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 Essentials of
Meteorology

i
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 C. Donald Ahrens
Emeritus, Modesto Junior College

UCAR/Carlye Calvin

Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea •

Mexico • Singapore • Spain •
United Kingdom • United States

ii
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 Essentials of
Meteorology
AN INVITATION TO THE ATMOSPHERE

Sixth Edition

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 Essentials of Meteorology: © 2012, 2008 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning
An Invitation to the Atmosphere,
Sixth Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by
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49311_00_FM_pi_xvii.indd iv 19/11/10 3:01 PM

 Brief Contents

1 The Earth’s Atmosphere 2

2 Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere 26
3 Air Temperature 56
4 Humidity, Condensation, and Clouds 82
5 Cloud Development and Precipitation 116
6 Air Pressure and Winds 148
7 Atmospheric Circulations 176
8 Air Masses, Fronts, and Middle-Latitude Cyclones 212
9 Weather Forecasting 244
10 Thunderstorms and Tornadoes 272
11 Hurricanes 312
12 Climate Change 342
13 Global Climate 372
14 Air Pollution 404
15 Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics 432

APPENDIXES
A Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations 455
B Equations and Constants 458
C Weather Symbols and the Station Model 461
D Humidity and Dew-Point Tables (Psychromatic Tables) 463
E Standard Atmosphere 467
F Beaufort Wind Scale (Over Land) 468
G Köppen's Climatic Classification System 469
H Average Annual Global Precipitation 470

v
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 Contents

Preface xiii

Chapter 1 Chapter 2
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE 2 WARMING THE EARTH
Overview of the Earth’s Atmosphere 4 AND THE ATMOSPHERE 26
Composition of the Atmosphere 5 Temperature and Heat Transfer 28
The Early Atmosphere 9 Temperature Scales 29
Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 9 Latent Heat—The Hidden Warmth 30
A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density 9 Conduction 31
Layers of the Atmosphere 11 Convection 32
Focus on an Observation Focus on a Special Topic
The Radiosonde 12 Rising Air Cools and Sinking Air Warms 33
The Ionosphere 14 Radiation 34
Weather and Climate 15
A Satellite’s View of the Weather 15
Storms of All Sizes 16
A Look at a Weather Map 17
Focus on a Special Topic
Meteorology—A Brief History 18
Weather and Climate in Our Lives 20
Focus on a Special Topic
What Is a Meteorologist? 23
Summary 24
Key Terms 24
Questions for Review 24
Questions for Thought and Exploration 25
© C. Donald Ahrens

vii
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 viii Contents

Focus on an Environmental Issue

Sun Burning and UV Rays 36 Chapter 3
Balancing Act—Absorption, Emission, AIR TEMPERATURE 56
and Equilibrium 37
Warming and Cooling Air near the Ground 58
Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric
Daytime Warming 58
Greenhouse Effect 38
Nighttime Cooling 59
Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect 40
Cold Air Near the Surface 60
Warming the Air from Below 41
Shortwave Radiation Streaming from the Focus on a Special Topic
Sun 42 Record High Temperatures 60
Focus on an Environmental Issue Protecting Crops from the Cold Night Air 62
Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on Climate Daily Temperature Changes 65
Change 42 Focus on a Special Topic
The Earth’s Annual Energy Balance 44 Record Low Temperatures 66
Why the Earth Has Seasons 46 Regional Temperature Changes 67
Focus on an Observation Focus on a Special Topic
The Aurora—A Dazzling Light Show 47 When It Comes to Temperature, What’s Normal? 68
Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere 49 Applications of Temperature Data 71
Focus on a Special Topic Air Temperature and Human Comfort 74
Is December 21 Really the First Day Measuring Air Temperature 76
of Winter? 51
Focus on a Special Topic
Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere 53 A Thousand Degrees and Freezing to Death 76
Local Seasonal Variations 53
Summary 54 Focus on an Observation
Why Should Thermometers Be Read in the Shade? 78
Key Terms 54
Questions for Review 54 Summary 79
Questions for Thought and Exploration 55 Key Terms 80
Questions for Review 80
Questions for Thought and Exploration 81

Chapter 4
HUMIDITY, CONDENSATION, AND CLOUDS 82
Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere 84
Evaporation, Condensation, and Saturation 85
Humidity 86
Vapor Pressure 87
Relative Humidity 87
Relative Humidity and Dew Point 89
Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort 92
Measuring Humidity 94
Focus on a Special Topic
Humid Air and Dry Air Do Not Weigh the Same 95
Dew and Frost 96
© C. Donald Ahrens

Fog 97
Foggy Weather 100
Focus on an Environmental Issue
Fog Dispersal 101

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 Contents ix

Clouds 102 Summary 146

Classification of Clouds 103 Key Terms 146
Cloud Identification 103 Questions for Review 146
High Clouds 103 Questions for Thought and Exploration 147
Middle Clouds 104
Low Clouds 105
Clouds with Vertical Development 107
Some Unusual Clouds 109
Chapter 6
Summary 113 AIR PRESSURE AND WINDS 148
Key Terms 113 Atmospheric Pressure 150
Questions for Review 113 Horizontal Pressure Variations—A Tale
Questions for Thought and Exploration 114 of Two Cities 150
Measuring Air Pressure 152
Focus on a Special Topic
The Atmosphere Obeys the Gas Law 153
Chapter 5 Pressure Readings 154
CLOUD DEVELOPMENT AND PRECIPITATION 116 Surface and Upper-Air Charts 156
Atmospheric Stability 118 Focus on a Special Topic
Determining Stability 119 Isobaric Maps 157
A Stable Atmosphere 119 Why the Wind Blows 158
An Unstable Atmosphere 120 Newton’s Laws of Motion 158
A Conditionally Unstable Atmosphere 122 Forces That Influence the Wind 158
Cloud Development and Stability 124 Pressure Gradient Force 159
Convection and Clouds 124 Coriolis Force 160
Topography and Clouds 125 Straight-Line Flow Aloft 162
Focus on a Special Topic Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft 163
Atmospheric Stability and Windy Afternoons—Hold on Winds on Upper-Level Charts 164
to Your Hat 126
Precipitation Processes 128
Collision and Coalescence Process 128
Ice-Crystal Process 130
Cloud Seeding and Precipitation 132
Precipitation in Clouds 133
Focus on an Environmental Issue
Does Cloud Seeding Enhance Precipitation? 134
Precipitation Types 135
Rain 135
Snow 136
Focus on a Special Topic
Are Raindrops Tear-Shaped? 136
Sleet and Freezing Rain 138
Snow Grains and Snow Pellets 139
Hail 140
Focus on an Observation
Aircraft Icing 141
© C. Donald Ahrens

Measuring Precipitation 143

Instruments 143
Doppler Radar and Precipitation 144
Measuring Precipitation from Space 145

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 x Contents

Surface Winds 165 Sea and Land Breezes 182

Focus on an Observation Seasonally Changing Winds—The Monsoon 184
Winds Aloft in the Southern Hemisphere 166 Mountain and Valley Breezes 186
Katabatic Winds 187
Winds and Vertical Air Motions 167
Chinook (Foehn) Winds 188
Focus on an Observation
Focus on a Special Topic
Estimating Wind Direction and
Snow Eaters and Rapid Temperature Changes 189
Pressure Patterns Aloft by Watching Clouds 167
Santa Ana Winds 190
Determining Wind Direction and Speed 169
Desert Winds 191
The Influence of Prevailing Winds 170
Global Winds 193
Wind Instruments 170
General Circulation of the Atmosphere 193
Focus on a Special Topic Single-Cell Model 193
Wind Power 173 Three-Cell Model 194
Summary 173 Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real
Key Terms 174 World 197
Questions for Review 174 The General Circulation and Precipitation
Questions for Thought and Exploration 175 Patterns 199
Westerly Winds and the Jet Stream 199
Global Wind Patterns and the Oceans 202
Winds and Upwelling 203
Chapter 7 El Niño and the Southern Oscillation 204
ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATIONS 176 Other Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions 207
Summary 209
Scales of Atmospheric Motion 178 Key Terms 210
Eddies—Big and Small 180 Questions for Review 210
Local Wind Systems 180 Questions for Thought and Exploration 211
Thermal Circulations 180
Focus on an Observation
Eddies and “Air Pockets” 181
Chapter 8
AIR MASSES, FRONTS, AND MIDDLE-LATITUDE
CYCLONES 212
Air Masses 214
Source Regions 214
Classification 215
Air Masses of North America 216
Continental Polar (cP) and Continental Arctic (cA)
Air Masses 216
Focus on a Special Topic
Lake-Effect (Enhanced) Snows 218
Maritime Polar (mP) Air Masses 219
Focus on a Special Topic
The Return of the Siberian Express 220
Maritime Tropical (mT) Air Masses 222
Continental Tropical (cT) Air Masses 224
Fronts 225
Stationary Fronts 225
Cold Fronts 226
Warm Fronts 228
Occluded Fronts 231
NASA

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 Contents xi

Mid-Latitude Cyclonic Storms 233

Polar Front Theory 234 Chapter 10
Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend to Form? 235
Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones and THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES 272
Anticyclones 237 Thunderstorms 274
Focus on a Special Topic Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms 275
Northeasters 237 Multicell Thunderstorms 277
The Gust Front 278
Jet Streams and Developing Mid-Latitude
Microbursts 279
Cyclones 239
Squall-Line Thunderstorms 281
Focus on a Special Topic Mesoscale Convective Complexes 282
A Closer Look at Convergence and Divergence 239 Supercell Thunderstorms 283
Focus on a Special Topic Thunderstorms and the Dryline 286
Waves in the Westerlies 240 Thunderstorms and Flooding 287
Summary 242 Distribution of Thunderstorms 287
Key Terms 242 Focus on a Special Topic
Questions for Review 242 The Terrifying Flash Flood in the Big Thompson
Questions for Thought and Exploration 243 Canyon 288
Lightning and Thunder 290
Electrification of Clouds 290
Chapter 9 The Lightning Stroke 291
Types of Lightning 293
WEATHER FORECASTING 244 Lightning Detection and Suppression 294
Acquisition of Weather Information 246 Tornadoes 295
Weather Forecasting Tools 247
Focus on an Observation
Focus on a Special Topic Don’t Sit Under the Apple Tree 296
Watches, Warnings, and Advisories 248
Tornado Life Cycle 297
Satellites and Weather Forecasting 250 Tornado Occurrence and Distribution 297
Weather Forecasting Methods 254 Tornado Winds 299
The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical
Weather Prediction 254
Why NWS Forecasts Go Awry and Steps to
Improve Them 255
Other Forecasting Methods 258
Focus on an Observation
TV Weathercasters—How Do They Do It? 258
Types of Forecasts 260
Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting 261
Predicting the Weather from Local Signs 263
Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts 264
Determining the Movement of Weather Systems 264
A Forecast for Six Cities 264
Weather Forecast for Augusta, Georgia 265
Rain or Snow for Washington, D.C.? 266
Big Snowstorm for Chicago 268
Mixed Bag of Weather for Memphis 268
Cold Wave for Dallas 268
Clear but Cold for Denver 269
Summary 270
Key Terms 270
Questions for Review 271
NASA

Questions for Thought and Exploration 271

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 xii Contents

Seeking Shelter 299 Some Notable Hurricanes 331

The Fujita Scale 300 Camille, 1969 331
Tornado Outbreaks 301 Hugo, 1989 331
Tornado Formation 302 Andrew, 1992 332
Supercell Tornadoes 302 Ivan, 2004 333
Nonsupercell Tornadoes 305 Katrina, 2005 333
Observing Tornadoes and Severe Weather 306 Focus on an Observation
Waterspouts 308 The Record-Setting Atlantic Hurricane Seasons of
Summary 309 2004 and 2005 334
Key Terms 309
Other Devastating Hurricanes 335
Questions for Review 310
Hurricane Watches, Warnings, and Forecasts 337
Questions for Thought and Exploration 310
Focus on an Environmental Issue
Hurricanes in a Warmer World 338
Modifying Hurricanes 339
Chapter 11 Summary 340
HURRICANES 312 Key Terms 340
Questions for Review 341
Tropical Weather 314 Questions for Thought and Exploration 341
Anatomy of a Hurricane 314
Hurricane Formation and Dissipation 316
The Right Environment 317
The Developing Storm 318 Chapter 12
The Storm Dies Out 319
Hurricane Stages of Development 320 GLOBAL CLIMATE 342
Hurricane Movement 321 A World with Many Climates 344
Eastern Pacific Hurricanes 322 Global Temperatures 345
Focus on a Special Topic Global Precipitation 346
How Do Hurricanes Compare with Middle-Latitude Climatic Classification—The Köppen System 348
Cyclones? 322 Focus on a Special Topic
North Atlantic Hurricanes 324 Precipitation Extremes 350
Naming Hurricanes and Tropical Storms 325 The Global Pattern of Climate 351
Devastating Winds, the Storm Surge, and Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) 351
Flooding 325 Dry Climates (Group B) 356
Focus on a Special Topic Focus on an Observation
Devastating Tropical Storms 329 A Desert with Clouds and Drizzle 359
Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates
(Group C) 360
Moist Continental Climates (Group D) 362
Focus on a Special Topic
When Does a Dry Spell Become a Drought? 364
Polar Climates (Group E) 368
Highland Climates (Group H) 369
Summary 370
Key Terms 370
Questions for Review 370
Questions for Thought and Exploration 371
NASA

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 Contents xiii

Chapter 13 Chapter 14
THE EARTH’S CHANGING CLIMATE 372 AIR POLLUTION 404
Reconstructing Past Climates 374 A Brief History of Air Pollution 406
Climate Throughout the Ages 377 Types and Sources of Air Pollutants 407
Focus on a Special Topic Principal Air Pollutants 408
The Ocean’s Influence on Rapid Climate Change 378 Ozone in the Troposphere 412
Ozone in the Stratosphere 413
Temperature Trends During the Past 1000 Years 379 Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns 415
Temperature Trends During the Past 100-Plus
Years 379 Focus on an Environmental Issue
The Ozone Hole 416
Climate Change Caused by Natural Events 380
Climate Change: Feedback Mechanisms 381 Factors That Affect Air Pollution 419
Climate Change: Plate Tectonics and Mountain The Role of the Wind 419
Building 382 The Role of Stability and Inversions 419
Climate Change: Variations in the Earth’s Orbit 383 Focus on an Observation
Climate Change: Variations in Solar Output 385 Smokestack Plumes 422
Climate Change: Atmospheric Particles 386
The Role of Topography 423
Particles Near the Surface 386
Severe Air Pollution Potential 423
Volcanic Eruptions 386
Air Pollution and the Urban Environment 424
Climate Change Caused by Human (Anthropogenic)
Activities 388 Focus on an Observation
Climate Change: Aerosols Injected into the Lower Five Days in Donora—An Air Pollution Episode 425
Atmosphere 388 Acid Deposition 427
Climate Change: Increasing Levels of Greenhouse Summary 429
Gases 389 Key Terms 429
Climate Change: Land Use Changes 389 Questions for Review 430
Focus on an Environmental Issue Questions for Thought and Exploration 431
Nuclear Winter, Cold Summers, and Dead
Dinosaurs 390
Climate Change: Global Warming 391
Recent Global Warming: Perspective 391
Radiative Forcing Agents 391
Climate Models and Recent Temperature Trends 391
Focus on a Special Topic
The Sahel — An Example of Climatic Variability and
Human Existence 392
Future Climate Change: Projections 393
Uncertainties about Greenhouse Gases 395
The Question of Clouds 396
The Ocean’s Impact 397
Consequences of Climate Change:
The Possibilities 397
Climate Change: Efforts to Curb 400
Climate Change: A Final Note 401
Summary 401
© C. Donald Ahrens

Key Terms 401

Questions for Review 402
Questions for Thought and Exploration 402

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 xiv Contents

Chapter 15 Appendixes
LIGHT, COLOR, AND
A Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and
ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS 432
Equations 455
White and Colors 434
White Clouds and Scattered Light 435 B Equations and Constants 458
Blue Skies and Hazy Days 436
Red Suns and Blue Moons 438 C Weather Symbols and the Station Model 461
Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash 439
The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing 442 D Humidity and Dew-Point Tables
Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars 443 [Psychromatic Tables] 463
Focus on an Observation
The Fata Morgana 444 E Standard Atmosphere 467
Rainbows 447 F Beaufort Wind Scale (Over Land) 468
Coronas and Cloud Iridescence 449
Focus on an Observation G Köppen’s Climatic Classification System 469
Glories and the Heiligenschein 451
Summary 452 H Average Annual Global Precipitation 470
Key Terms 452
Questions for Review 452
Questions for Thought and Exploration 453 Additional Reading Material 473
Glossary 475
Index 493

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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49311_00_FM_pi_xvii.indd xiv 15/11/10 4:08 PM

