UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services

ate Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

QUALITY CONTROL ➢ Reliability indicates how consistently a product or service performs as expected
without failure.

➢ A reliable product works consistently without unexpected breakdowns or

Chapter-1| Quality Control Fundamentals
defects.
Quality refers to the standard or level of excellence of a product, service, or process. It ➢ Example: A washing machine that operates smoothly with few or no repairs
encompasses various attributes that determine its ability to meet the desired requirements, needed over a long period.
expectations, and specifications. Quality is often subjective, but it generally represents the
e) Aesthetics:
overall characteristics that make something function effectively, be reliable, and be valuable.
➢ Aesthetics are the visual, tactile, and sensory aspects of a product, such as its
1.1 Characteristics of Quality:
design, appearance, and feel.
a) Conformance to Standards or Specifications:
➢ This characteristic pertains to how the product appeals to the senses, creating a
➢ A product or service is considered high-quality if it adheres to predefined positive user experience.
standards, specifications, or regulatory guidelines. This ensures uniformity,
➢ Example: A well-designed, visually appealing smartphone with a sleek body and
consistency, and reliability.
comfortable texture.
➢ Example: A car with precise engine tolerances that operate within the
f) Features:
manufacturer's guidelines.
➢ The set of additional attributes or functionalities that enhance the basic
b) Performance:
performance of a product or service.
➢ The functionality and performance of the product or service in fulfilling its
➢ Features increase the perceived value of the product.
intended purpose.
➢ Example: A television with 4K resolution, smart capabilities, and voice control.
➢ High performance means the product meets or exceeds the expectations set for
g) Ease of Use:
it.
➢ Refers to how easy and intuitive it is for customers to interact with a product or
➢ Example: A smartphone that functions quickly, has minimal lag, and supports all
service.
features effectively.
➢ A product that is simple to use, with a clear user interface or instructions, is
c) Durability:
considered higher quality.
➢ Durability refers to the longevity and endurance of a product over time and under
➢ Example: A website with an easy-to-navigate interface and intuitive design.
different conditions of use.
h) Consistency:
➢ A durable product retains its performance and appearance even after extensive
use. ➢ This refers to the ability to produce the same high standard of output every time
the product or service is used or delivered.
➢ Example: A pair of hiking boots that last for many years without deterioration.
➢ Consistency assures users that they will get the same level of quality repeatedly.
d) Reliability:

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

➢ Example: A fast-food chain that delivers the same quality of food and service at d) Assurance: Knowledge and courtesy of staff, as well as their ability to inspire
every location. trust.

i) Customer Satisfaction: e) Empathy: The provider's ability to understand and care for the customer's

➢ The ability of a product or service to meet or exceed customer expectations and needs.

requirements. 1.3 Factors Influencing Quality:

➢ High-quality products generate high levels of customer satisfaction. a) Materials and Components:
➢ Example: A hotel providing exceptional customer service, comfortable rooms, ➢ The raw materials, ingredients, or components used in the production process
and value-added amenities that leave guests satisfied. affect the final quality of the product. Higher-quality materials often lead to
j) Value for Money: better products.

➢ Quality can also be defined by how much value the product offers relative to its b) Design and Engineering:
price. ➢ The design process, including engineering considerations, has a major
➢ A product may be of high quality if it offers more benefits or features than influence on the product's overall quality. Good design accounts for user
competing products in the same price range. experience, durability, and cost efficiency.

➢ Example: A budget smartphone that provides premium features at an affordable c) Manufacturing Process:
price. ➢ The methods used to produce or assemble the product directly impact its

1.2 Dimensions of Quality (based on service or product type): quality. High-tech machinery, quality control measures, and skilled labor
contribute to quality output.
• For Products:
d) Labor and Skill:
a) Performance: How well the product performs its intended function.
➢ The skills of workers involved in production or service delivery, as well as their
b) Reliability: How dependable the product is over time.
training, can determine the level of quality. Skilled labor tends to result in
c) Durability: How long the product lasts under regular use.
higher-quality outcomes.
d) Serviceability: The ease and cost of repair and maintenance.
e) Quality Control and Testing:
e) Aesthetics: The look, feel, and appeal of the product.
➢ Systems in place to ensure that the product meets certain standards (e.g.,
f) Features: Extra attributes or functionalities that improve the product. inspections, tests, quality audits) are crucial in maintaining high quality.

• For Services: Consistent testing prevents defects and substandard products from reaching
customers.
a) Tangibles: Physical aspects such as facilities, equipment, and staff appearance.
f) Customer Feedback and Continuous Improvement:
b) Reliability: The ability to consistently provide promised service.
➢ Incorporating customer feedback into product or service improvements can
c) Responsiveness: The willingness to help customers and provide prompt
lead to higher quality over time. Continuous improvement methodologies like
service.

