the phase angle divided by the frequency ω
✓ The distortion in the waveform of the recorded signal is
called the phase distortion or phase-shift error.
✓ Consider a vibration signal as the given form,

(4.32)

✓ The corresponding time lags are given by t1=θ1/ω = 90°/(3ω)

and t2=θ2/(3ω) = 180°/(3ω)
✓ As a general case, let the complex wave being measured be
given by the sum of several harmonics as
(4.33)
✓ If the displacement is measured using a vibrometer, its
response to each component of the series is given as similar to
Eq. (4.18), so that the output of the vibrometer becomes,

(4.34)

✓ Where,

(4.35)
 3. FREQUENCY-MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

✓ The working of frequency measuring instruments is based on

the principle of resonance.
✓ At resonance the amplitude of vibration is found to be
maximum and then the excitation frequency is equal to the
natural frequency of the instrument.
✓ Two types of instruments are:
▪ Fullarton Tachometer
▪ Frahm Tachometer
 A. The Fullarton tachometer
❖ This instrument is known as single reed instrument.
❖ It consists of a thin strip carrying small mass attached at one
of its free ends.
❖ The strip is treated as a cantilever the length of which is
changed by means of a screw mechanism as shown in figure
✓ The strip of the instrument is
pressed over the vibrating body
to find its natural frequency.
✓ We go on changing the length of
the strip till amplitude of
vibration is maximum.
✓ At the instant, the excitation frequency equals the natural
frequency of cantilever strip which can be directly seen from
the strip itself.
✓ The strip has different frequencies for its different lengths.
✓ The natural frequency can be determined from

(4.36)
 B. Frahm Tachometer
❖ This is also known as multi reed instrument.
❖ This instrument consists of a
number of cantilevered reeds
carrying small masses at their
free ends.
❖ Each reed has a different
natural frequency
❖ Using a number of reeds makes it possible to cover a wide
frequency range.
❖ When the instrument is mounted on a vibrating body, the reed
whose natural frequency is nearest the unknown frequency of
the body vibrates with the largest amplitude.
❖ The frequency of the vibrating body can be found from the
known frequency of the vibrating reed
❖ Let m be the mass attached to the end of each reed of length l
and E be the modulus of elasticity of the reed material
❖ The static deflection of the reed considering it to be a
cantilever fixed at one end is given by

(4.37)

𝑏𝑑 3
❖ Where 𝐼 = moment of inertia of the reed about the base
12
❖ We know that, k xst = mg
❖ So natural frequency of the reed

(4.38)
 4. VIBRATION EXCITERS
✓ Vibration exciters are devices designed to produce mechanical
motion to test objects by generating specific ranges of
harmonic or time-dependent excitation forces and
displacements across various frequencies.
✓ The vibration exciters can be:
▪ Mechanical Exciter
▪ Electrodynamic Exciter
▪ Electrohydraulic Exciter
▪ Electromagnetic Exciter
 A. Mechanical Exciters
✓ Two types – Direct drive and Rotating Unbalance
✓ It uses rotating unbalance, usually a pair of contra rotating
eccentric masses, to generate a given excitation force or
reciprocating follower motion from an eccentric cam or
otherwise to generate a given displacement
✓ Inexpensive, reliable and easy to operate
✓ The main limitation of mechanical exciters are
▪ No control over the force or displacement
▪ Limited frequency range
✓ Scotch yoke mechanism can be used to produce harmonic
vibrations.
✓ The crank of the mechanism can be driven either by a
constant- or a variable-speed motor.
 B. Hydraulic Exciters

➢ It uses a piston-cylinder arrangement, the movement of which

is controlled by the fluid pressure.
➢ A wide range of excitation force can be obtained
➢ Capable of producing large displacements upto 50cm and also
generate a very high force upto 50 tons or more
➢ They can generate only very low frequencies
➢ Ideally suited for testing civil engineering structures, but not
mechanical machines and their components
 C. Electro-dynamic Exciters
➢ Most widely used vibration exciter today
➢ It consists of a magnet which produces a desired magnetic
field, the moving element which form s the exciter table on
which the test object is mounted,
➢ A coil mounted on the moving element fed from an AC source,
flexible supporting system holding the coil and the moving
element in position w.r.t. the magnet
➢ Excitation force is
determined by the
magnet strength, coil
diameter, no. of coil
turns and the current
passing through the
coil.
 D. Electro-Magnetic Exciter
✓ Used where a contact between test specimen and exciter not
desired
✓ It consists of a coil wound on a strong permanent or a DC
electromagnet
✓ The test specimen should be of magnet material and is kept at
a suitable distance away from the shaker so that no contact is
made between them
✓ The force exerted by the coil on the test specimen is harmonic
with the same frequency as that of the current from the
oscillator
✓ They are very expensive and are heavy and hard to move from
place to place between tests
✓ When current passes through a coil placed in a magnetic field,
a force F proportional to the current I and the magnetic flux
intensity D is produced.
 (4.39)

✓ If the current flowing through the coil varies harmonically with

time, the force produced also varies harmonically.
✓ If direct current is used to energize the coil, a constant force is
generated at the exciter table.
 5. EXPERIMENTAL MODAL ANALYSIS (EMA)

✓ EMA is a testing technique used to determine the dynamic

characteristics of structures and mechanical systems.
✓ It involves measuring the dynamic characteristics of a
structure, such as natural frequencies, damping ratios,
✓ And mode shapes which are essential for assessing the
structural integrity and performance of various engineering
systems.
✓ Two basic ideas are involved:
▪ When a structure, machine, or any system is excited, its
response exhibits a sharp peak at resonance when the
forcing frequency is equal to its natural frequency when
damping is not large.
▪ The phase of the response changes by 180° as the forcing
frequency crosses the natural frequency of the structure or
machine, and the phase will be 90° at resonance.
✓ The hardware measurement of vibration requires:
▪ Exciter or source of vibration to apply a known input force
to the structure or machine.
▪ Transducer to convert the physical motion into electrical
signal.
▪ Signal conditioning amplifier to make the transducer
characteristics compatible with the input the digital data
acquisition of electronic system.
▪ Analyzer to perform the tasks of signal processing and
modal analysis using suitable software.