 Preface
The world is an ever-changing picture of naturally oc- up-to-date information on important topics, such as
curring events. From drought and famine to devastating global warming, ozone depletion, and El Niño. Discus-
floods, some of the greatest challenges we face come in sion of weather events, such as the devastation wrought
the form of natural disasters created by weather. Yet, deal- by Hurricane Katrina over portions of Louisiana,
ing with weather and climate is an inevitable part of our Mississippi, and Alabama during August, 2005, as well
lives. Sometimes it is as small as deciding what to wear as the devastating fires associated with strong Santa Ana
for the day or how to plan a vacation. But it can also have winds that roared through areas of Southern California
life-shattering consequences, especially for those who are during October, 2007.
victims of a hurricane or a tornado. Written expressly for the student, this book emphasizes
In recent years, weather and climate have become front the understanding and application of meteorological prin-
page news from devastating flooding in Pakistan during ciples. The text encourages watching the weather so that it
the summer of 2010 to environmental issues, such as cli- becomes “alive,” allowing readers to immediately apply text-
mate change and ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The book material to the world around them. To assist with this
dynamic nature of the atmosphere seems to demand our endeavor, a color Cloud Chart appears at the back of the text.
attention and understanding more these days than ever The Cloud Chart can be separated from the book and used
before. Almost daily, there are newspaper articles describ- as a learning tool at any place one chooses to observe the sky.
ing some weather event or impending climate change. For To strengthen points and clarify concepts, illustrations are
this reason, and the fact that weather influences our daily rendered in full color throughout. Color photographs were
lives in so many ways, interest in meteorology (the study carefully selected to illustrate features, stimulate interest, and
of the atmosphere) has been growing. This rapidly devel- show how exciting the study of weather can be.
oping and popular science is giving us more information This edition, organized into fifteen chapters, is de-
about the workings of the atmosphere than ever before. signed to provide maximum flexibility to instructors
The atmosphere will always provide challenges for us, of weather and climate courses. Thus, chapters can be
but as research and technology advance, our ability to un- covered in any desired order. For example, Chapter 15,
derstand our atmosphere improves, as well. The informa- “Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics,” is self-contained
tion available to you in this book, therefore, is intended to and can be covered earlier if so desired. Instructors, then,
aid in your own personal understanding and appreciation are able to tailor this text to their particular needs. This
of our earth’s dynamic atmosphere. book basically follows a traditional approach. After an
introductory chapter on the origin, composition, and
structure of the atmosphere, it covers solar energy, and air
About This Book temperature, humidity, clouds, precipitation, and winds.
Then comes a chapter on air masses, fronts, and middle-
Essentials of Meteorology is written for students taking latitude cyclonic storms. Weather prediction and severe
an introductory course on the atmospheric environ- storms are next. A chapter on hurricanes is followed by a
ment. The main purpose of the text is to convey mete- chapter on global climate. A chapter on climate change is
orological concepts in a visual, practical, and nonmath- next. A chapter on air pollution precedes the final chapter
ematical manner. In addition, the intent of the book on atmospheric optics.
is to stimulate curiosity in the reader and to answer Each chapter contains at least two Focus sections,
questions about weather and climate that arise in our which either expand on material in the main text or
day-to-day lives. Although introductory in nature, this explore a subject closely related to what is being dis-
sixth edition maintains scientific integrity and includes cussed. Focus sections fall into one of three distinct

xv
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49311_00_FM_pi_xvii.indd xv 15/11/10 4:08 PM

 xvi Preface

categories: Observations, Special Topics, and Environmental at the end of the book, a compilation of supplementary mate-
Issues. Some include material that is not always found in in- rial, as well as an extensive glossary, is presented.
troductory meteorology textbooks—subjects such as the au- On the inside back cover of the book is a new feature: a
rora, temperature extremes, and cloud seeding. Others help geophysical map of North America. The map serves as a quick
to bridge theory and practice. Focus sections new to this edi- reference for locating states, provinces, and geographical fea-
tion include “Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on tures, such as mountain ranges and large bodies of water.
Climate Change" in Chapter 2, and "Atmospheric Stability
and Windy Afternoons—Hold on to Your Hats" in Chapter 5.
Set apart as “Did You Know?” features in each chapter is
weather information that may not be commonly known, yet Supplemental Material
pertains to the topic under discussion. Designed to bring the and Technology Support
reader into the text, most of these weather highlights relate
to some interesting weather fact or astonishing event. Many
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE INSTRUCTOR
new “Did You Know?” items have been added to this edition.
Each chapter incorporates other effective learning aids: PowerLecture This DVD-ROM, free to adopters, includes
art, photos, and tables from the text, as well as prepared lecture
■ A major topic list begins each chapter. outlines in PowerPoint to get you started. Stepped art figures,
■ Interesting introductory pieces draw the reader naturally
zoom art, video library, and an instructor’s manual and test
into the main text. bank are also included, to help create dynamic presentations.
■ Important terms are boldfaced, with their definitions ap-

pearing in the glossary or in the text. Online Instructor’s Manual Free to adopters. Also avail-
■ Key phrases are italicized. able on PowerLecture.
■ English equivalents of metric units are immediately pro- ExamView Quickly create, deliver, and customize tests for
vided in parentheses. class in print and online formats.
■ A brief review of the main points is placed toward the mid-
WebTutor Toolbox for WebCT or Blackboard Jump-
dle of most chapters.
start your course with customizable, rich, text-specific con-
■ Intext callouts direct the student to the CourseMate for
tent within your Course Management System. WebTutor
Essentials of Meteorology website. offers a wide array of web quizzes, activities, exercises, and
■ Each chapter ends with a summary of the main ideas.
web links. Robust communication tools—such as a course
■ A list of key terms with page references follows each chapter, calendar, asynchronous discussion, real-time chat, a white-
allowing students to review and reinforce their knowledge board, and an integrated e-mail system—make it easy to stay
of key concepts. connected to the course.
■ Questions for Review act to check how well students assimi-
Global Geoscience Watch Updated several times a day, the
late the material.
Global Geoscience Watch is an ideal one-stop site for classroom
■ Questions for Thought and Exploration encourage students
discussion and research projects for all things geoscience! Bro-
to synthesize learned concepts for deeper understanding.
ken into the four key course areas (Geography, Geology, Meteo-
■ References to 14 new animations are spread throughout the
rology, and Oceanography), you can easily get to the most rel-
chapters. These new animations help students visualize the
evant content available for your course. You and your students
more difficult concepts in meteorology.
will have access to the latest information from trusted academic
■ Active Figures link art in the text to animations of impor-
journals, news outlets, and magazines. You also will receive ac-
tant concepts, and processes discussed throughout the
cess to statistics, primary sources, case studies, podcasts, and
book. These animations convey an immediate appreciation
much more!
of how a process works in a way that cannot be shown ef-
fectively in a static series of illustrations.
TECHNOLOGY FOR THE STUDENT
Both Animations and Active Figures can be found on the
CourseMate Make the most of your study time by
password protected CourseMate for Essentials of Meteorology
accessing everything you need to succeed in one place.
website.
Read your textbook, take notes, review flashcards, watch
Eight appendixes conclude the book. Some are more
videos, animations, and active figures, and take practice
technical than the main text, such as Appendix B, “Equations
quizzes—online with CourseMate.
and Constants.” Others can be used in observing the weather,
such as Appendix F, “The Beaufort Wind Scale.” In addition,

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49311_00_FM_pi_xvii.indd xvi 15/11/10 4:08 PM

 Preface xvii

Sixth Edition Changes Acknowledgments

An exciting change in this sixth edition of Essentials of Mete- A thank you to the many people who helped with the sixth
orology is the extensive and expanded art program. To help edition of Essentials of Meteorology. A very special and grate-
the student visualize the atmosphere, more than 90 new or ful thanks goes to my wife, Lita, who proofread and indexed
revised color illustrations and many new color photographs the entire book. Thanks goes to Charles Preppernau for his
have been added to this edition. Moreover, all satellite and beautiful rendering of the art and to Mabel Labiak for her
radar images are rendered in full color. To complement the careful proofreading. Thanks to Jan Null for his input and to
new art and photographs, the sixth edition has been exten- Chris Burt who provided chapter opening photos, opening
sively updated and revised to reflect the changing nature of vignettes, and "Did You Know?" boxes.
the field. My special thanks goes to Janet Alleyn who, once again,
Chapter 1, “The Earth’s Atmosphere,” still serves as a broad took the photos, art, and manuscript and turned them into a
overview of the atmosphere. To help with this endeavor, new beautiful book. Thanks to Stuart Kenter for his conscientious
illustrations and photographs have been added. Chapter 2, editing. Thank you to the many people at Cengage Learn-
“Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere,” contains the latest ing who worked on this book, especially, Laura Pople, Hal
information on greenhouse warming and a new Focus sec- Humphrey, and Jake Warde.
tion entitled, "Ozone and the Ozone Hole: Their Influence on I am indebted to my friends who provided photos and to
Climate Change." Chapter 3, “Air Temperature,” has been re- those reviewers who offered comments and suggestions for
organized for clarity and strengthened with new illustrations. this edition, including:
Chapter 4, “Humidity, Condensation, and Clouds,” has also
Nancy Dignon
been strengthened with new illustrations.
Tallahassee Community College
Chapter 5, “Cloud Development and Precipitation,” contains a
new Focus section on stability and windy afternoons, along with a William Gallus
revised section on hail formation and a new section on measuring Iowa State University
precipitation from space. The chapter on “Air Pressure and Winds” Christopher Godfrey
(Chapter 6) now contains material on measuring surface winds University of North Carolina-Asheville
using satellites. Chapter 7, “Atmospheric Circulations,” contains Corene Matyas
many new photos and revised art, as does Chapter 8, "Air Masses, University of Florida
Fronts, and Middle-Latitude Cyclones." The chapter on “Weather
Alan Robock
Forecasting” (Chapter 9) now contains information on the TRMM
Rutgers University
satellite.
Chapter 10, “Thunderstorms and Tornadoes,” has been exten-
sively revised so that thunderstorms are now divided into three TO THE STUDENT
categories: ordinary cell, multicell, and supercell. This chapter also Learning about the atmosphere can be an enjoyable experi-
contains many new illustrations and photos as well as updated in- ence, especially if you become directly involved in observ-
formation on the new enhanced Fujita scale. Also included is new ing actual weather at work. This book is intended to give you
material on tornado-observing techniques and information on the some insight into the workings of the atmosphere, but for a
field study VORTEX 2. Chapter 11, “Hurricanes,” has material on real appreciation of your atmospheric environment, you must
the revised Saffir-Simpson scale as well as material on eyewall re- go outside and observe. Mountains take millions of years to
placement and hurricane movement. form, while a cumulus cloud can develop into a raging thun-
Chapter 12, “Global Climate,” contains all new climographs derstorm in less than an hour. To help with your observations,
and a new map of Köppen's climatic classification of the world. a color Cloud Chart is bound at the end of this text for easy
Chapter 13, “The Earth's Changing Climate,” has been revised to reference. Remove it and keep it with you. And remember, all
include the latest information on climate change from the 2007 of the information in this book is out there—please, take the
Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change time to look.
(IPCC). Many new diagrams appear in this chapter. Also included Donald Ahrens
is a rewritten section on feedback mechanisms. The chapter on “Air
Pollution” (Chapter 14) has been updated and revised with new
information on air pollution trends. Chapter 15, “Light, Color,
and Atmospheric Optics,” uses exciting photos and art to graphi-
cally convey the excitement of the atmosphere.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

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 Contents
Overview of the Earth’s
Atmosphere

Vertical Structure of
the Atmosphere

Weather and Climate

Summary

Key Terms

Questions for Review

Questions for Thought

and Exploration

We live at the bottom of a swirling ocean

of air. Here, air billowing up from the
earth’s surface forms into clouds and
thunderstorms over Australia and the
NASA

warm Tropical Pacific Ocean.

2
Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 2 15/11/10 11:08 AM

 The Earth’s Atmosphere

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 3 15/11/10 11:08 AM

 4 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

flourish. Because we cannot see, smell, or taste air, it may

seem surprising that between your eyes and the pages of
I well remember a brilliant red balloon which kept this book are trillions of air molecules. Some of these may
me completely happy for a whole afternoon, until, have been in a cloud only yesterday, or over another con-
while I was playing, a clumsy movement allowed it tinent last week, or perhaps part of the life-giving breath
of a person who lived hundreds of years ago.
to escape. Spellbound, I gazed after it as it drifted Warmth for our planet is provided primarily by the
silently away, gently swaying, growing smaller and sun’s energy. At an average distance from the sun of
nearly 150 million kilometers (km), or 93 million miles
smaller until it was only a red point in a blue sky. At
(mi), the earth intercepts only a very small fraction of
that moment I realized, for the first time, the vast- the sun’s total energy output. However, it is this radiant
ness above us: a huge space without visible limits. energy* that drives the atmosphere into the patterns of
everyday wind and weather, and allows life to flourish.
It was an apparent void, full of secrets, exerting an At its surface, the earth maintains an average tem-
inexplicable power over all the earth’s inhabitants. perature of about 15°C (59°F).† Although this tempera-
ture is mild, the earth experiences a wide range of tem-
I believe that many people, consciously or uncon-
peratures, as readings can drop below –85°C (–121°F)
sciously, have been filled with awe by the immensity during a frigid Antarctic night and climb during the day
of the atmosphere. All our knowledge about the to above 50°C (122°F) on the oppressively hot, subtropi-
cal desert.
air, gathered over hundreds of years, has not dimin- In this chapter, we will examine a number of impor-
ished this feeling. tant concepts and ideas about the earth’s atmosphere,
Theo Loebsack, Our Atmosphere
many of which will be expanded in subsequent chapters.

O
ur atmosphere is a delicate life-giving blanket of Overview of the Earth’s
air that surrounds the fragile earth. In one way
or another, it influences everything we see and Atmosphere
hear—it is intimately connected to our lives. Air is with The earth’s atmosphere is a thin, gaseous envelope com-
us from birth, and we cannot detach ourselves from prised mostly of nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2), with
its presence. In the open air, we can travel for many small amounts of other gases, such as water vapor (H2O)
thousands of kilometers in any horizontal direction, and carbon dioxide (CO2). Nestled in the atmosphere
but should we move a mere eight kilometers above the are clouds of liquid water and ice crystals.
surface, we would suffocate. We may be able to survive Although our atmosphere extends upward for many
without food for a few weeks, or without water for a few hundreds of kilometers (km), almost 99 percent of the
days, but, without our atmosphere, we would not sur- atmosphere lies within a mere 30 km (about 19 mi) of
vive more than a few minutes. Just as fish are confined to the earth’s surface (see ◗ Fig. 1.1). In fact, if the earth were
an environment of water, so we are confined to an ocean to shrink to the size of a large beach ball, its inhabitable
of air. Anywhere we go, it must go with us. atmosphere would be thinner than a piece of paper. This
The earth without an atmosphere would have no thin blanket of air constantly shields the surface and its
lakes or oceans. There would be no sounds, no clouds, inhabitants from the sun’s dangerous ultraviolet radiant
no red sunsets. The beautiful pageantry of the sky would energy, as well as from the onslaught of material from
be absent. It would be unimaginably cold at night and interplanetary space. There is no definite upper limit to
unbearably hot during the day. All things on the earth the atmosphere; rather, it becomes thinner and thinner,
would be at the mercy of an intense sun beating down eventually merging with empty space, which surrounds
upon a planet utterly parched. all the planets.
Living on the surface of the earth, we have adapted
so completely to our environment of air that we some- *Radiant energy, or radiation, is energy transferred in the form of waves that
times forget how truly remarkable this substance is. Even have electrical and magnetic properties. The light that we see is radiation, as
is ultraviolet light. More on this important topic is given in Chapter 2.
though air is tasteless, odorless, and (most of the time) †The abbreviation °C is used when measuring temperature in degrees
invisible, it protects us from the scorching rays of the sun Celsius, and °F is the abbreviation for degrees Fahrenheit. More information
and provides us with a mixture of gases that allows life to about temperature scales is given in Appendix A and in Chapter 2.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 4 15/11/10 11:09 AM

 Overview of the Earth’s Atmosphere 5

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE ■ Table 1.1

shows the various gases present in a volume of air near
the earth’s surface. Notice that molecular nitrogen (N2)
occupies about 78 percent and molecular oxygen (O2)
about 21 percent of the total volume of dry air. If all the
other gases are removed, these percentages for nitrogen
and oxygen hold fairly constant up to an elevation of
about 80 km (or 50 mi).
At the surface, there is a balance between destruc-
tion (output) and production (input) of these gases. For
example, nitrogen is removed from the atmosphere pri-
marily by biological processes that involve soil bacteria.
In addition, nitrogen is taken from the air by tiny ocean-
dwelling plankton that convert it into nutrients that
help fortify the ocean’s food chain. It is returned to the
atmosphere mainly through the decaying of plant and
animal matter. Oxygen, on the other hand, is removed
from the atmosphere when organic matter decays and
when oxygen combines with other substances, produc-
ing oxides. It is also taken from the atmosphere during
breathing, as the lungs take in oxygen and release car-
bon dioxide. The addition of oxygen to the atmosphere
occurs during photosynthesis, as plants, in the presence
of sunlight, combine carbon dioxide and water to pro-
NASA

duce sugar and oxygen.