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

Six Sigma or Total Quality Management (TQM) focus on increasing quality by • When a design has been established, it is the ask of all responsible for production
identifying inefficiencies and optimizing processes. planning and manufacturing to obtain a high level of quality of conformity; the

1.4 Measuring Quality: measure of truthfulness with which the product conforms to the design
specifications.
Quality can be measured using various techniques, such as:
For good quality of conformance with the design. any organization should ensure that:
a) Defect Rate: The number of defects found in a product or service.
• The incoming raw materials are of adequate quality. The machines and tools for
b) Customer Satisfaction Surveys: Direct feedback from customers about their
the job and the measuring instruments are adequate for their purposes and are
experiences.
kept at high level of maintenance.
c) Performance Metrics: Quantifiable measures that track how well the product or • Proper selection of the process and adequate process control is done.
service functions over time (e.g., uptime for a software product). • The operators should be well trained, experienced and motivated for quality
d) Cost of Poor Quality (COPQ): The total cost related to defects, including rework, consciousness.
scrap, warranty costs, and lost customer goodwill. • Proper care should be taken in shipment and storage of finished goods.

1.5 Types of Quality • Inspection programme should be such that it gives accurate measure of the
efficiency of the whole system, and ensures to reduce and sort out defective
a) Quality of Design
products from the lot during processing.
• The quality of design of a product is concerned with the tightness of the • Feedback from both, the internal inspection and the customers, are obtained
specifications to manufacture the product. For example, a part which has a drawing regarding quality for taking corrective action.
tolerance of ± 0.001 mm would be considered to have a better quality of design than • S.Q.C techniques should be used to control variability in manufacturing process.
another with a tolerance of ± 0.01 mm. • Higher quality of design usually costs more, higher quality of conformance
• A good quality of design must ensure consistent performance over its stipulated life usually costs less, by reducing the number of defective products produced.
span stated in terms of rated output, efficiency, overload capacity, continued or
(C) Quality of Performance
intermittent operation for specified application or service.
The quality of performance is concerned with how well the manufactured product gives
• It should consider possible modes of failure due to stress, wear, distortion,
its performance. It depends upon.
corrosion, shocks, vibrations, high or low temperature, altitude or pressure,
environmental conditions etc. (a) Quality of Design

• However, product design and development is a continuous process which results (b) Quality of conformance.
into evaluation of a product, based on assessed user needs, their feedback after use
• It can be a best design possible, but poor conformance control can cause poor
and development in technology at a given point of time, in a given environment
performance, conversely the best conformance control cannot make the product
(b) Quality of Conformance function correctly, if the design itself is not right.
• Fitness for use is achieved through two components: product features and freedom
• The quality of conformance is concerned with how well the manufactured product
from deficiencies. Product features in manufacturing industries cover performance,
conforms to the quality of design.

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

reliability, durability, ease of use, serviceability, aesthetics, reputation, etc. In • Quality Assurance: QA focuses on improving and ensuring the processes,
service industries, they cover accuracy, timeliness, completeness, friendliness, procedures, and systems used to create the product. The goal is to prevent defects from
courtesy, anticipation of customer needs, aesthetics, the occurring in the first place.
• service provider's knowledge and reputation, etc. Product features have a major • Quality Control: QC focuses on detecting and correcting defects in the finished
effect on sales income through market share and premium prices and include the product. The aim is to identify any issues after the product has been produced and
quality of design. Improving the quality of design generally leads to higher costs. rectify them before the product reaches the customer.
• Freedom from deficiencies in manufacturing industries covers freedom from
c) Approach:
defects and errors in the product at the time of delivery and servicing. Freedom from
• Quality Assurance: QA is primarily process-oriented, ensuring that the right
deficiencies has a major impact on costs through lower waste, lower warranty costs
processes, methodologies, and standards are followed to guarantee high quality.
and lower cycle times. Freedom from deficiencies refers to the quality of
conformance. Increasing the quality of conformance usually results in lower costs. • Quality Control: QC is product-oriented, emphasizing the inspection, testing, and
In addition, greater conformance means fewer complains and, therefore, increased verification of the finished product or service to identify any faults.

customer satisfaction. d) Goal:

• The approach taken by quality management for product features on the one hand • Quality Assurance: The main goal of QA is to prevent defects by improving the
and freedom from deficiencies on the other is different. The former is proactive, processes and methods used in production or service delivery.
while the latter is reactive
• Quality Control: The goal of QC is to identify and correct defects in the final
1.6 Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) product to meet the desired quality standards.
Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC) are both essential elements of a e) Activities:
quality management system, but they focus on different aspects of ensuring a product
• Quality Assurance: QA activities include:
or service meets quality standards. Below is a detailed explanation of the differences
➢ Developing process standards and procedures.
between the two:
➢ Training employees on best practices.
a) Definition:
➢ Implementing process audits.
• Quality Assurance (QA): QA is a proactive process aimed at preventing defects by
ensuring the quality of the processes involved in production or service delivery. It is ➢ Risk management and preventive actions.

about creating and maintaining a system to ensure that the processes used to manage ➢ Reviewing and improving processes continually.
and create the product are adequate to meet the desired quality standards. • Quality Control: QC activities include:
• Quality Control (QC): QC is a reactive process that focuses on identifying and ➢ Inspecting products or services.
correcting defects in the final product. QC involves monitoring and inspecting the
➢ Conducting tests and measurements.
product or service after it has been produced to ensure it meets the required
specifications and standards. ➢ Reviewing results for compliance with specifications.

b) Focus: ➢ Identifying defects or deviations and taking corrective action.

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

➢ Performing sampling and statistical process control. ➢ Six Sigma

f) Timing: ➢ ISO 9001 (Quality Management Systems)

• Quality Assurance: QA is conducted before and during the production process. It ➢ Process improvement initiatives.
ensures that the processes are capable of producing high-quality outcomes. • Quality Control: QC typically involves techniques like:
• Quality Control: QC occurs after the production process. It involves checking the ➢ Inspection and testing
finished product for defects, ensuring that only high-quality products are delivered.
➢ Statistical process control (SPC)
g) Scope:
➢ Sampling methods
• Quality Assurance: QA typically involves system-wide activities that cover the
➢ Automated inspections.
entire production process, from design to delivery, and includes long-term strategies
j) Outcome:
for continuous improvement.
• Quality Assurance: QA leads to the establishment of efficient processes that reduce
• Quality Control: QC is more specific and focused on the product itself. It checks
the likelihood of defects occurring in the first place.
whether the final product conforms to the defined quality standards and
specifications. • Quality Control: QC ensures that any defects or issues in the finished product are
identified and corrected, preventing poor-quality products from reaching customers.
h) Examples:
Summary of Key Differences:
• Quality Assurance:

➢ Establishing a standardized workflow for product development. Feature Quality Assurance (QA) Quality Control (QC)

➢ Conducting training sessions for workers on quality standards. Focus Process-oriented, focused on improving Product-oriented, focused on defect
➢ Setting up a system for continuous feedback and improvement in production systems detection
processes.
Goal Prevent defects by improving processes Detect and correct defects in the final
• Quality Control: product
➢ Inspecting products for defects before they are shipped.
Approach Proactive (prevents issues) Reactive (detects and fixes issues)
➢ Running tests to ensure that products meet specific technical or performance
criteria (e.g., testing the tensile strength of materials). Activities Process auditing, training, process Inspections, testing, measurements,
standardization sampling
➢ Using statistical tools to monitor quality trends (e.g., sampling for defects in a
production line). Timing Before and during production After production

i) Methods: Scope System-wide, continuous improvement Product-specific, end-of-line checks

• Quality Assurance: QA uses methodologies such as:
Examples Developing SOPs, process audits Product inspections, product testing
➢ Total Quality Management (TQM)

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

1.7 Importance of Quality • Higher Margins: Quality products are perceived as having greater value, allowing
businesses to charge premium prices. Customers are often willing to pay more for
Quality is a crucial factor in the success of any product, service, or organization. It
reliable, high-quality products and services.
influences customer satisfaction, business reputation, cost efficiency, and long-term
sustainability. Below is a detailed explanation of the importance of quality from 1.10 Competitive Advantage
multiple perspectives: • Differentiation in the Market: Quality is one of the key ways to stand out in a
1.8 Customer Satisfaction competitive market. Companies that consistently deliver higher-quality products or
services have a unique selling point (USP) that can differentiate them from
• Meeting Customer Expectations: High-quality products and services meet or
competitors.
exceed customer expectations. When a product performs as expected, is durable, and
is free from defects, customers are more likely to be satisfied. • Brand Loyalty and Repeat Business: As mentioned earlier, customers who trust in
the consistent quality of a brand are more likely to return and even recommend it to
• Customer Loyalty: Quality leads to customer satisfaction, and satisfied customers
others. This loyalty provides companies with a competitive edge.
are more likely to return for future purchases. Consistently high-quality experiences
create loyalty and enhance customer retention. • Higher Market Share: Companies that provide better quality may attract more
customers, increasing their market share. In contrast, lower-quality products can lead
• Positive Word of Mouth: Customers who are pleased with the quality of a product
to loss of customers and diminished market position.
or service tend to recommend it to others. This creates organic promotion through
word-of-mouth, which is one of the most powerful forms of marketing. • Global Competitiveness: In a global marketplace, quality often becomes a critical
factor for businesses aiming to expand internationally. Products that meet global
• Reputation and Brand Image: A reputation for delivering quality builds a strong
standards or exceed customer expectations can win markets abroad.
brand. When a brand is known for its quality, it differentiates itself in the marketplace
and fosters trust with customers. 1.11 Legal and Regulatory Compliance