The concentration of the invisible gas water vapor, ◗FIGURE 1.1 The earth’s atmosphere as viewed from space.
however, varies greatly from place to place, and from The atmosphere is the thin blue region along the edge of the
time to time. Close to the surface in warm, steamy, trop- earth.
ical locations, water vapor may account for up to 4 per-
cent of the atmospheric gases, whereas in colder arctic larger liquid or solid particles, such as cloud droplets
areas, its concentration may dwindle to a mere fraction and ice crystals, which may grow in size and eventually
of a percent. Water vapor molecules are, of course, invis- fall to the earth as rain or snow. The changing of water
ible. They become visible only when they transform into vapor into liquid water is called condensation, whereas

■ TABLE 1.1 Composition of the Atmosphere near the Earth’s Surface

PERMANENT GASES VARIABLE GASES
Percent
(by Volume) Percent Parts per
Gas Symbol Dry Air Gas (and Particles) Symbol (by Volume) Million (ppm)
Nitrogen N2 78.08 Water vapor H2O 0 to 4
Oxygen O2 20.95 Carbon dioxide CO2 0.039 390*
Argon Ar 0.93 Methane CH4 0.00017 1.7
Neon Ne 0.0018 Nitrous oxide N2O 0.00003 0.3
Helium He 0.0005 Ozone O3 0.000004 0.04**
Hydrogen H2 0.00006 Particles (dust, soot, etc.) 0.000001 0.01–0.15
Xenon Xe 0.000009 Chlorofluorocarbons 0.00000002 0.0002
(CFCs)
*For CO2, 390 parts per million means that out of every million air molecules, 390 are CO2 molecules.
**Stratospheric values at altitudes between 11 km and 50 km are about 5 to 12 ppm.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
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49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 5 15/11/10 11:09 AM

 6 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

DID YOU KNOW? inside from escaping and mixing with the outside air).
This trapping of heat energy close to the earth’s surface,
When it rains, it rains pennies from heaven—sometimes. On called the greenhouse effect, keeps the average air tem-
July 17, 1940, a tornado reportedly picked up a treasure of perature near the surface much warmer than it would
over 1000 sixteenth-century silver coins, carried them into a be otherwise. Thus, water vapor plays a significant role
thunderstorm, then dropped them on the village of Merchery in the earth’s heat-energy balance.
in the Gorki region of Russia.
Carbon dioxide (CO2), a natural component of the
atmosphere, occupies a small (but important) percent of a
the process of liquid water becoming water vapor is volume of air, about 0.039 percent. Carbon dioxide enters
called evaporation. In the lower atmosphere, water is ev- the atmosphere mainly from the decay of vegetation, but
erywhere. It is the only substance that exists as a gas, a it also comes from volcanic eruptions, the exhalations of
liquid, and a solid at those temperatures and pressures animal life, from the burning of fossil fuels (such as coal,
normally found near the earth’s surface (see ◗ Fig. 1.2). oil, and natural gas), and from deforestation. The removal
Water vapor is an extremely important gas in our at- of CO2 from the atmosphere takes place during photosyn-
mosphere. Not only does it form into both liquid and thesis, as plants consume CO2 to produce green matter.
solid cloud particles that grow in size and fall to earth as The CO2 is then stored in roots, branches, and leaves. The
precipitation, but it also releases large amounts of heat— oceans act as a huge reservoir for CO2, as phytoplankton
called latent heat—when it changes from vapor into (tiny drifting plants) in surface water fix CO2 into or-
liquid water or ice. Latent heat is an important source ganic tissues. Carbon dioxide that dissolves directly into
of atmospheric energy, especially for storms, such as surface water mixes downward and circulates through
thunderstorms and hurricanes. Moreover, water vapor greater depths. Estimates are that the oceans hold more
is a potent greenhouse gas because it strongly absorbs than 50 times the total atmospheric CO2 content. ◗ Figure
a portion of the earth’s outgoing radiant energy (some- 1.3 illustrates important ways carbon dioxide enters and
what like the glass of a greenhouse prevents the heat leaves the atmosphere.
◗ Figure 1.4 reveals that the atmospheric concentra-
tion of CO2 has risen by almost 25 percent since 1958,
when it was first measured at Mauna Loa Observatory
in Hawaii. This increase means that CO2 is entering the
atmosphere at a greater rate than it is being removed.
The increase appears to be due mainly to the burning
of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil; however, deforesta-
tion also plays a role as cut timber, burned or left to rot,
releases CO2 directly into the air, perhaps accounting
for about 20 percent of the observed increase. Measure-
ments of CO2 also come from ice cores. In Greenland
and Antarctica, for example, tiny bubbles of air trapped
within the ice sheets reveal that before the industrial
revolution, CO2 levels were stable at about 280 parts per
million (ppm). Since the early 1800s, however, CO2 lev-
els have increased by more than 39 percent. With CO2
levels presently increasing by about 0.5 percent annually
© C. Donald Ahrens

(1.9 ppm/year), scientists now estimate that the concen-

tration of CO2 will likely rise from its current value of
about 390 ppm to a value perhaps exceeding 750 ppm
by the end of this century.
Carbon dioxide is another important greenhouse
◗FIGURE 1.2 The earth’s atmosphere is a rich mixture of gas because, like water vapor, it traps a portion of the
many gases, with clouds of condensed water vapor and ice earth’s outgoing energy. Consequently, with everything
crystals. Here, water evaporates from the ocean’s surface.
else being equal, as the atmospheric concentration of
Rising air currents then transform the invisible water vapor
into many billions of tiny liquid droplets that appear as puffy CO2 increases, so should the average global surface
cumulus clouds. If the rising air in the cloud should extend to air temperature. In fact, over the last 100 years or so,
greater heights, where air temperatures are quite low, some the earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by
of the liquid droplets would freeze into minute ice crystals. more than 0.8°C (1.4°F).

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 6 15/11/10 11:09 AM

 Overview of the Earth’s Atmosphere 7

Mathematical climate models that predict future at-

mospheric conditions estimate that if CO2 (and other
greenhouse gases) continue to increase at their present
rate, the earth’s surface could warm by an additional
3°C (5.4°F) by the end of this century. As we will see in
Chapter 13, the negative consequences of this type of
climate change (such as rising sea levels and the rapid
melting of polar ice) will be felt worldwide.
Carbon dioxide and water vapor are not the only
greenhouse gases. Others include methane (CH4), ni-
trous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).*
Levels of methane, for example, have been rising over
the past century, increasing recently by about one-
half of one percent per year. Most methane appears to
derive from the breakdown of plant material by certain
bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, the bio-
logical activity of termites, and biochemical reactions
in the stomachs of cows. Just why methane should be
increasing so rapidly is currently under study. Levels
of nitrous oxide—commonly known as laughing gas—
have been rising annually at the rate of about one-
quarter of a percent. Nitrous oxide forms in the soil ◗FIGURE 1.3 The main components of the atmospheric car-
through a chemical process involving bacteria and cer- bon dioxide cycle. The gray lines show processes that put car-
tain microbes. Ultraviolet light from the sun destroys it. bon dioxide into the atmosphere, whereas the red lines show
processes that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
Chlorofluorocarbons represent a group of green-
house gases that, up until the mid-1990s, had been in- ever, they are mainly used as refrigerants, as propellants
creasing in concentration. At one time, they were the for the blowing of plastic-foam insulation, and as sol-
most widely used propellants in spray cans. Today, how- vents for cleaning electronic microcircuits. Although
their average concentration in a volume of air is quite
*Because these gases (including CO2) occupy only a small fraction of a
percent in a volume of air near the surface, they are referred to collectively small (see Table 1.1, p. 5), they have an important effect
as trace gases. on our atmosphere as they not only have the potential

◗FIGURE 1.4 Measurements of

CO2 in parts per million (ppm) at
Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii.
Higher readings occur in winter
when plants die and release
CO2 to the atmosphere. Lower
readings occur in summer when
more abundant vegetation ab-
sorbs CO2 from the atmosphere.
The solid line is the average
yearly value. The concentration
of CO2 has increased by more
than 20 percent since 1958.
(Data from NOAA)

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 8 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

for raising global temperatures, they also play a part in

destroying the gas ozone in the stratosphere, a region
in the atmosphere located between about 11 km and 50
km above the earth’s surface.
At the surface, ozone (O3) is the primary ingredi-
ent of photochemical smog,* which irritates the eyes

© David Weintraub/Photo Researchers

and throat and damages vegetation. But the majority of
atmospheric ozone (about 97 percent) is found in the
upper atmosphere—in the stratosphere—where it is
formed naturally, as oxygen atoms combine with oxygen
molecules. Here, the concentration of ozone averages
less than 0.002 percent by volume. This small quantity is
important, however, because it shields plants, animals,
and humans from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays. It is
ironic that ozone, which damages plant life in a polluted ◗FIGURE 1.6 Erupting volcanoes can send tons of particles
environment, provides a natural protective shield in the into the atmosphere, along with vast amounts of water vapor,
upper atmosphere so that plants on the surface may sur- carbon dioxide, and sulfur dioxide.
vive. We will see in Chapter 14 that when CFCs enter
the stratosphere, ultraviolet rays break them apart, and Southern Hemispheres. The reduction in stratospheric
the CFCs release ozone-destroying chlorine. Because ozone levels over springtime Antarctica has plummet-
of this effect, ozone concentration in the stratosphere ed at such an alarming rate that during September and
has been decreasing over parts of the Northern and October, there is an ozone hole over the region (see
◗ Fig. 1.5). (We will examine the ozone hole situation, as
*Originally the word smog meant the combining of smoke and fog. Today, well as photochemical ozone, in Chapter 14).
however, the word usually refers to the type of smog that forms in large Impurities from both natural and human sources are
cities, such as Los Angeles, California. Because this type of smog forms
when chemical reactions take place in the presence of sunlight, it is termed
also present in the atmosphere: Wind picks up dust and
photochemical smog. soil from the earth’s surface and carries it aloft; small
saltwater drops from ocean waves are swept into the air
(upon evaporating, these drops leave microscopic salt
particles suspended in the atmosphere); smoke from
forest fires is often carried high above the earth; and vol-
canoes spew many tons of fine ash particles and gases
into the air (see ◗ Fig. 1.6). Collectively, these tiny solid
or liquid suspended particles of various composition are
called aerosols.
Some natural impurities found in the atmosphere are
quite beneficial. Small, floating particles, for instance,
act as surfaces on which water vapor condenses to form
clouds. However, most human-made impurities (and
some natural ones) are a nuisance, as well as a health haz-
ard. These we call pollutants. For example, automobile
engines emit copious amounts of nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrocarbons. In sunlight,
nitrogen dioxide reacts with hydrocarbons and other
gases to produce surface ozone. Carbon monoxide is a
NASA

major pollutant of city air. Colorless and odorless, this

poisonous gas forms during the incomplete combustion
Active ◗FIGURE 1.5 The darkest color represents the area of carbon-containing fuel. Hence, over 75 percent of car-
of lowest ozone concentration, or ozone hole, over the bon monoxide in urban areas comes from road vehicles.
Southern Hemisphere on September 22, 2004. Notice that
The burning of sulfur-containing fuels (such as coal
the hole is larger than the continent of Antarctica. A Dobson
Unit (DU) is the physical thickness of the ozone layer if it and oil) releases the colorless gas sulfur dioxide (SO2)
were brought to the earth’s surface, where 500 DU equals into the air. When the atmosphere is sufficiently moist,
5 millimeters. the SO2 may transform into tiny dilute drops of sulfuric

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 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 9

acid. Rain containing sulfuric acid corrodes metals and evolved in an almost oxygen-free (anaerobic) environ-
painted surfaces, and turns freshwater lakes acidic. Acid ment. At any rate, plant growth greatly enriched our at-
rain (thoroughly discussed in Chapter 14) is a major en- mosphere with oxygen. The reason for this enrichment
vironmental problem, especially downwind from major is that, during the process of photosynthesis, plants, in
industrial areas. In addition, high concentrations of SO2 the presence of sunlight, combine carbon dioxide and
produce serious respiratory problems in humans, such water to produce oxygen. Hence, after plants evolved,
as bronchitis and emphysema, and have an adverse ef- the atmospheric oxygen content increased more rapidly,
fect on plant life. (More information on these and other probably reaching its present composition about several
pollutants is given in Chapter 14.) hundred million years ago.

THE EARLY ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere that BRIEF REVIEW

originally surrounded the earth was probably much dif-
ferent from the air we breathe today. The earth’s first at- Before going on to the next several sections, here is a review
mosphere (some 4.6 billion years ago) was most likely of some of the important concepts presented so far:
hydrogen and helium—the two most abundant gases ◗ The earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. In a
found in the universe—as well as hydrogen compounds, volume of dry air near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies
such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3). Most sci- about 78 percent and oxygen (O2) about 21 percent.
entists feel that this early atmosphere escaped into space ◗ Water vapor, which normally occupies less than 4 percent
from the earth’s hot surface. in a volume of air near the surface, can condense into liquid
A second, more dense atmosphere, however, grad- cloud droplets or transform into delicate ice crystals. Water
ually enveloped the earth as gases from molten rock is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found
within its hot interior escaped through volcanoes and naturally as a gas (water vapor), as a liquid (water), and as a
steam vents. We assume that volcanoes spewed out the solid (ice).
same gases then as they do today: mostly water vapor ◗ Both water vapor and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important
(about 80 percent), carbon dioxide (about 10 percent), greenhouse gases.
and up to a few percent nitrogen. These gases (mostly ◗ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful
water vapor and carbon dioxide) probably created the ultraviolet (UV) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main
earth’s second atmosphere. ingredient of photochemical smog.
As millions of years passed, the constant outpour- ◗ The majority of water on our planet is believed to have
ing of gases from the hot interior—known as outgas- come from the earth’s hot interior through outgassing.
sing—provided a rich supply of water vapor, which
formed into clouds.* Rain fell upon the earth for many
thousands of years, forming the rivers, lakes, and oceans
of the world. During this time, large amounts of CO2 Vertical Structure of
were dissolved in the oceans. Through chemical and
biological processes, much of the CO2 became locked
the Atmosphere
up in carbonate sedimentary rocks, such as limestone. A vertical profile of the atmosphere reveals that it can
With much of the water vapor already condensed and be divided into a series of layers. Each layer may be de-
the concentration of CO2 dwindling, the atmosphere fined in a number of ways: by the manner in which the
gradually became rich in nitrogen (N2), which is usually air temperature varies through it, by the gases that com-
not chemically active. prise it, or even by its electrical properties. At any rate,
It appears that oxygen (O2), the second most abundant before we examine these various atmospheric layers,
gas in today’s atmosphere, probably began an extremely we need to look at the vertical profile of two important
slow increase in concentration as energetic rays from the variables: air pressure and air density.
sun split water vapor (H2O) into hydrogen and oxygen.
The hydrogen, being lighter, probably rose and escaped A BRIEF LOOK AT AIR PRESSURE AND AIR
into space, while the oxygen remained in the atmosphere. DENSITY Air molecules (as well as everything else)
This slow increase in oxygen may have provided are held near the earth by gravity. This strong, invisible
enough of this gas for primitive plants to evolve, per- force pulling down on the air above squeezes (com-
haps 2 to 3 billion years ago. Or the plants may have presses) air molecules closer together, which causes
their number in a given volume to increase. The more
*It is now believed that some of the earth’s water may have originated from
numerous collisions with small meteors and disintegrating comets when the air above a level, the greater the squeezing effect or com-
earth was very young. pression. Since air density is the number of air mole-

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 10 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

cules in a given space (volume), it follows that air den-

sity is greatest at the surface and decreases as we move
up into the atmosphere.* Notice in ◗ Fig. 1.7 that, owing
to the fact that the air near the surface is compressed,
air density normally decreases rapidly at first, then more
slowly as we move farther away from the surface.
Air molecules have weight.** In fact, air is surpris-
ingly heavy. The weight of all the air around the earth is
a staggering 5600 trillion tons. The weight of the air mol-
ecules acts as a force upon the earth. The amount of force
exerted over an area of surface is called atmospheric pres-
sure or, simply, air pressure.† The pressure at any level in
the atmosphere may be measured in terms of the total
mass of the air above any point. As we climb in eleva-
tion, fewer air molecules are above us; hence, atmospheric
pressure always decreases with increasing height. Like air
density, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more
◗FIGURE 1.7 Both air pressure and air density decrease
slowly at higher levels, as illustrated in Fig. 1.7. with increasing altitude. The weight of all the air molecules
If in Fig. 1.7 we weigh a column of air one square inch above the earth’s surface produces an average pressure near
in cross section, extending from the average height of the 14.7 lb/in2.
ocean surface (sea level) to the “top” of the atmosphere,
it would weigh very nearly 14.7 pounds. Thus, normal at- decreases rapidly, whereas at high levels it decreases more
mospheric pressure near sea level is close to 14.7 pounds slowly. With a sea-level pressure near 1000 mb, we can see in
per square inch. If more molecules are packed into the Fig. 1.8 that, at an altitude of only 5.5 km (or 3.5 mi),
column, it becomes more dense, the air weighs more, and the air pressure is about 500 mb, or half of the sea-level
the surface pressure goes up. On the other hand, when pressure. This situation means that, if you were at a mere
fewer molecules are in the column, the air weighs less, 5.5 km (which is about 18,000 feet) above the surface,
and the surface pressure goes down. So, a change in air you would be above one-half of all the molecules in the
density can bring about a change in air pressure. atmosphere.
Pounds per square inch is, of course, just one way
to express air pressure. Presently, the most common
unit for air pressure found on surface weather maps is
the millibar (mb), although the hectopascal†† (hPa) is
gradually replacing the millibar as the preferred unit of
pressure on surface maps. Another unit of pressure is
inches of mercury (Hg), which is commonly used both in
the field of aviation and in television and radio weather
broadcasts. At sea level, the standard value for atmo-
spheric pressure is
1013.25 mb = 1013.25 hPa = 29.92 in. Hg.
◗ Figure
1.8 illustrates how rapidly air pressure de-
creases with height. Near sea level, atmospheric pressure
*Density is defined as the mass of air in a given volume of air. Density =
mass/volume.
**The weight of an object, including air, is the force acting on the object due
to gravity. In fact, weight is defined as the mass of an object times the ac-
celeration of gravity. An object’s mass is the quantity of matter in the object.
Consequently, the mass of air in a rigid container is the same everywhere in
the universe. However, if you were to instantly travel to the moon, where the
acceleration of gravity is much less than that of earth, the mass of air in the
container would be the same, but its weight would decrease. ◗FIGURE 1.8 Atmospheric pressure decreases rapidly with
†Because air pressure is measured with an instrument called a barometer, height. Climbing to an altitude of only 5.5 km, where the pres-
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as barometric pressure. sure is 500 mb, would put you above one-half of the atmos-
††One hectopascal equals 1 millibar. phere’s molecules.

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 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 11

◗FIGURE 1.9 Layers of the atmosphere

as related to the average profile of air
temperature above the earth’s surface.
The heavy line illustrates how the aver-
age temperature varies in each layer.

At an elevation approaching the summit of Mount an altitude of about 11 km, which is nearly 36,000 ft, or
Everest (about 9 km or 29,000 ft), the air pressure would 7 mi. This decrease in air temperature with increasing
be about 300 mb. The summit is above nearly 70 percent height is due primarily to the fact (investigated further
of all the molecules in the atmosphere. At an altitude of in Chapter 2) that sunlight warms the earth’s surface, and
about 50 km, the air pressure is about 1 mb, which means the surface, in turn, warms the air above it. The rate at
that 99.9 percent of all the air molecules are below this which the air temperature decreases with height is called
level. Yet the atmosphere extends upwards for many hun- the temperature lapse rate. The average (or standard)
dreds of kilometers, gradually becoming thinner and
thinner until it ultimately merges with outer space. DID YOU KNOW?
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE We have seen that The air density in the mile-high city of Denver, Colorado, is
both air pressure and density decrease with height above normally about 15 percent less than the air density at sea lev-
the earth—rapidly at first, then more slowly. Air temper- el. As the air density decreases, the drag force on a baseball
ature, however, has a more complicated vertical profile.* in flight also decreases. Because of this fact, a baseball hit
Look closely at ◗ Fig. 1.9 and notice that air tempera- at Denver’s Coors Field will travel farther than one hit at sea
level. Hence, on a warm, calm day, a baseball hit for a 340-
ture normally decreases from the earth’s surface up to
foot home run down the left field line at Coors Field would
simply be a 300-foot out if hit at Camden Yards Stadium in
*Air temperatre is the degree of hotness or coldness of the air and, as we will see Baltimore, Maryland.
in Chapter 2, it is also a measure of the average speed of the air molecules.

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 12 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

FOCUS ON AN OBSERVATION

The Radiosonde
The vertical distribution of tempera- vertical profile of winds.* (When winds
ture, pressure, and humidity up to an are added, the observation is called a
altitude of about 30 km (about 19 mi) rawinsonde.) When plotted on a graph,
can be obtained with an instrument the vertical distribution of temperature,
called a radiosonde.* The radiosonde is humidity, and wind is called a sounding.
a small, lightweight box equipped with Eventually, the balloon bursts and the
weather instruments and a radio trans- radiosonde returns to earth, its descent
mitter. It is attached to a cord that has being slowed by its parachute.
a parachute and a gas-filled balloon tied At most sites, radiosondes are
tightly at the end (see Fig. 1). As the released twice a day, usually at the
balloon rises, the attached radiosonde time that corresponds to midnight and
measures air temperature with a small noon in Greenwich, England. Releasing
electrical thermometer—a thermistor— radiosondes is an expensive operation
located just outside the box. The radio- because many of the instruments are
sonde measures humidity electrically never retrieved, and many of those that
by sending an electric current across are retrieved are often in poor working
a carbon-coated plate. Air pressure is condition. To complement the radio-
obtained by a small barometer located sonde, modern satellites (using instru-
inside the box. All of this information ments that measure radiant energy)
is transmitted to the surface by radio. are providing scientists with vertical
Here, a computer rapidly reconverts temperature profiles in inaccessible
© C. Donald Ahrens

the various frequencies into values of regions.

temperature, pressure, and moisture.
Special tracking equipment at the *A modern development in the radiosonde
is the use of satellite Global Positioning
surface may also be used to provide a System (GPS) equipment. Radiosondes can
be equipped with a GPS device that provides FIGURE 1 The radiosonde with para-
*A radiosonde that is dropped by parachute more accurate position data back to the com-
from an aircraft is called a dropsonde. puter for wind computations. chute and balloon.

lapse rate in this region of the lower atmosphere is about The region of the atmosphere from the surface up to
6.5 degrees Celsius (°C) for every 1000 meters (m) or about 11 km contains all of the weather we are familiar
about 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit (°F) for every 1000 ft rise in with on earth. Also, this region is kept well stirred by
elevation. Keep in mind that these values are only aver- rising and descending air currents. Here, it is common
ages. On some days, the air becomes colder more quickly for air molecules to circulate through a depth of more
as we move upward, which would increase or steepen the than 10 km in just a few days. This region of circulating
lapse rate. On other days, the air temperature would de- air extending upward from the earth’s surface to where
crease more slowly with height, and the lapse rate would the air stops becoming colder with height is called the
be less. Occasionally, the air temperature may actually troposphere—from the Greek tropein, meaning to turn,
increase with height, producing a condition known as or to change.
a temperature inversion. So the lapse rate fluctuates, Notice in Fig. 1.9 that just above 11 km the air tem-
varying from day to day and season to season. The perature normally stops decreasing with height. Here,
instrument that measures the vertical profile of air tem- the lapse rate is zero. This region, where, on average, the
perature in the atmosphere up to an altitude sometimes air temperature remains constant with height, is referred
exceeding 30 km (100,000 ft) is the radiosonde. More
information on this instrument is given in the Focus *In many instances, the isothermal layer is not present and the air tempera-
section above. ture begins to increase with increasing height.

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 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere 13

to as an isothermal (equal temperature) zone.* The bot- DID YOU KNOW?

tom of this zone marks the top of the troposphere and
the beginning of another layer, the stratosphere. The The lowest temperature ever measured in the earth’s at-
boundary separating the troposphere from the strato- mosphere, –153°C (–243°F), was obtained using a rocket at
sphere is called the tropopause. The height of the tro- an altitude near 93 kilometers above Point Barrow, Alaska,
during June, 1966.
popause varies. It is normally found at higher elevations
over equatorial regions, and it decreases in elevation as
we travel poleward. Generally, the tropopause is higher
in summer and lower in winter at all latitudes. In some solar rays, warming the air. In the thermosphere, there
regions, the tropopause “breaks” and is difficult to lo- are relatively few atoms and molecules. Consequently, the
cate and, here, scientists have observed tropospheric absorption of a small amount of energetic solar energy
air mixing with stratospheric air and vice versa. These can cause a large increase in air temperature that may ex-
breaks also mark the position of jet streams—high winds ceed 500°C, or 900°F (see ◗ Fig. 1.10). Moreover, it is in
that meander in a narrow channel like an old river, often the thermosphere where charged particles from the sun
at speeds exceeding 100 knots.* interact with air molecules to produce dazzling aurora
From Fig. 1.9 we can see that in the stratosphere the displays, which are described in more detail in Chapter 2.
air temperature begins to increase with height, produc- Even though the temperature in the thermosphere is
ing a temperature inversion. The inversion region, along exceedingly high, a person shielded from the sun would
with the lower isothermal layer, tends to keep the ver- not necessarily feel hot. The reason for this fact is that
tical currents of the troposphere from spreading into there are too few molecules in this region of the atmo-
the stratosphere. The inversion also tends to reduce the sphere to bump against something (exposed skin, for
amount of vertical motion in the stratosphere itself; example) and transfer enough heat to it to make it feel
hence, it is a stratified layer. Even though the air tem- warm. The low density of the thermosphere also means
perature is increasing with height, the air at an altitude that an air molecule will move an average distance of
of 30 km is extremely cold, averaging less than –46°C over one kilometer before colliding with another mol-
(–51°F). ecule. A similar air molecule at the earth’s surface will
The reason for the inversion in the stratosphere is move an average distance of less than one millionth of
that the gas ozone plays a major part in heating the air a centimeter before it collides with another molecule.
at this altitude. Recall that ozone is important because it
absorbs energetic ultraviolet (UV) solar energy. Some of
this absorbed energy warms the stratosphere, which ex-
plains why there is an inversion. If ozone were not pres-
ent, the air probably would become colder with height,
as it does in the troposphere.
Above the stratosphere is the mesosphere (middle
sphere). The air here is extremely thin and the atmo-
spheric pressure is quite low (again, refer back to Fig. 1.9).
Even though the percentage of nitrogen and oxygen in the
mesosphere is about the same as it was at the earth’s sur-
face, a breath of mesospheric air contains far fewer oxygen
molecules than a breath of tropospheric air. At this level,
without proper oxygen-breathing equipment, the brain
would soon become oxygen-starved—a condition known
as hypoxia—and suffocation would result. With an aver-
age temperature of –90°C (–130°F), the top of the meso-
sphere represents the coldest part of our atmosphere.
The “hot layer” above the mesosphere is the thermo-
sphere. Here, oxygen molecules (O2) absorb energetic
◗FIGURE 1.10 Layers of the atmosphere based on tem-
perature (red line), composition (green line), and electrical
*A knot is a nautical mile per hour. One knot is equal to 1.15 miles per hour properties (blue line). (An active sun is associated with large
(mi/hr), or 1.9 kilometers per hour (km/hr). numbers of solar eruptions.)

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49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 13 15/11/10 11:09 AM

 14 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

At the top of the thermosphere, about 500 km cannot absorb all of the energy transferred to them by a
(300 mi) above the earth’s surface, molecules can move colliding energetic particle or the sun’s energy.
great distances before they collide with other molecules. The lower region of the ionosphere is usually about
Here, many of the lighter, faster-moving molecules trav- 60 km above the earth’s surface. From here (60 km),
eling in the right direction actually escape the earth’s the ionosphere extends upward to the top of the atmo-
gravitational pull. The region where atoms and mol- sphere. Hence, as we can see in Fig. 1.10, the bulk of the
ecules shoot off into space is sometimes referred to as ionosphere is in the thermosphere.
the exosphere, which represents the upper limit of our The ionosphere plays a major role in AM radio
atmosphere. communications. The lower part (called the D region)
Up to this point, we have examined the atmospheric reflects standard AM radio waves back to earth, but
layers based on the vertical profile of temperature. The at the same time it seriously weakens them through
atmosphere, however, may also be divided into layers absorption. At night, though, the D region gradually
based on its composition. For example, the composition disappears and AM radio waves are able to penetrate
of the atmosphere begins to slowly change in the lower higher into the ionosphere (into the E and F regions—
part of the thermosphere. Below the thermosphere, the see ◗ Fig. 1.11), where the waves are reflected back to
composition of air remains fairly uniform (78% nitrogen, earth. Because there is, at night, little absorption of
21% oxygen) by turbulent mixing. This lower, well-mixed radio waves in the higher reaches of the ionosphere,
region is known as the homosphere (see Fig. 1.10). In the such waves bounce repeatedly from the ionosphere to
thermosphere, collisions between atoms and molecules the earth’s surface and back to the ionosphere again. In
are infrequent, and the air is unable to keep itself stirred. this way, standard AM radio waves are able to travel for
As a result, diffusion takes over as heavier atoms and many hundreds of kilometers at night.
molecules (such as oxygen and nitrogen) tend to settle Around sunrise and sunset, AM radio stations usu-
to the bottom of the layer, while lighter gases (such as ally make “necessary technical adjustments” to compen-
hydrogen and helium) float to the top. The region from sate for the changing electrical characteristics of the D
about the base of the thermosphere to the top of the at- region. Because they can broadcast over a greater dis-
mosphere is often called the heterosphere. tance at night, most AM stations reduce their output
near sunset. This reduction prevents two stations—both
THE IONOSPHERE The ionosphere is not really a transmitting at the same frequency but hundreds of ki-
layer, but rather an electrified region within the upper lometers apart—from interfering with each other’s ra-
atmosphere where fairly large concentrations of ions dio programs. At sunrise, as the D region intensifies, the
and free electrons exist. Ions are atoms and molecules power supplied to AM radio transmitters is normally
that have lost (or gained) one or more electrons. Atoms increased. FM stations do not need to make these ad-
lose electrons and become positively charged when they justments because FM radio waves are shorter than AM
waves, and are able to penetrate through the ionosphere
without being reflected.

BRIEF REVIEW
We have, in the last several sections, been examining our
atmosphere from a vertical perspective. A few of the main
points are:
◗ Atmospheric pressure at any level represents the total
mass of air above that level, and atmospheric pressure
always decreases with increasing height above the surface.
◗ The rate at which the air temperature decreases with
height is called the lapse rate.
◗ A measured increase in air temperature with height is
◗FIGURE 1.11 At night, the higher region of the ionosphere called an inversion.
(F region) strongly reflects AM radio waves, allowing them to
be sent over great distances. During the day, the lower D re- ◗ The atmosphere may be divided into layers (or regions)
gion strongly absorbs and weakens AM radio waves, prevent- according to its vertical profile of temperature, its gaseous
ing them from being picked up by distant receivers. composition, or its electrical properties.

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 Weather and Climate 15

◗ The warmest atmospheric layer is the thermosphere; the rivers of ice moving down stream-cut valleys and huge
coldest is the mesosphere. Most of the gas ozone is found glaciers—sheets of moving snow and ice—spreading
in the stratosphere. their icy fingers over large portions of North America.
◗ We live at the bottom of the troposphere, which is an Advancing slowly from Canada, a single glacier might
atmospheric layer where the air temperature normally extend as far south as Kansas and Illinois, with ice sev-
decreases with height. The troposphere is a region that eral thousands of meters thick covering the region now
contains all of the weather we are familiar with. occupied by Chicago. Over an interval of 2 million years
or so, we would see the ice advance and retreat many
times. Of course, for this phenomenon to happen, the
We will now turn our attention to weather events
average temperature of North America would have to
that take place in the lower atmosphere. As you read the
decrease and then rise in a cyclic manner.
remainder of this chapter, keep in mind that the content
Suppose we could photograph the earth once every
serves as a broad overview of material to come in later
thousand years for many hundreds of millions of years.
chapters, and that many of the concepts and ideas you
In time-lapse film sequence, these photos would show
encounter are designed to familiarize you with items
that not only is the climate altering, but the whole earth
you might read about in a newspaper or magazine, or
itself is changing as well: mountains would rise up only
see on television.
to be torn down by erosion; isolated puffs of smoke and
steam would appear as volcanoes spew hot gases and
fine dust into the atmosphere; and the entire surface of
Weather and Climate the earth would undergo a gradual transformation as
some ocean basins widen and others shrink.*
When we talk about the weather, we are talking about In summary, the earth and its atmosphere are dy-
the condition of the atmosphere at any particular time namic systems that are constantly changing. While ma-
and place. Weather—which is always changing—is jor transformations of the earth’s surface are completed
comprised of the elements of: only after long spans of time, the state of the atmosphere
1. air temperature—the degree of hotness or coldness of can change in a matter of minutes. Hence, a watchful
the air eye turned skyward will be able to observe many of
2. air pressure—the force of the air above an area these changes.
Up to this point, we have looked at the concepts of
3. humidity—a measure of the amount of water vapor weather and climate without discussing the word mete-
in the air orology. What does this word actually mean, and where
4. clouds—a visible mass of tiny water droplets and/or did it originate? If you are interested in this information,
ice crystals that are above the earth’s surface read the Focus section entitled “Meteorology—A Brief
5. precipitation—any form of water, either liquid or sol- History” on p. 18.
id (rain or snow), that falls from clouds and reaches
the ground A SATELLITE’S VIEW OF THE WEATHER A good
6. visibility—the greatest distance one can see view of the weather can be seen from a weather satellite.
◗ Figure 1.12 is a satellite image showing a portion of the
7. wind—the horizontal movement of air Pacific Ocean and the North American continent. The
If we measure and observe these weather elements photograph was obtained from a geostationary satellite
over a specified interval of time, say, for many years, we situated about 36,000 km (22,300 mi) above the earth.
would obtain the “average weather” or the climate of a At this elevation, the satellite travels at the same rate as
particular region. Climate, therefore, represents the accu- the earth spins, which allows it to remain positioned
mulation of daily and seasonal weather events (the aver- above the same spot so it can continuously monitor
age range of weather) over a long period of time. The con- what is taking place beneath it.
cept of climate is much more than this, for it also includes The solid black lines running from north-to-south
the extremes of weather—the heat waves of summer and on the satellite image are called meridians, or lines of
the cold spells of winter—that occur in a particular re- longitude. Since the zero meridian (or prime meridian)
gion. The frequency of these extremes is what helps us dis- runs through Greenwich, England, the longitude of any
tinguish among climates that have similar averages.
If we were able to watch the earth for many thousands *The movement of the ocean floor and continents is explained in the widely
of years, even the climate would change. We would see acclaimed theory of plate tectonics.