1.9 Cost Efficiency and Profitability • Avoidance of Legal Issues: Non-compliance with quality standards can lead to legal
consequences, including fines, product recalls, or lawsuits. Ensuring quality
• Reduced Costs in the Long Run: While investing in quality assurance and control
compliance with industry regulations helps businesses avoid costly legal repercussions.
may involve initial costs, maintaining high quality can reduce the costs associated
with defects, repairs, rework, and waste. In the long run, focusing on quality improves • Health and Safety: In industries like healthcare, food production, and construction,

cost efficiency. quality is directly tied to safety. Substandard products or services can lead to accidents,
injuries, or health risks, which can be disastrous both financially and reputationally.
• Minimized Warranty and Return Costs: Products with fewer defects or failures
lead to fewer warranty claims and returns. This helps businesses save money on • Certifications and Accreditations: Maintaining quality standards can help businesses

repairs, replacements, and logistics. obtain certifications (such as ISO 9001) that are required by law or enhance credibility
in specific industries. These certifications demonstrate that a business adheres to
• Increased Operational Efficiency: Ensuring high-quality processes often means
recognized standards, making it more reliable and trustworthy in the eyes of customers
optimizing production methods, reducing errors, and improving resource
and regulators.
management. This leads to better use of time, labor, and materials, which can directly
impact the bottom line.

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

1.12 Employee Satisfaction and Productivity services, and processes tend to be more innovative and responsive to customer
demands.
• Workplace Morale: Employees working for an organization that focuses on quality
tend to feel more proud of their work. They are often more motivated and engaged • Enhancing Product Development: Quality is not just about maintaining current

when they see that the company values their contributions and strives for excellence. standards, but also about innovating. Companies that embrace quality management
often find opportunities to improve existing products and services, leading to new
• Clear Expectations: Quality standards provide employees with clear expectations
and better offerings for customers.
and guidelines. This minimizes confusion and helps maintain consistency in
performance. • Use of Feedback for Innovation: Businesses that maintain a strong focus on
quality are often better at collecting and using customer feedback to drive product
• Reduced Rework and Stress: When quality processes are in place, employees spend
development and improvement.
less time correcting mistakes, handling complaints, or dealing with issues that arise
from poor-quality products. This reduces workplace stress and improves job 1.15 Brand Reputation and Trust
satisfaction. • Trust: Quality is a key factor in building trust with consumers. When a brand
• Attracting Talent: Companies known for their commitment to quality often attract consistently delivers high-quality products or services, customers feel confident in
better talent. High-caliber professionals are more likely to seek employment in their purchases and the brand itself. Trust leads to long-term relationships and repeat
organizations that align with their values and standards of excellence. business.

1.13 Long-Term Business Sustainability • Reputation for Excellence: Companies that are known for quality tend to enjoy a
strong reputation in the marketplace. This can lead to positive media coverage,
• Reduced Risk of Failure: High-quality products or services are less likely to
recognition from industry bodies, and a stronger position in the marketplace.
encounter problems, reducing the risk of product failure. Businesses that consistently
provide quality are more likely to survive and thrive in the long term. • Public Perception: In today’s social media-driven world, the reputation of a brand
can be significantly impacted by negative customer experiences. Consistently
• Adapting to Changing Markets: Companies that maintain a strong focus on quality
delivering high quality reduces the risk of negative reviews and bad publicity,
are also more likely to be adaptable. As customer needs change, they can apply
preserving brand integrity.
quality management systems to continuously improve and innovate, staying relevant
in an evolving marketplace.