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 16 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

◗FIGURE 1.12
This satellite image
(taken in visible re-
flected light) shows
a variety of cloud
patterns and storms
in the earth’s atmos-
phere.
NOAA/National Weather Service

place on earth is simply how far east or west, in degrees, clouds, over 2000 km long, west of the Great Lakes. Su-
it is from the prime meridian. North America is west of perimposed on the satellite image is the storm’s center
Great Britain and most of the United States lies between (indicated by the large red L) and its adjoining weather
75°W and 125°W longitude. fronts in red, blue, and purple. This middle-latitude
The thin, solid black lines that parallel the equator cyclonic storm system (or extratropical cyclone) forms
are called parallels of latitude. The latitude of any place outside the tropics and, in the Northern Hemisphere,
is how far north or south, in degrees, it is from the equa- has winds spinning counterclockwise about its center,
tor. The latitude of the equator is 0°, whereas the latitude which is presently over Minnesota.
of the North Pole is 90°N and that of the South Pole is A slightly smaller but more vigorous storm is located
90°S. Most of the United States is located between lati- over the Pacific Ocean near latitude 12°N and longitude
tude 30°N and 50°N, a region commonly referred to as 116°W. This tropical storm system, with its swirling band
the middle latitudes. of rotating clouds and surface winds in excess of 64 knots*
(74 mi/hr), is known as a hurricane. The diameter of
STORMS OF ALL SIZES Probably the most promi- the hurricane is about 800 km (500 mi). The tiny dot at
nent feature in Fig. 1.12 is the whirling cloud masses of its center is called the eye. Near the surface, in the eye,
all shapes and sizes. The clouds appear white because winds are light, skies are generally clear, and the atmo-
sunlight is reflected back to space from their tops. The spheric pressure is lowest. Around the eye, however, is an
largest of the organized cloud masses are the sprawling
storms. One such storm shows as an extensive band of *Recall from p. 13 that 1 knot equals 1.15 miles per hour.

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 Weather and Climate 17

◗FIGURE 1.13 Simplified surface weather map that correlates with the satellite image shown in Fig. 1.12. The
shaded green area represents precipitation. The numbers on the map represent air temperatures in °F.

extensive region where heavy rain and high surface winds reaches the ground, and the rapidly rotating funnel ap-
are reaching peak gusts of 100 knots. pears to hang from the base of its parent cloud. Often,
Smaller storms are seen as bright spots over the Gulf of they dip down, then rise up before disappearing.
Mexico. These spots represent clusters of towering cumu-
lus clouds that have grown into thunderstorms, that is, A LOOK AT A WEATHER MAP We can obtain a bet-
tall churning clouds accompanied by lightning, thunder, ter picture of the middle-latitude storm system by ex-
strong gusty winds, and heavy rain. If you look closely at amining a simplified surface weather map for the same
Fig. 1.12, you will see similar cloud forms in many re- day that the satellite image was taken. The weight of the
gions. There were probably thousands of thunderstorms air above different regions varies and, hence, so does the
occurring throughout the world at that very moment. Al- atmospheric pressure. In ◗ Fig. 1.13, the red letter L on
though they cannot be seen individually, there are even the map indicates a region of low atmospheric pressure,
some thunderstorms embedded in the cloud mass west often called a low, which marks the center of the middle-
of the Great Lakes. Later in the day on which this image latitude storm. (Compare the center of the storm in
was taken, a few of these storms spawned the most vio- Fig. 1.13 with that in Fig. 1.12.) The two large blue let-
lent disturbance in the atmosphere—the tornado. ters H on the map represent regions of high atmospher-
A tornado is an intense rotating column of air that ic pressure, called highs, or anticyclones. The circles on
usually extends downward from the base of a thun- the map represent other individual weather stations or
derstorm. Sometimes called twisters, or cyclones, they cities where observations are taken. The wind is the
may appear as ropes or as a large circular cylinder. horizontal movement of air. The wind direction—the
The majority are less than a kilometer wide and many direction from which the wind is blowing*—is given by
are smaller than a football field. Tornado winds may
exceed 200 knots but most probably peak at less *If you are facing north and the wind is blowing in your face, the wind
than 125 knots. The rotation of some tornadoes never would be called a “north wind.”

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49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 17 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 18 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC

Meteorology—A Brief History

Meteorology is the study of the atmo- FIGURE 2
sphere and its phenomena. The term it- Doppler radar
self goes back to the Greek philosopher image showing
Aristotle who, about 340 b.c., wrote a the heavy rain
book on natural philosophy entitled and hail of a
severe thun-
Meteorologica. This work represented
derstorm (dark
the sum of knowledge on weather and
red area) over
climate at that time, as well as mate- Indianapolis,
rial on astronomy, geography, and Indiana, on
chemistry. Some of the topics covered April 14, 2006.
included clouds, rain, snow, wind, hail,
thunder, and hurricanes. In those days,
all substances that fell from the sky, and
anything seen in the air, were called
meteors, hence the term meteorology,
which actually comes from the Greek
NOAA

word meteoros, meaning “high in the

air.” Today, we differentiate between
those meteors that come from extrater-
restrial sources outside our atmosphere science of meteorology progressed. atmosphere for some desired time in
(meteoroids) and particles of water The invention of the telegraph in 1843 the future.
and ice observed in the atmosphere allowed for the transmission of routine After World War II, surplus military
(hydrometeors). weather observations. The understand- radars became available, and many
In Meteorologica, Aristotle attempt- ing of the concepts of wind flow and were transformed into precipitation-
ed to explain atmospheric phenomena storm movement became clearer, and measuring tools. In the mid-1990s,
in a philosophical and speculative in 1869 crude weather maps with isobars these conventional radars were
manner. Even though many of his ideas (lines of equal pressure) were drawn. replaced by the more sophisticated
were found to be erroneous, Aristotle’s Around 1920, the concepts of air mass- Doppler radars, which have the ability
ideas remained a dominant influence es and weather fronts were formulated to peer into a severe thunderstorm and
in the field of meteorology for almost in Norway. By the 1940s, daily upper-air unveil its wind and weather (see Fig. 2).
two thousand years. In fact, the birth balloon observations of temperature, In 1960, the first weather satel-
of meteorology as a genuine natural humidity, and pressure gave a three- lite, Tiros 1, was launched, ushering in
science did not take place until the dimensional view of the atmosphere, space-age meteorology. Subsequent
invention of weather instruments, such and high-flying military aircraft discov- satellites provided a wide range of use-
as the thermometer at the end of the ered the existence of jet streams. ful information, ranging from day and
sixteenth century, the barometer (for Meteorology took another step night time-lapse images of clouds and
measuring air pressure) in 1643, and the forward in the 1950s, when high-speed storms to images that depict swirling
hygrometer (for measuring humidity) in computers were developed to solve the ribbons of water vapor flowing around
the late 1700s. With observations from mathematical equations that describe the globe. Throughout the 1990s and
instruments available, attempts were the behavior of the atmosphere. At into the twenty-first century, even more
then made to explain certain weather the same time, a group of scientists sophisticated satellites were developed
phenomena employing scientific in Princeton, New Jersey, developed to supply computers with a far greater
experimentation and the physical laws numerical means for predicting the network of data so that more accurate
that were being developed at the time. weather. Today, computers plot forecasts—perhaps up to two weeks or
As more and better instruments the observations, draw the lines on more—will be available in the future.
were developed, in the 1800s, the the map, and forecast the state of the

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 18 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 Weather and Climate 19

lines that parallel the wind and extend outward from DID YOU KNOW?
the center of the station. The wind speed—the rate at
which the air is moving past a stationary observer—is On Saturday, April 24, 2010, a violent tornado packing winds
indicated by barbs. of 150 knots roared through the town of Yazoo City, Mississip-
Notice how the wind blows around the highs and the pi. The tornado caused millions of dollars in damage, killed 10
lows. The horizontal pressure differences create a force that people, and amazingly stayed on the ground for 149 miles—
starts the air moving from higher pressure toward lower from Tallulah, Louisiana, to Oktibbeha County, Mississippi—
making this one of the longest tornado paths on record.
pressure. Because of the earth’s rotation, the winds are
deflected from their path toward the right in the Northern
Hemisphere.* This deflection causes the winds to blow
clockwise and outward from the center of the highs, and and half circles to show how it is moving. Along each
counterclockwise and inward toward the center of the low. of the fronts, warm air is rising, producing clouds and
As the surface air spins into the low, it flows together precipitation. In the satellite image (Fig. 1.12), the oc-
and rises, much like toothpaste does when its open tube cluded front and the cold front appear as an elongated,
is squeezed. The rising air cools, and the water vapor in curling cloud band that stretches from the low pressure
the air condenses into clouds. Notice in Fig. 1.13 that area over Minnesota into the northern part of Texas.
the area of precipitation (the shaded green area) in the Notice in Fig. 1.13 that the weather front is to the
vicinity of the low corresponds to an extensive cloudy west of Chicago. As the westerly winds aloft push the
region in the satellite image (Fig. 1.12). front eastward, a person on the outskirts of Chicago
Also notice by comparing Figs. 1.12 and 1.13 that, in might observe the approaching front as a line of tow-
the regions of high pressure, skies are generally clear. As ering thunderstorms similar to those in ◗ Fig. 1.14. On
the surface air flows outward away from the center of a a Doppler radar image, the advancing thunderstorms
high, air sinking from above must replace the laterally might appear similar to those shown in ◗ Fig. 1.15. In
spreading surface air. Since sinking air does not usually a few hours, Chicago should experience heavy showers
produce clouds, we find generally clear skies and fair with thunder, lightning, and gusty winds as the front
weather associated with the regions of high atmospheric passes. All of this, however, should give way to clearing
pressure.
The swirling air around the areas of high and low
pressure are the major weather producers for the mid-
dle latitudes. Look at the middle-latitude storm and the
surface temperatures in Fig. 1.13 and notice that, to the
southeast of the storm, southerly winds from the Gulf of
Mexico are bringing warm, humid air northward over
much of the southeastern portion of the nation. On the
storm’s western side, cool dry northerly breezes com-
bine with sinking air to create generally clear weather
over the Rocky Mountains. The boundary that sepa-
rates the warm and cool air appears as a heavy, colored
line on the map—a front, across which there is a sharp
change in temperature, humidity, and wind direction.
Where the cool air from Canada replaces the warm-
er air from the Gulf of Mexico, a cold front is drawn in
blue, with arrowheads showing the front’s general direc-
tion of movement. Where the warm Gulf air is replacing
cooler air to the north, a warm front is drawn in red,
with half circles showing its general direction of move-
© C. Donald Ahrens

ment. Where the cold front has caught up to the warm

front and cold air is now replacing cool air, an occluded
front is drawn in purple, with alternating arrowheads

*This deflecting force, known as the Coriolis force, is discussed more com- ◗FIGURE 1.14 Thunderstorms developing and advancing
pletely in Chapter 6, as are the winds. along an approaching cold front.

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49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 19 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 20 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

determines when to plant crops as well as what type of

crops can be planted. Weather determines if these same
crops will grow to maturity. Although weather and cli-
mate affect our lives in many ways, perhaps their most
immediate effect is on our comfort. In order to survive
the cold of winter and heat of summer, we build homes,
heat them, air condition them, insulate them—only to
find that when we leave our shelter, we are at the mercy
of the weather elements.
Even when we are dressed for the weather properly,
wind, humidity, and precipitation can change our per-
ception of how cold or warm it feels. On a cold, windy
day the effects of wind chill tell us that it feels much
colder than it really is, and, if not properly dressed, we
NOAA/National Weather Service

run the risk of frostbite or even hypothermia (the rapid,

progressive mental and physical collapse that accompa-
nies the lowering of human body temperature). On a
hot, humid day we normally feel uncomfortably warm
and blame it on the humidity. If we become too warm,
our bodies overheat and heat exhaustion or heatstroke
may result. Those most likely to suffer these maladies
◗FIGURE 1.15 Doppler radar has the capacity of estimating are the elderly with impaired circulatory systems and
rainfall intensity. In this composite image, the areas shaded infants, whose heat regulatory mechanisms are not yet
green and blue indicate where light-to-moderate rain is fall-
ing. Yellow indicates heavier rainfall. The red-shaded area
fully developed.
represents the heaviest rainfall and the possibility of intense Weather affects how we feel in other ways, too. Ar-
thunderstorms. Notice that a thunderstorm is approaching thritic pain is most likely to occur when rising humid-
Chicago from the west. ity is accompanied by falling pressures. In ways not well
understood, weather does seem to affect our health.
skies and surface winds from the west or northwest after The incidence of heart attacks shows a statistical peak
the front has moved on by. after the passage of warm fronts, when rain and wind
Observing storm systems, we see that not only do are common, and after the passage of cold fronts, when
they move but they constantly change. Steered by the an abrupt change takes place as showery precipitation is
upper-level westerly winds, the middle-latitude storm accompanied by cold gusty winds. Headaches are com-
in Fig. 1.13 gradually weakens and moves eastward, mon on days when we are forced to squint, often due to
carrying its clouds and weather with it. In advance of hazy skies or a thin, bright overcast layer of high clouds.
this system, a sunny day in Ohio will gradually cloud For some people, a warm, dry wind blowing down-
over and yield heavy showers and thunderstorms by slope (a chinook wind) adversely affects their behavior
nightfall. Behind the storm, cool dry northerly winds (they often become irritable and depressed). Hot, dry
rushing into eastern Colorado cause an overcast sky to downslope Santa Ana winds in Southern California can
give way to clearing conditions. Farther south, the thun- turn burning dry vegetation into a raging firestorm.
derstorms presently over the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 1.12) When the weather turns much colder or warmer
expand a little, then dissipate as new storms appear over than normal, it impacts directly on the lives and pock-
water and land areas. To the west, the hurricane over etbooks of many people. For example, the exceptionally
the Pacific Ocean drifts northwestward and encounters warm January of 2006 over the United States saved peo-
cooler water. Here, away from its warm energy source, ple millions of dollars in heating costs. On the other side
it loses its punch; winds taper off, and the storm soon of the coin, the colder-than-normal December of 2009
turns into an unorganized mass of clouds and tropical over much of North America sent heating costs soaring
moisture. as demand for heating fuel escalated.
Major cold spells accompanied by heavy snow and
WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN OUR LIVES Weather ice can play havoc by snarling commuter traffic, cur-
and climate play a major role in our lives. Weather, for ex- tailing airport services, closing schools, and downing
ample, often dictates the type of clothing we wear, while power lines, thereby cutting off electricity to thousands
climate influences the type of clothing we buy. Climate of customers (see ◗ Fig. 1.16). For example, a huge ice

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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 20 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 Weather and Climate 21

excessive heat exposure. In one particularly devastating

heat wave that hit Chicago, Illinois, during July, 1995,
high temperatures coupled with high humidity claimed
the lives of more than 700 people. In California, during
July, 2006, over 100 people died during a two-week pe-
© Syracuse Newspapers/Gary Walts/The Image Works

riod as air temperatures climbed to over 46°C (115°F).

And Europe suffered through a devastating heat wave
during the summer of 2003 when many people died, in-
cluding 14,000 in France alone.
Each year, the violent side of weather influences the
lives of millions. It is amazing how many people whose
family roots are in the Midwest know the story of some-
one who was severely injured or killed by a tornado.
Tornadoes have not only taken many lives, but annually
they cause damage to buildings and property totaling
in the hundreds of millions of dollars, as a single large
tornado can level an entire section of a town (see ◗ Fig.
◗FIGURE 1.16 Ice storm near Oswego, New York, caused 1.17 and ◗ Fig. 1.18).
utility polls and power lines to be weighed down, forcing road
closure.

storm during January, 1998, in northern New England

and Canada left millions of people without power and
caused over a billion dollars in damages, and a devastat-
ing snow storm during March, 1993, buried parts of the
East Coast with 14-foot snow drifts and left Syracuse,
New York, paralyzed with a snow depth of 36 inches.
When the frigid air settles into the Deep South, many
© Eric Nguyen/Terra/Corbis

millions of dollars worth of temperature-sensitive fruits

and vegetables may be ruined, the eventual consequence
being higher produce prices in the supermarket.
Prolonged drought, especially when accompanied
by high temperatures, can lead to a shortage of food and,
in some places, widespread starvation. Parts of Africa,
for example, have periodically suffered through major ◗FIGURE 1.17 A tornado and a rainbow form over south-
droughts and famine. During the summer of 2007, the central Kansas during June, 2004.
southeastern section of the United States experienced a
terrible drought as searing summer temperatures wilted
crops, causing losses in excess of a billion dollars. When
the climate turns hot and dry, animals suffer too. In
1986, over 500,000 chickens perished in Georgia during
a two-day period at the peak of a summer heat wave. Se-
vere drought also has an effect on water reserves, often
forcing communities to ration water and restrict its use.
During periods of extended drought, vegetation often
© Steve Pope/Getty Images

becomes tinder-dry and, sparked by lightning or a care-

less human, such a dried-up region can quickly become
a raging inferno. During the winter of 2005–2006, hun-
dreds of thousands of acres in drought-stricken Okla-
homa and northern Texas were ravaged by wildfires.
Every summer, scorching heat waves take many lives.
During the past 20 years, an annual average of more ◗FIGURE 1.18 Extensive damage caused by a violent tornado
than 300 deaths in the United States were attributed to that moved through Parkersburg, Iowa, on May 5, 2008.

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49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 21 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 22 Chapter 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere

winter, deadly fog-related auto accidents occur along

our busy highways and turnpikes. But fog has a positive
side, too, especially during a dry spell, as fog moisture
collects on tree branches and drips to the ground, where
it provides water for the tree’s root system.
Weather and climate have become so much a part of
our lives that the first thing many of us do in the morn-
ing is to listen to the local weather forecast. For this
reason, many radio and television newscasts have their
own “weatherperson” to present weather information
and give daily forecasts. More and more of these people
are professionally trained in meteorology, and many
stations require that the weathercaster obtain a seal of
approval from the American Meteorological Society
(AMS), or a certificate from the National Weather As-
sociation (NWA). To make their weather presentation
as up-to-the-minute as possible, an increasing number
of stations are taking advantage of the information pro-
vided by the National Weather Service (NWS), such as
AP Images/Mark Humphrey

computerized weather forecasts, time-lapse satellite im-

ages, and color Doppler radar displays. (At this point it’s
interesting to note that many viewers believe the weather
person they see on TV is a meteorologist and that all me-
teorologists forecast the weather. If you are interested in
learning what a meteorologist or atmospheric scientist
◗FIGURE 1.19 Flooding during May, 2010, inundated
Nashville, Tennessee. Flood waters of the Cumberland River
extend over much of the town, including the Grand Ole Opry.

Although the gentle rains of a typical summer thun-

derstorm are welcome over much of North America,
the heavy downpours, high winds, and hail of the severe
thunderstorms are not. Cloudbursts from slowly moving,
intense thunderstorms can pro vide too much rain too
quickly, creating flash floods as small streams become
raging rivers composed of mud and sand entangled with
uprooted plants and trees (see ◗ Fig. 1.19). On the average,
more people die in the United States from floods and flash
© Keith Kent/Peter Arnold Images/Photolibrary

floods than from either lightning or tornadoes. Strong

downdrafts originating inside an intense thunderstorm
(a downburst) create turbulent winds that are capable
of destroying crops and inflicting damage upon surface
structures. Several airline crashes have been attributed
to the turbulent wind shear zone within the downburst.
Annually, hail damages crops worth millions of dollars,
and lightning takes the lives of about eighty people in the
United States and starts fires that destroy many thousands
of acres of valuable timber (see ◗ Fig. 1.20).
Even the quiet side of weather has its influence.
◗FIGURE 1.20 Estimates are that lightning strikes the earth
When winds die down and humid air becomes more about 100 times every second. About 25 million lightning
tranquil, fog may form. Heavy fog can restrict visibility strikes hit the United States each year. Here, lightning strikes
at airports, causing flight delays and cancellations. Every the ground and illuminates the sky over Tucson, Arizona.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 22 15/11/10 11:10 AM

 Weather and Climate 23

FOCUS ON A SPECIAL TOPIC

What Is a Meteorologist?
Most people associate the term “mete- FIGURE 3 A model
orologist” with the weatherperson they that simulates a
see on television or hear on the radio. three-dimensional
Many television and radio weathercast- view of the atmos-
ers are in fact professional meterolo- phere. This computer
model predicts how
gists, but some are not. A professional
winds and clouds
meterologist is usually considered to
over the United
be a person who has completed the States will change
requirements for a college degree in with time.
meteorology or atmospheric science.
This individual has strong, fundamen-
tal knowledge concerning how the
atmosphere behaves, along with a
NCAR/UCAR/NSF

substantial background of coursework

in mathematics, physics, and chemistry.
A meteorologist uses scientific
principles to explain and to forecast
atmospheric phenomena. About half of
the approximately 9000 meteorologists
and atmospheric scientists in the Unit- fields, such as chemists, physicists, such interchange might have on planet
ed States work doing weather forecast- oceanographers, mathematicians, and Earth many years from now.
ing for the National Weather Service, environmental scientists to determine Meteorologists also provide a vari-
the military, or for a television or radio how the atmosphere interacts with ety of services not only to the general
station. The other half work mainly in the entire ecosystem. Scientists doing public in the form of weather forecasts
research, teach atmospheric science work in physical meteorology may well but also to city planners, contrac-
courses in colleges and universities, or study how radiant energy warms the tors, farmers, and large corporations.
do meteorological consulting work. atmosphere; those at work in the field Meteorologists working for private
Scientists who do atmospheric of dynamic meteorology might be us- weather firms create the forecasts and
research may be investigating how the ing the mathematical equations that graphics that are found in newspapers,
climate is changing, how snowflakes describe airflow to learn more about jet on television, and on the Internet.
form, or how pollution impacts tem- streams. Scientists working in opera- Overall, there are many exciting jobs
perature patterns. Aided by supercom- tional meteorology might be preparing a that fall under the heading of “meteo-
puters, much of the work of a research weather forecast by analyzing upper-air rologist”—too many to mention here.
meteorologist involves simulating the information over North America. A cli- However, for more information on this
atmosphere to see how it behaves matologist, or climate scientist, might be topic, visit this website: http://www.
(see Fig. 3). Researchers often work studying the interaction of the atmo- ametsoc.org/ and click on “Students.”
closely with scientists from other sphere and ocean to see what influence

is and what he or she might do for a living (other than Weather Service, sponsors weather radio broadcasts
forecast the weather) read the Focus section above.) at selected locations across the United States. Known
For many years now, a staff of trained professionals as NOAA weather radio (and transmitted at VHF-FM
at “The Weather Channel” have provided weather in- frequencies), this service provides continuous weather
formation twenty-four hours a day on cable television. information and regional forecasts (as well as special
And finally, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- weather advisories, including watches and warnings)
ministration (NOAA), in cooperation with the National for over 90 percent of the United States.

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.

49331_01_ch1_p002-025.indd 23 15/11/10 11:10 AM

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
máskor, a férfi minden kérdésére, minden megjegyzésére azt
mondta:
– Nem tudom!
– Szeret-e már egy kicsinyt?
– Nem tudom.
– Gyűlöl-e még?
– Nem tudom.
– Lehet-e reményem?
– Nem tudom.
– Mik a tervei a jövőre nézve? Akar-e ünnepelt, első és boldog
asszonya lenni a világnak? Vagy el akar itt hervadni az ostoba
azalékkal?
– Nem tudom!
Összeszorított ajakkal mondta; komolyan, néha türelmetlenül,
egyszer-egyszer mosolyogva, sőt némi kis kaczérsággal.
„Csak több regényt olvasott volna; az a baj, hogy alig olvasott
egy-kettőt!“ gondolta magában az immár nagyon vagyonos költő és
elhatározta magában, hogy majd visszaadja a leánynak a kölcsönt,
ha már egyszer a felesége lesz. Ettől a momentumtól azonban
távolabb volt, mint valaha, sőt sürgős és nagy veszedelem támadt
arra nézve, hogy Tündér Ilonát elveszik közvetetlenül az orra előtt. A
mint híre ment, hogy nagyban és komolyan udvarol a
kertészleánynak, a tóparti melegházat egyszerre udvarlók serege
lepte el, az öreg kertész nagy bosszúságára és a mamuska igaz
örömére, a ki lánya mellett, a míg mozdulatlanul trónolt a leanderek
között, mosolyogva, némán, állva, kötötte a fehér harisnyákat.
 VI.
Igazi szerelmes jelentkezett. A harmadik kérő, a betyár. Talán a
legszebb barna férfi, a ki a fekete magyar földön termett. Mindig
tüzes, mindig ingerült, minden perczben hajlandó valakit agyonütni,
vagy magát agyonüttetni egy nagylelkü fellobbanásában. Kalandos
természet, mint Dumas pére valamelyik legjobbik lovagja, a ki apai
örökét részint herczegek barátnéival, világra szóló szépségü
primadonnákkal, részint ragyás csapláros-lányokkal mulatta el.
Tartozott mindenkinek, de dúsgazdag anyjától nem kért és nem is
fogadott el egy krajczárt sem, inkább beállott czirkuszba lovásznak
és a mikor innen kitették a szűrét, elment egykori öregbéreséhez,
parasztruhát öltött, annak rendje és módja szerint vágta a rendet és
ha lovat venni bement a vásárra, nem ismerte meg az úri barátjait.
És hogy teljesen paraszterkölcsök szerint éljen, búcsúk alkalmával
verekedett, börtönben is ült, sőt a végén elvett egy czitromképü,
csitrihaju parasztlányt. Szegény asszony elhalt mellőle épp abban az
időben, a mikor nagyságos asszony lehetett volna, a mikor az ura
bronzszínü nyakába örökség útján megint egy óriási vagyon akadt.
A betyár – mert így hívták ezt az igazi nagyurat – minden
teketória nélkül el akarta vinni Tündér Ilonát. Az öregeknek szólt,
miután a leánynyal egyszer-kétszer beszélt:
– Adják ide. Soha egy korty bort nem iszom, ha ideadják.
Kártyához nem nyúlok. Adják nekem, ha nem adják, elraboltatom!
Félni lehetett tőle, hogy meg is valósítja fenyegetését.
Éjszakánként, régi parasztpajtásaival a kert körül czirkált. Egy holdas
estén be is mászott az udvarba, a hol Tündér Ilona egymagában
sétált, mert most, hogy a tavasz egészen kinyílt, nem tudott az
öregekkel egy időben lefeküdni.
 A lány nem ijedt meg tőle. Rászólt a komondorokra, hogy le ne
húzzák az éjjeli vendéget.
– Itt vagyok! szólt a betyár. Jösz-e velem?
– Nem!
– Miért nem!
– Mert nem szeretlek!
A férfi megfogta a leánynak mind a két kezét:
– Meghalsz akkor itten.
Ilona sikoltani akart, de nem tudott. A kutyák pedig ostoba
észszel alighanem szerelmi idillre gondoltak és diszkréten
hátravonultak.
Mélységes, édes és borzalmas csend.
– Te is meghalsz, én is! szólt a betyár úr újra és eleresztette a
Tündér Ilona holthideg kezeit. Az ott állott előtte, a holdfényben,
félig nyitott szemekkel. Az arcza, a nyitott melle oly fehér, egészen
egy szín fehér selyem éjjeli köntösével. Nem mozdult, nem élt.
– Mért nem szeretsz! mondd, suttogta gyűlöletteljes és kérlelő
szóval a férfi.
– Mert nem tudok szeretni! mondta lassan, tagolva, feltörő
könyek közepette a leány.
A betyár megrendült, csaknem arczára bukott. Aztán összeszedte
magát és elment arra, a merről jött. Ment, ment és újra nekivágott
még az éjjel a bor és szerelem tengerének.
 VII.
– Férjhez fogok menni! mondta Tündér Ilona másnap az ebédnél.
Az éjjeli kalandról nem szólt senkinek. Édes anyja és a költő
mégis megérezték, hogy történt vele valami és két napon át
gyanakodva figyelték. Az öreg asszony nem állhatta és úgy négy óra
felé hajnalban, a mikor rendszerint mind a ketten föl szoktak ébredni
és egy kicsinyt beszélgetni, megkérdezte:
– Valami bajod van? Férjhez akarsz menni? Talán már választottál
is?
– Semmi bajom, de férjhez menni csak kell. Mindenki férjhez
megy és a vén lány irtóztató. Csak tudnék választani. A kihez
elmennék szívesen, ahhoz nem mehetek! – Mélyen fölsóhajtott.
– Miért? ki az? Csak nem a király fia?
– Kint fekszik a kisasszony-temetőben.
Kevés vártatva azonban fölnevetett. A katonatiszt jutott egy
pillanatra az eszébe és hogy ehhez el lehetne menni. Mulatságos,
mókás, kómikus ember, nevetni lehetne rajta nagyokat. Színház
otthon és a katonabanda minden héten egyszer az ő ablakai alatt
játszsza a térzenét.
Majd az jutott eszébe, hogy megvalósítja régi tervét, utazni
megy, nyakába veszi az országot, sőt Bécsbe és Gráczba is elmegy –
férjet keresni. Mulattatta az ötlet, hogy maga jár a legény után és
addig jár, addig keres, a míg találkozik valakivel, a kit ő fog
megszólítani; ugyan kérem, legyen szíves, ha van egy kis ideje,
vegyen el engem!
Nem felelt többé az anyja szólongatásaira, úgy cselekedett,
mintha aludnék, pedig éppen csak annyi álom volt rajta, a mennyi
megihlette, hogy élénken, lágyan és sebesen folynak lelke képei.
A férjét kereste a férfiak roppant sokaságában, mezitláb, de
díszes kalapban járva az utczákon, a szalonokban. A kérői utána,
mint egy csomó csahos kutya, egyik apró udvarlójának, a tisztnek
két rattlere is ott ugrált-bugrált közöttök. Mindenféle emberekkel
megállott beszélgetni, magas katonatisztekkel, kerti
napszámosokkal, kopogtatott a czisztercziták klastromjának kis
kapuján, az öreg prior nyitotta ki és attól hirtelenében megkérdezte:
– Főur nem látta az uramat?
Álmában ahogy keresgélt, keresgélt, egyszerre előkerült a betyár,
derékon fogta és azt mondta: itt vagyok, én vagyok! Azzal
felhajintotta egy nagy szénásszekérre, a melybe egészen a szeméig
belesüppedt. Szédítően illatos friss széna volt, de a szekérnek nem
volt feneke és ő megint csak az utczán volt az ismerős férfiak
közepette, a kik nagyon nevettek, a míg meg nem pillantották, hogy
ime, a bástya felől gyors ügetésben jön a meghalt jogtanár. Szegény
Barcza mint közeledik feléjök, vetkeződni kezd, lehányja magáról a
testét, csontváz lesz és karjait kinyujtja feléje.
Ilona elpityeredett, de már az első könyek megszelidítették a
rémlátományokat és hajnali félálma egyszerre nagyon édes lett.
Tengerparton sétált – de ez a tenger inkább egy óriási metszett
tükörüveg volt – és a mint sétált az aranyporondon, egy fiatal
emberrel találkozott, a kinek czipője nem volt szintén, de kalapja
sem. Olyan szép volt férfinak, mint a milyen szép ő lánynak.
– Mi ketten összeillenénk! mondta a fiatal ember röviden.
– Ugy találja? Én is úgy gondolom.
– Járkáljunk mi igy mindig, hogy lássanak az emberek és az
égben lakó holdvilágok és egyéb csillagok. Legyünk férj és feleség és
ezért esküdjünk is meg egymással; az erdőben lakik egy remete, az
összead.
– Oh kérem, az érsek nekem igen jó emberem, csaknem atyám.
 – De az meghalt.
– Az igaz. De a gyűrűje itt van az ujjamon és én azt neked adom.
Ilona kinyitotta a szemeit: ő eminencziája gyűrűje szorította az
ujjacskáját, a mely az utóbbi időben teltebb lett, igen erősbödött…
Azonban megint behunyta szemét, hogy tovább sétáljon a furcsa
ruháju fiatal emberrel.
Most még éberebben álmodott, mint az imént. A tengerparti
ember alakja még világosabb lett, hasonlított egy igen erőteljes
leányhoz, vagy egy igen kifejlődött fiuhoz, a kinek sötétbarna arcza,
de szőke haja és kék szeme van. Kézen fogva mentek, helyesebben
lebegtek a tengerparton szorosan a víz mellett, néha a vizen is, de
csak lábuk ujja hegyével érintették a puha hullámokat. (Ezt meg
fogom próbálni a tavon, idehaza! gondolta magában Tündér Ilona.)
Nem igen beszélgettek, nézték egymást. „No, – mondta
egyszerre a tengerparti férfi – mi ugyan egymáshoz valók vagyunk,
nem vagyunk csókosok, nem is jó az, nem is kell az, bűnnek és
fájdalomnak fogantatása, jobb menni, menni, menni…“
Mind mentek az idők és a távolság végtelenjéig, oly hosszan, és
olyan sebesen, hogy a langyos, de friss szél, a mit alakjuk fölkeltett,
csaknem elaltatta, igazi álomba borította a leányt.
Az öreg asszony azonban kinyitotta a hálószoba ablakát, hogy
bevegye a mezei virágokat, a melyeket Mária havában két kispap
szedett neki. A virágok lassan lefeküdtek Ilona lábaihoz, de a májusi
reggel minden szemérem nélkül mohón és szerelmesen lopódzott
hozzá és álölelte szűz alakját. Ilona meg izgatottan és kéjelmetlenül
takarta be magát takarójába és csukott szemmel látta mint tesz-vesz
anyja, mint sugdos magában. Látta a fölszalagozott, de már hervadó
májfát is, a melyet ablaka elé állítottak a kertészlegények, a fa szent
napján még. A tengerparti legénynyel pedig még mind mentek, sőt a
legény fogadkozása ellenére hozzá-hozzányúlt, átfogta derekát. A
lány megborzadt.
 – Csukjátok be az ablakot, fázom! szólt, majd felült és reggelit
kért. Megreggelizett és folytatni akarta álmadozásait tovább, de
hiába erőltette, nem látott többé semmit és közönséges
gondolatoknál egyéb nem jutott az eszébe. Vikszolt pallót kivánt
magának, ha férjhez megy. Nagy politurozott bútorokat, a melyekbe
megláthassa ki-ki magát, oly fényes és tiszta legyen, mint a tükör.
Temérdek ruhát, sok kocsit, ezüst-szerszámos fekete lovakat. Az
emeletes nagy kőházon vaskapu, mindig zárva. A sok pénzét
odaadja az urának, nem, a szüleinek, azoknak sem, senkinek sem.
Beleteszi egy nagy aczélládába és nem ád belőle, legfölebb csak
szegény úri leányoknak, hogy ne járjanak tarka, czifra szegény
ruhában, mint a hogy a mesteremberlányok.
 VIII.
Ez egész napon át lágy és érzékeny volt Tündér Ilona. Nem
gőgösködött és nem adott, mint rendesen igen rövid feleleteket a
mind sürübben jelentkező udvarlóinak. Sőt estefelé, elment velök –
és anyjával – sétálni a szőllők felé, a Szépasszony-völgybe. A míg
idejártak, egy kis cseres erdőt is értek és Tündér Ilona nagyon örült
az erdőnek, otthon érezte magát annak komoly, de barátságos
homályában.
Előre ment egy agglegény ügyészszel, a ki – természetesen lovon
kísérte őket, de az erdő szélén kénytelen volt leszállani. A leány
bábrabló tűzszínü bogarakat és fehér czinczéreket fogatott az
ügyészszel, de a világért sem azért, hogy megalázza. A költő egy kis
jogászszal baktatott hátul, elkeseredve, dühvel már-már a
lemondásra gondolt. Inkább gyűlölte a leányt, mint szerette, ha
eléktelenedik, ha valami szerencsétlenség éri, nem sajnálta volna.
Mégis kitartott mellette, hogy elvegye, hogy megalázza.
A rendes körülmények között okos, sőt finom elméjü férfi a
legostobább bosszúterveken kovácsolt. Hogy elveszi, aztán elválik
tőle, mondván: „Elvettelek s nem szeretlek, elmehetsz!“ Vagy: „ime,
együtt vagyunk végre, egyedül. Kedvesem, tartozom önnek egy
magyarázattal: Ön szép és tiszta mint ha a Mont-Blanc haván egy
rózsa, egy souvenier de malmaison nőlne. Azonban, kedvesem,
nekem a pénze kellett, őszintén megvallva azt ambiczionáltam, hogy
főpap bátyám vagyonát egy masszába, együtt lássam, az én
kezemben. Nekem terveim és czéljaim vannak, a melyeket önnek el
nem mondok, mert ön meg nem értené… Együtt maradhat velem, a
világ előtt, de kedvesem, én nem maradok önnel együtt!“
Majd meg elült benne a bosszú és az elérhetetlen beteges
imádata támadt föl. Féltette a leányt, a ki a legkevésbbé sem volt az
övé. Nagyszerü szerelmi vallomásokat, szédítő beszédeket eszelt ki
magában. Egész tudását megforgatta, hogy keresse az okokat, a
mikért leányok szívében szerelem ébredt. Shakespearetől kért
tanácsot és szinte megőrült, a mint látta, csaknem megfoghatta a
kezével az Othello szerelmének a történetét. Desdemona szánta a
mórt, itt kezdődött.
„Részvétet kell benne keltenem!“ így végezte magában. „A
dicsőség, a nagyság, a gazdagság nem iponál neki, oly romlatlan,
vagy oly romlott! Tehát szánalmas leszek!“ Annyira belemerült ebbe
a tervbe, hogy Ilonát alig látta ez estén, csak a mikor a melegház
kapujában búcsuzkodniok kellett.
Hosszasan búcsuzkodtak, mert ritka szelíd és világos este volt.
Érzéssel, igérettel, reménynyel teli ég, még az Ilona lelke is
megremegett belé és a míg a férfiaknak kezet adott, arra gondolt,
hogy mért nincs neki egy leánybarátnője, a kivel kéz kézen fogva
sétálhatna az üvegházban. Egy szőkehaju leány, fehér, de
feketeszemű, vidám is, sírós is, pajzán és egyszersmind szelíd.
Levetnék a vállfűzőt, bő battisztpongyolát öltenének magukra,
olyant, a milyenben a szent-asszony szobrokat öltöztetik a
templomok terraszán. Egymást öltöztetnék, virágot tűznének egymás
hajába, így hízelegnének egymásnak egész éjszakán.
A költő kibőjtölte a többit, ő maradt utoljára. Hosszan tartotta a
leány kezét a kezében:
– Isten vele Ilona, engem pedig soha többé nem lát! mondta
tréfásan.
– Tehát holnap reggelig, a viszontlátásra! Jőjjön el, korán jőjjön.
Meg fogom mondani, hogy elmegyek-e magához. Ma többször arra
gondoltam, hogy mégis elmegyek. És mért ne mennék? Magától
legalább nem félek. Az egyetlen férfi, a ki nem ijeszt rám és nem,
nem, hogy is mondjam, a ki nem utálatos… Ha maga lány volna,
tudnám magát szeretni is. Tudja mit, igérje meg, hogy levéteti a
bajuszát, nem mindjárt, akkor, ha –
 Tréfált is, komolyan is beszélt, de oly gyorsan, ahogy csak ő
tudott, nem lehetett megállítani. Az iró kezét szorongatva,
meglepődötten hallgatott. Ilona tovább darált:
– A férfikalap magának rosszul áll; van egy boleróm, pipacsokkal,
az állana magának jól. Ostobaság, hogy a férfiak mind elcsúfitják
magukat ezzel a fekete filczczel… Nézze, hogy les a mamám;
biztosan nagyon örül, mert magával beszélgetek, szerelmes magába.
Illik is, hogy magához menjek feleségül. Fog-e vinni engem bálokba?
a kivágott ruhákat igen szeretem látni. Apám is boldog lesz, mind
imádják magát. És a végén talán nekem is jut egy kis boldogság. A
megboldogult érsek úr gyűrűje kicsiny már az ujjamra; s férjhez kell
menni. Milyen, milyen éj!
– Szeret egy kicsinyt? kérdé a költő nekibátorodva, mindjárt
hatalmaskodva, élesen.
– Egy kicsinyt, talán! suttogta Ilona, befutott és maga után a kis
kaput becsapta.
A költő egy darabig ott maradt, aztán halk énekszóval hazafelé
indult volna, a mikor a puha porban egy csukott batár gördült feléje,
a lovak megálltak a kertész háza előtt és majd letiporták.
Ösztönszerű gyűlölettel fordult a férfi felé, a ki a batárból kilépett.
Valami gonosz sejtelem azt súgta neki, hogy íme, hirtelen
megérkezett, a ki mindjárt elrontja csaknem teljessé lett diadalát.
Hogy jön egy igazi férfi, különb, mint ő.
Egy öreg úr volt. Magas, hajlott egy kissé, de erőteljes. Fehér
szakállából és dús hó-szín hajából arcza kipiroslott. Talpig gyászban,
de zerge-szőrös kis vadászkalapban. Botjával megkopogtatta a
kaput:
– Hé, kertész, kertész! kiabálta.
Benső megvetéssel nézték egymást a költővel, a ki újra
belefogott az áriába és nyugodtan sietett hazafelé.
 IX.
Gyászkoszorukat rendelt és a halottas szoba számára vagy tíz
nagy pálmát kért kölcsön Simon gróf, azért jött. A felesége kiterítve
feküdt, meghalt hatvanéves korában, áldozata egy negyvenhárom
évig tartó betegségnek, a melynek neve azonban nincs benne az
orvosi könyvekben. Egy félszázadon át tűrte, nyögte a legiszonyúbb
megaláztatást, az ura minden héten legalább egyszer el akart tőle
válni, mert a szegény asszonynak nem volt gyermeke. Nagyon is
nemes családból származott, apja is egyetlen gyerek volt már, ő is
egyetlen, véletlen, alig tudták életben tartani, alig hogy élt. Mégis
csaknem ötven esztendeig tartott ki az ura mellett, a kitől ha
egyszer-egyszer elment, megszégyenülve tért vissza, halálos
félelemben annak brutalitásától. Lenyugodva, örök rabbá téve,
imádkozott és gyüjtött, – senkiért, senkinek. El nem válhattak, mert
igen buzgó katolikusok voltak. Simon gróf egyszer magával ő
szentségével is beszélt erről, nagy ajándékokat küldött a kúriának,
de az asszony családja már előbb imformálta a pápát és
megszégyenülve kellett visszatérnie a feleségéhez.
Most feloldották a házasságot ott, a hol kötötték. Csakhogy
Simon gróf aggastyán lett, a mig kivárta. Megőszült, elkeseredett,
már húsz esztendeje nem lőtt agyon véletlenül senkit, sem vadászt,
sem bérest. Sőt visszavonult a politikai pályától, letette mandátumát
és nagynéha szerepelt a felsőházban, pénzügyi kérdésekbe szólt
belé, hogy takarékosságra intse a nemzetet. Ő maga oly takarékos,
gondos és tiszta volt, mint egy hód. Egyetlen latifundiummá szerette
volna átalakítani az egész Magyarországot, a Hunyadiak előtt való
korban ez talán sikerült is volna neki, de most csak azt tudta
megtenni, hogy megötszöröztette azt, a mit mint majorátus örökölt.
Kezelt a zsidóval, de kihasználta, ő rajta nem lehetett nyerni, csak ő
nyerhetett. Szerette és becsülte a parasztot, mint földjeinek föltünő
investiczióját, de ha csak módját ejthette, a szegény községek
határából el-elfoglalt, ha többet nem, néhány szekérnyomot.
Büszkébb volt, mint egy örökös király és a hölgyek kegyeit nem
ajándékkal szerezte meg, hanem mert imponált nekik, mint egy
zordon, pusztai Napoleon. Nem mertek ellentmondani,
meghunyászkodtak előtte, ha bozontos szemöldökei alól szurok-szín
szemeivel rájuk nézett. A míg meg nem őszült, réme volt a vidéki
férjeknek és egyszer a maga parasztjai rohantak rá vasvillával. A
legbőszebbet, a legjobban megalázottat, a csahost arczul ütötte és
így maradt sértetlen közöttük. Öreg korában kevésbbé imponált már,
de ravaszsággal pótolta a fiatalságot. Különben is az őserő, a mely
benne lakozott, frissen megmaradt, csak fejére, mint hegyek
sziklacsúcsára lehull a hó, ült le az ősz ezüst szine.
Tegezett mindenkit. Tegezte a kertészt is, a ki álmosan
szolgálatjára állott, tegezte az öregasszonyt is, a ki mindjárt ott
termett – kezében a nagy fehér harisnyakötéssel – az ura mellett.
A lármára, mert Simon gróf lármázva beszélt, Ilona is bejött az
udvarról.
Leült és beszélgetett velök. Egészen másképp beszélgetett, mint
mindenki más, a kit Ilona eddig csak ismert. Nagy fensőséggel, rá se
nézve arra, a kihez szól.
„Istenem egy gróf? Tehát ilyenek,“ gondolta magában Tündér
Ilona és úgy nézett a vén oligarchára, mint egy eddig soha nem
látott, ismeretlen állatfajtára. A szemei villogtak, a fogai épek voltak
az aggastyánnak hangja erős és friss, mint egy fiatal ispáné, a ki a
mezőn nagy távolságokra szokott beszélni. „Szép öreg úr!“ gondolta
a leány és meglepődve, nyitott ajkakkal hallgatta, a mint Simon gróf
feleségéről beszélt, mély tisztelettel, de részvétlenül, akárha egy
szentté kanonizált herczegnőről beszélne, a ki előtte négy-öt
századdal élt:
– A grófné megpihent. Két napig élt még, miután a szentségeket
fölvette. Félkörben kell fölállítani a pálmákat. Lakik itt valami
gyertyamártó? Nincs itt semmi. Bécsbe sürgönyözni már késő. A
káptalannak talán vannak fáklyái. Aztán szép koszorút kössetek, kis
lányom. A grófnénak egy elefántcsont imakönyvét majd egyszer
elhozom neked. Évek óta nem voltam már ebben a sárfészekben, hol
lehet itt valamit enni.
Megmarasztották. Igen jóizüt evett és vacsora után beszélgetett
a forradalomról, a melynek első felében igen tevékeny részt vett, sok
németet sajátkezüleg megölt, aztán, miután látta, hogy az egész
dolognak nem lesz jó vége, visszavonult.
Nemcsak ő, de a kertész családja is elfeledte, hogy ennek az
embernek ezalatt valamely kastély bolthajtásos nagy ebédlőjében
egyedül fekszik a felesége holtan. Stearin gyertyák lángja virraszt
fölötte, lassú, egyhangu serczegéssel.
– A ki úr, az csak úr! mondta a kertész, miután Simon gróf elment
és a szokásos asztali imát sietve elmondták.
Az öregek álmosak voltak, de a leány tudta, hogy a szemét se
fogja behunyni az éjjel; mindig így volt, ha a rendes időn túl feküdt
le. Örvendett ennek, legalább gondolkodhatott a tengerparti
ismeretlenről, a költőnek adott igéretéről, a grófnéról, a ki a
gyönyörü kastélyban fekszik. Az ébren való álmodozás vége az lett,
hogy félni kezdett, valósággal a hideg lelte.
Egy pillanatra, hogy elaludt, egész világosan hallotta, a mint a
grófasszony így szólt hozzá: „Unom egyedül menni a másvilágra.
Leányom, gyere velem, de vedd föl elébb a legszebb báliruhádat!“
Gyertyát gyujtottak, mint az utóbbi időben igen gyakran, az öreg
asszony egy kis szenteltvízzel megkente a leánya, aztán a maga
homlokát. És a mikor a leányon lassú sírás vett erőt, felköltötte urát
is. Hárman virrasztottak, a félelem ismeretlen és oktalan érzésétől
eltelve, a míg reggel nem lett. Ilona csak akkor aludt el, a mikor kint
a munkára menő parasztlányok nagy elbúsulással és végtelen
elnyujtásokkal énekeltek egy alapjában vídám dalt. Délfelé ébredt. A
melegházban a költő már várt reá.
 – Hagyjon nekem békét! mondta ingerülten és ott hagyta.
– Vissza fogok jönni; felelte az ingerülten és elment. Napokig
nem mutatkozott. Írt, de nem feleltek leveleire. Ilona egyáltalán
elhanyagolta az udvarlóit az utolsó időben.
 X.
Vagy két hét múlván Simon gróf jött meg, a felesége imakönyvét
elhozta Tündér Ilonának.
Átadta az imádságos könyvet, de nem tartott hozzá semmiféle
szónoklatot. Egyáltalán nem igen barátkozott Ilonával, inkább az
öregekkel, különösen a kertészszel, a kivel a legfőbb dolgokban egy
hitet vallottak. A maguk módja szerint mindaketten, az örök úr, az
örök szolga is, nagy ellenségei voltak a czivilizácziónak s különösen
annak, hogy a parasztokat a katonaságnál megtanítják írni és
olvasni, a hol három ház van, oda iskolát építenek és a raboknak
húst ad enni a megye.
Együtt csibukoztak, a kertész ibolyadohányát szítták. A meleg
nyári délutánokon órákig elültek a szőllő-lugasban, szigorúan
bírálván a dologtalan világot. Ilona szerette őket hallgatni, az
udvarlói elül is elszökött, hogy társaságukban lehessen, ámbár a
férfiak csak annyit törődtek vele, hogy a nagyobbszabású
gorombaságok felét elköhögték. Simon gróf néha megsimogatta a
leány haját, mely az utolsó időben egyszerre rohamosan kezdett
megint nőlni, növekedni, valamint kint a mező a nyár elei sűrű és
friss eső után. Ha kontyba tűzte, a feje fájt tőle, kénytelen volt
leeresztve viselni, gyöngén befonva. Csakhogy a fonás elől mindjárt
föloldódott, örökösen igazgatnia kellett. Szinte haragudott a hajára,
veszekedett vele, rémítgette, hogy lenyírja tőből. Simon gróf
békítgette:
– Hadd el lányom, majd megritkul, majd megőszül.
Tündér Ilona csudálkozva nézett az öreg oligarkára. Soha sem
gondolt még a maga öregségére, el sem is tudta képzelni.
– Bár olyan fehér lenne a hajam, mint a kegyelmes uré; az szép!
jegyezte meg minden kaczérság nélkül.
 Négy nagy fehér bárányt hozott neki a gróf legközelebb. A
szíjgyártójával szerszámot, a faragójával kis kocsit csináltatott hozzá.
– A multkori hízelgésedért szólt, a mikor átadta. És a
bárányfogatba beleültete Ilonát, a ki komolyan és boldogan
kocsikázott az udvaron. Ő hajtott, a gróf kommandirozott, az öregek
könnyes szemmel nézték, megfogták egymás kezét, az aszszony
még a kötését is elejtette, soha se hitték volna, hogy ily boldogok
legyenek.
Ilona kezet csókolt Simon grófnak. Az meg állát gyengéden
megfogva, megcsókolta először nyakát, aztán a homlokát:
– Te vagy az én szerelmes lányom, a kiben nekem kedvem telik!
mondá tréfásan és gyengéden magához ölelte. Aztán az öregekhez
fordult és gratulált nekik gyermekükhöz.
– Önök boldogok – szólt egyszerre magázva őket – mert a világ
első leánya a maguké. Ha az enyém lenne, ha nekem volna ilyen…
De már elkivánkozik itthonról, kinőtt a cserépből a mi
tubarózsánk, ki kell ültetni! jajgatott tréfásan a kertész. Ebből az
alkalomból nagyon leszólták a mai fiatalságot. Ilona segített az
öregeknek. Nagyon megértették egymást így négyecskén. A
kegyelmes úrnak temérdek jó viczcze volt, az ajándékozásban pedig
éppen páratlan. A néhai grófnénak drága régi csipkéit lassanként
mind elhozogatta Ilonának, kisebb ékszereit, a filigrán agrafokat, egy
ezüstbe foglalt fekete köves egész garniturát, sőt azt a türkizes, apró
gyémántos diadémot is, a melyet a szegény asszony pártának és
akkor viselt, a mikor még boldog leány volt – és a grófnak annyira
tetszett. Idekerült, a kertészlakba hozták a néhai két hátaslovát is,
egy csillagos homloku szelid sárga mént s egy hetyke vasderest, a
melyeken a néhai nem ült soha és a melyek nem voltak befogva
soha, csak egyszer, akkor, a mikor úrnőjükkel kivágtattak keő-
tárkányi családi sírbolthoz.
Az öreg asszony egy kissé megsokalta a kegyelmes úr nagy
bőkezűségét és gyanakodva nézegetett rá, de meg-megnyugodott, a
mint látta, hogy mily kitüntető és erős barátsággal ragaszkodik az az
ő urához, a kit sohse látott még ily boldognak, büszkének és
tisztának. Kemény, nagy galléru ingeket kezdett a kertész viselni, sőt
nyakravalókat is vásárolt. És éjjeleken negyven éve hallott, ok nélkül
való sóhajtásait abban hagyta, ellenkezőleg föl-föl nevetett.
Veszekedni nem lehetett vele, a hátaslovakat – Citromot és Violát –
fehér czukorral étette, gazsulált nekik és mélyen sajnálta, hogy ily úri
lovak létére a földön szalmán kell hálniok.
Nagy készülődések után Ilona a sárgára rá is ült, lovagolni tanult.
A gróf megigérte, hogy lengyel lovászmesterét mindennap beküldi,
hogy tanítsa, de gondolt egyet és maga járt benne. Egy hét mulván
már lóháton együtt mehettek ki Simon-faluba, a hová legelőször
vacsorára voltak hivatalosak. Az öregek hintón mentek utánuk.
Elkerülték a várost, a kertész nagy szomorúságára és nem az
országúton, hanem az érsekség és a gróf földjén átvágva értek a
kastély elé.
A rengeteg udvarban halotti csend. Sehol egy parasztgyerek,
még csak egy kutya se. A cselédházak ablakai sötétek, az asszonyok
lefeküdtek a tyúkokkal – az volt itt a rend – a férfiak meg ilyenkor
kint hálnak a tanyákon. Óriási szalmakazalok hegylánczai beláthatlan
messzeségben. Egy eltévedt és kizárt csirke mozgolódott nagy
félénken valamelyiknek a tövében. Ez az egyetlen mozgás.
De a kastély száz ablaka kivilágitva. Két gyászruhás inas termett
elő.
„Mily gyönyörű mindez!“ gondolta magában Tündér Ilona, a ki ez
ünnepies fehér estén úgy érezte, mintha valami nagy, eddig
ismeretlen szent ünnep volna és ő ennek a középpontja.
Hetet harangoztak a kastélykápolnában. Mindjárt odamentek
imádkozni. Egy fiatal pap, a ki a templomnak is beillő kápolnában
egyes egyedül volt és magának orgonázott, félénken nézett a
vendégekre, egy pillanatra abbanhagyta az éneket, nézte a jelenést,
aztán folytatta még nagyobb áhítattal.
 Mindnyájan meghajoltak az oltár előtt, letérdepeltek, imádkoztak.
Simon gróf aztán kézen fogta Tündér Ilonát és odavitte egy piros
bársony karosszékhez, a melyre a néhai grófné czímere és nevének
kezdőbetüje volt kihimezve.
– Ülj le, lányom! mondá. Ez a szék a tied!
Jó félóráíg üldögéltek a templomban, beszélni csak Simon mert, ő
is csak néhány szót, halkan. Ilona édesdeden imádkozott: az érsek
úr nyugodalmáért, apjáért, anyjáért, a jó és kedves öreg grófért,
valamint azért a szegény asszonyért, a kinek a székében ül.
Templom után mindjárt az ebédlőbe mentek. A nagy ebédlőben
volt terítve, abban, a mely valami kevéssel még nagyobb volt, mint a
kápolna. Három bizantinus kereszt-luszterben száz-száz viaszgyertya
égett. A rengeteg teremben visszhangos csend, csak úgy dörgött, a
mikor a házigazda erős hangjával fölverte.
A kertészcsalád úgy érezte, mintha itt valami mesébe kerültek
volna; a fölszolgáló lelkek némák voltak, nesztelenül jártak-keltek,
nem feleltek, pedig az egyiket kétszer is megkérdezte a kertész,
hogy hová való. Ilona azonban otthonosan és jól érezte magát, egy
trónus-módjára készült karosszékben ült ismét, azon, a melyen a
néhai grófné trónolt szegény – egyedül, magának. A támlány
monogrammja friss volt, a leány megnézte a szép kézimunkát és
csudálkozva látta, hogy a czímer helyett a pajzsra három arany
kereszt van himezve.
Nagyon közönyös dolgokról beszélgettek. Lovakról, a jó és rossz
pinczéről, a zongorázásáról, nyitott tűzhelyekről, a vad különféle
készítésmódjairól, a takarékpénztárak hunczfutságairól.
Ilona mindezt figyelemmel hallgatta, maga is tett egy-egy, mindig
korrekt megjegyzést, de voltaképpen csak Simon gróf beszélt,
döntött, itélt, kinyilatkoztatott, mint mindig és mindenütt. Vacsora
után szétnéztek a kastélyban, a mely nappal is rengteg nagy volt,
hát még éjjel. Végtelennek, kiismerhetetlennek tetszett a leány
szemében, nagyszerűnek, de egyszersmind igen kedvesnek is. A
tisztaságtól ragyogott minden, a csigalépcsők, a fülkék is. Minden
régi volt, de minden oly kitünően konzervált, mind maga az úr, a ki
aggastyán létére fürgén járt előttük, a háromszáz s nehány éves ház
történetét magyarázta és előadta, hogy miféle praktikus és szép
változtatásokat akar még itt tenni, egy félszeg szárnyat, a mely a
dombra futván, megszakad, mint akar kiépiteni. Egy nagy üvegfalu
asszony-szalon lesz csak benne, Mária-Antoniette korabeli.
– Kinek? kérdezte az öreg asszony vigyázatlanul.
Simon gróf nem felelt. Fölvitte őket egy terrászra pihenni. Innen
be lehetet látni az egész környéket, az északról sűrű erdővel kerített,
délről beláthatatlan búzatengerrel beszegett Mátraalját.
– Ez az én világom! szólt Simon gróf megelégedetten. A
vendégek tágra nyílt szemmel nézték e világot, majd akaratlanul,
lopva e világ urára néztek és ebben a pillanatban bizonyára jobban
imponált nekik, mint valaha. Mind, mind az övé: a beláthatatlan
messzeség, az este, az ég, a cserek és rózsák illata, a csillagok, az
állatok, a melyeknek melankólikus hangja hallatszott…
Az öregek leültek hátul, fáztak is, féltek is talán. Ilona elül állott
az úrral, a ki érdes nagy kezében fogva tartotta síma kis kezét.
Magyarázott, majd elcsöndesedett. Némán állottak egymás mellett.
Most valami hideg szél kerekedett az erdők felől. Ilona összeborzadt,
de nem akarta elismerni, maradni akart.
– Olyan jó itt! szólt halkan. – Szeretnék itt maradni.
– Rajtad áll, hogy itt maradj, velem. A feleségem, a leányom, az
unokám. Asszonyom és az örökösöm, ha behunyom a szemem!
mondá az aggastyán keményen és oly erősen, hogy az öregek
meghallották volna, ha a szél el nem viszi a hangot az erdő felé.
Maga Ilona sem hallotta egész tisztán, de megértette, ismételte a
kérdést:
– A lánya, a felesége, oh kegyelmes uram! Nem vagyok méltó
hozzá.
 – Azt hiszed, hogy öreg vagyok! folytatá Simon gróf komoran.
Nem vagyok az. Vagy az vagyok, legyek az. Már én innen nemsokára
elmegyek és mindent itthagyok. Légy velem, a míg elmenőben
vagyok, egy-két év, neked semmi, nekem minden. Egyet borzongsz,
aztán tovább mégysz, vagy itt maradsz és várod…
Nem lehetett befejeznie. A kertészék mozgolódtak, az öreg
asszony félt, hogy Ilonka megfázik. Éppen csak megkérdhette a
könyes szemü leánytól:
– Akarsz-e? gyere, az apád leszek, ha akarod, az urad is, gondold
meg. Vagy minek gondolod; mondd mindjárt.
– Akarok! szólt Tündér Ilona minden gondolkodás nélkül,
daczosan nézve a fehér estébe, az ezüst csillagokba, mintha azok
ellenére cselekednék, mintha azok mondtak volna valamit.
 XI.
Elvitte, mint egy öreg faun a fiatal nimphát, a kit más, sok,
fiatalabb faunok üldözése elfárasztott, megzsibbasztott, elaltatott. A
bronzszínü bikanyakra rátette hó-szín karját, fáradtan leeresztette, a
mi olybá tetszett, mintha megölelte volna. A faun kenetteljes
vicsorgással nézett a tündérleány arczába, a ki gyengén
visszamosolygott reá, de nem a szemeivel, a melyek lecsukódtak,
hanem a fogaival, melyek kivillogtak nyitott ajkai közül.
Ebben az időben szüretelték a földet mindenfelé a jó isten által
külön is kitüntetett latifundiumon. Ily roppant áldás egy emberöltője
nem volt már ezen a vidéken, nem is arattak, szüreteltek. Oly sok,
sűrű és nagy volt a kalász, hogy a kipergett mag rétegekben födte a
tarlót, föl lehetett szedni, zsákokba tölteni. De azért vagy ötven
gőzcséplőnek akadt dolga; füstjök és búgásuk beláthatlan
messzeségben betöltötte az édes őszi tájat. A szőllő még csak most
érett, bor nem volt egy csepp se, sehol, de a Simon kastély körül
mértföldnyi területen mámoros volt mindenki, az öröm, hogy a föld
ily bőkezü, részeggé tette még a napszámos marokszedő leányokat
is.
Vad erővel szorította magához Simon gróf a feleségét, mások
előtt, mindjárt a templomból a kastélyba tértek. Tündér Ilona
rémülten nézett körül segítségért. Apja volt mellette félbolondan a
boldogságtól, anyja, a ki az utóbbi hetekben minden emberi akcziót
abbanhagyott és csak sírt, sírt csendesen, folyton, anélkül, hogy meg
lehetett volna tudni tőle: az öröm vagy a bánat miatt kesereg-e?
Csak egyszer emlegette az érsek gyűrűjét, de nem lehetett
megérteni, hogy mit példáz, ha csak abból nem, hogy a gyűrűvel
összefüggésben a kegyelmes úr előtt a fiatalságot dícsérte, az
öregséget szidta, sőt burkoltan azt is megkérdezte, hogy a
kegyelmes úr mikor szándékozik meghalni?
 A Simon gróf családjának egy-két férfitagja volt még a nász
menetben. Azonfelül a Tündér Ilona tanui, a költő, és a lovak
barátja, az ügyész. A katonatiszt egy őszi hadgyakorlaton volt, nem
kapott szabadságot. Mindnyájan rendkívül meg voltak hatva, az
oligarcha oly vídám és barátságos volt, mint egy alapos szerelmi
igéretet kapott, és ezért már jó előre becsípett kadét. Ajándékozott,
testált, igért, össze-vissza csókolta a kertészpárt és kis gyermekkora
óta talán először feledkezett meg arról, hogy örökös főispán, örökös
főrendiházi tag, a császár örökös titkos tanácsosa, egy örökös család
első szülött tagja, a milyen nem volt, nincs és nem lesz többé a
világon, sem a földön, sem a mennyek országában. A szertelen nagy
boldogság tüzében meglágyult. Íme: őt szolgálják a föld, az ég,
minden úgy történik, a hogy akarja, a mint álmodta, parancsolta.
Leültek a reggelihez és úgy magához ölelte Tündér Ilonát, hogy
az gyengén felsikoltott, elhalaványodott és könyes szemeit kérőleg
emelte anyjára. Komor és kényelmetlen érzés támadt az asztalnál. A
költő arra gondolt, hogy legjobb lenne az öreget itt becsületes
párbajban megölni, meg is lehetne tenni, ma, még napnyugta előtt.
De félős, sőt csaknem bizonyos, hogy nem hagy az magára úgy lőni,
hogy vissza ne lőjjön. El is állott hamar e tervtől és minden reményét
egy várható szélhűdésre építette. Akkor, igen akkor; az asszony még
kinevelődik ebben az előkelő környezetben és czímmel, ranggal és
óriási vagyonnal lehet fölvinni Budapestre. A költőnek fegyelmezett
képzelő tehetsége volt s ez nagy hasznára szolgált. Az ügyész azt
forgatta elméjében, hogy a törvényeknek meg kellene tiltaniok az
ilyen házasságokat. Apa mérgesen nézett húzódó leányára, az anya
pedig szerette volna az ölébe kapni és futni, futni vele, a míg valami
védelemre, egy erős és fiatal emberre talál, akárki legyen is…
Tündér Ilona mohón evett, mert tegnap este óta éheznie kellett.
Mosolygott az urára, alig szólott pár szót, csak a mikor az utolsó
fogás után az ebédutáni imádságot elmondták, fogta el valami,
szinte leküzdhetetlen vágy: futni, futni innen, el az anyjával, egy
sereg fiatal leány közé, a kik elfödik a szoknyájukkal, elrejtik maguk
között, úgy eldugják, hogy az ura hiába keresi, nem találja.
 Az utolsó perczek úgy folytak le, hogy alig tudta, mi történik.
Színes árnyjáték körülötte és ő is mozgott benne, színes árny. Ölelt,
kezet csókolt, kezet csókoltak neki. Hangos sírás verte föl az ebédlőt,
majd a folyosót; az ő sírása is belevegyült e hangba. Fekete lovak
ficzánkoltak a kastély előtt, az egyik nyerített, a csikóját hívta, a
kocsis végigvágott rajta. Robogás, csikordul a kulcs a nagy
vasajtóban, csend.
Csend és éjjel. Az egymásba nyiló termekben a lakájok oltogatták
a gyertyákat és kinyitották az ablakokat. Vihar gyött, estve lett, egy
csillag se fénylett. Még a Vénusz sem, pedig minden valószínüség
szerint ezen lakott az a mindenható némber, avagy gyerek. Nem,
mindenesetre asszonyi erő volt, melynek tetszett egy virágot ültetni
és fölnevelni a földön és annak leányalakot adni. Hadd lám, mi
történik vele, hogyan ültetik át, mint akarnak homolítani belőle
erőnek erejével embert, mint csókolják erőnek erejével kelyhét, a
mely visszacsókolni nem tud. Nem tud semmit, csak hogy szép
legyen, nincs hivatva másra, csak hogy dísz legyen siralmaitok sötét
völgyében. Egy szál virág és nincs tovább.
Simon gróf megállott a felesége előtt:
– Én vagyok a te urad; érted-e? Az enyém vagy, mintahogy
enyém a kezem. Örökre az enyém vagy. Az én rabom, az én kis
bárányom. A másvilágon is az enyém. Egy koporsóban fogunk hálni,
ha meghalunk. Nézz meg engem, én nem vagyok öreg. Olyan fiatal
vagyok, a milyen akarok. Nagyon sokáig fogunk élni és szép
gyermekeink lesznek. Akarsz-e csillagkeresztes lenni; ha ambiczióid
vannak, szólj. Herczegnő lehetsz, a melyik napon akarsz. De azt
gondolom én, maradjunk meg így. Vágyakozol az udvarhoz?
Hagyjad, most nincs, miért. Itt fogunk élni csöndesen.
Engedelmességgel tartozol. Ha akarom, én megölhetlek téged. Mert
szeretned kell engem, ez a te kötelességed. Csókolj meg,
parancsolom!
A leány lehajtott fővel hallgatta a vad és kiméletlen szavakat és
megcsókolta a férfi kezét.
 A komorna állott az ajtóban. Már csengettek érte, de látta, hogy
korán jött, visszahúzódott az ajtóban. A hosszu, szikár nőszemély,
ugyanaz, a ki a néhai kegyelmes asszony szemeit befogta,
szolgálatjára állott Tündér Ilonának. Ezüst gyertyatartó a kezében,
világított és ment előre, hogy szobájába vezesse és levetkőztesse a
grófnét.
 XII.
Karonfogvást, szótlanul járkáltak a kertben. A grófnak kevés
mondanivalója volt, elveit, tapasztalatait jórészt elmondotta már.
Egész életében három-négy szépirodalmi könyvet olvasott és
fantáziája nem volt semmi. A gazdasági témák, látta, hogy Ilonát
végképp elszomorítják, hagyta hát azokat is és így beszédtárgya
nem maradt csak egy, az, hogy mily nagy szerencse egy fiatal
leányra nézve, ha egy öreg kegyelmes úrhoz mehet férjhez. A
kegyelmes asszony hallgatta ezt csendesen, sőt némi részt el is hitte,
hinnie kellett, mert különben nem jött volna ide és nem maradna itt
így, lelkének harmoniájában, megzavarva, kábultan azt érezve,
mintha megalázták s megverték volna.
Engedelmesen felelt a kérdésekre, egyet-mást kérdezett ő maga
is. Mosolygott a hízelgésekre, a templomi tisztelet, a melylyel a nagy
cselédség körülvette: fáradt és fázós lelkét meg is melegítette egy-
egy pillanatra. Néha felocsudott, különösen napnyugtakor, a mikor
egyedül maradt, a kegyelmes úr a tisztjeit számoltatta. Kinézett az
ablakon és látta, hogy az este lila párázatában az ég összefolyt a
földdel egy határozatlan tengerré. Őszi napfény ragyogása könnyü
hullámokat vert a tengeren és ideszállott, ezen himbálódzott az
összetört tündérasszony, tárgytalan, szem nélkül való, oktalan és
czéltalan szerelemben. Ébredt: régi álmaiban és így talált magára.
Összerázkódott, gondolkozott:
„Ki vagyok én? Mi voltam én? Most grófné vagyok. Egy meghalt
és én jöttem. Ez a házasélet, a melyben most élek. Ezek a szerelmes
hetek!“
Irtózat fogta el. Gyűlölet a szerelem ellen. Mint az első napon,
megint csak menekülni szeretett volna ismeretlen leánypajtások
közé.
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