• Building Stronger Supplier Relationships: Organizations committed to quality are Questions

often able to form better relationships with suppliers who also meet stringent quality
standards. These relationships help improve the overall supply chain, leading to better
Q1. What is the main focus of Quality Assurance (QA)?
resource management, reliability, and product consistency.
A) Inspecting finished products for defects
1.14 Innovation and Improvement
B) Preventing defects by improving processes
• Continuous Improvement: Focusing on quality encourages a culture of continuous
C) Testing products for performance standards
improvement. Businesses that regularly evaluate and improve their products,
D) Correcting errors after the product is released

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UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

Q2. Which of the following is a characteristic of high-quality products? A) QA is product-oriented, and QC is process-oriented

A) Low cost B) QA is focused on prevention, and QC is focused on detection

B) Durability C) QA happens after production, and QC happens during production

C) High manufacturing speed D) QA deals with process design, and QC deals with sales

D) Simple design Q8. Which of the following is a method used in Quality Assurance?

Q3. Which of the following best describes the difference between Quality Assurance and A) Statistical sampling
Quality Control? B) Training employees on quality standards
A) QA is a process-oriented approach, while QC is a product-oriented approach C) Product testing
B) QA focuses on detecting defects, while QC focuses on preventing defects D) Final product inspection
C) QA occurs after production, while QC happens before production Q9. Which of the following best describes the goal of Quality Control (QC)?
D) QA is used to increase costs, while QC is used to reduce costs A) Ensuring the processes are designed correctly
Q4. Which of the following would be considered an example of a product's aesthetic quality? B) Preventing defects during production
A) Durability of a smartphone C) Identifying and correcting defects in the final product
B) The color and design of the smartphone D) Conducting process audits for improvements
C) The screen resolution of the smartphone Q10. When does Quality Assurance (QA) primarily take place during production?
D) The battery life of the smartphone A) After production
Q5. What does 'conformance to specifications' mean in relation to product quality? B) During production
A) The product's ability to meet customer expectations C) Before production
B) The product's adherence to a predefined set of standards or guidelines D) During the shipping stage
C) The product’s ability to perform well under various conditions Q11. Why is quality important for customer satisfaction?
D) The product’s aesthetic appeal A) It ensures that customers are always happy with the price
Q6. Which of the following is the primary focus of Quality Assurance (QA)? B) It helps in meeting or exceeding customer expectations
A) Identifying defects in the finished product C) It eliminates the need for marketing
B) Preventing defects by improving processes D) It focuses only on the physical appearance of the product
C) Testing products after production Q12. How does high quality contribute to cost efficiency in business?
D) Correcting product defects in the final stage A) By requiring fewer resources to produce the product
Q7. What is the key difference between Quality Assurance (QA) and Quality Control (QC)?

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

B) By reducing customer complaints and returns C) Testing products for performance standards: This is more aligned with Quality Control

C) By increasing the complexity of production processes (QC), not QA.

D) By lowering the price of the product D) Correcting errors after the product is released: This is also part of QC, which focuses
on identifying and fixing defects in finished products.
Q13. What is the long-term benefit of maintaining high-quality standards in an organization?
2. Answer: B) Durability
A) Increased market share and customer loyalty
Explanation:
B) Immediate increase in profits
A) Low cost: Low cost does not necessarily indicate high quality. Quality often involves a
C) Fewer employees required
balance between cost and performance.
D) Reduced need for innovation
B) Durability: Durability is a key characteristic of high-quality products. It indicates that the
Q14. How does quality impact a company's reputation?
product will last a long time and perform well over time.
A) It builds trust and credibility in the market
C) High manufacturing speed: Manufacturing speed does not directly affect the quality of
B) It makes the company more expensive to operate the product. High-speed production may compromise quality.

C) It decreases customer expectations D) Simple design: While simple design can be effective, it doesn't inherently reflect the

D) It eliminates the need for customer service quality of the product. Quality is about how well it performs and meets customer expectations.

Q15. What is the relationship between quality and employee satisfaction? 3. Answer: A) QA is a process-oriented approach, while QC is a product-oriented
approach
A) High quality improves employee job satisfaction and morale
Explanation:
B) High quality leads to more employee turnover
A) QA is a process-oriented approach, while QC is a product-oriented approach: Correct.
C) High quality requires fewer employees to produce products
QA focuses on improving the processes to prevent defects, while QC focuses on inspecting
D) High quality results in more administrative tasks for employees
the final product for defects.

B) QA focuses on detecting defects, while QC focuses on preventing defects: This is

Solutions incorrect. QA is about process prevention, while QC detects defects in the product.

1. Answer: B) Preventing defects by improving processes C) QA occurs after production, while QC happens before production: Incorrect. QA is
proactive and involves processes before and during production, while QC is reactive and
Explanation:
happens after production.
A) Inspecting finished products for defects: This is related to Quality Control (QC), not
D) QA is used to increase costs, while QC is used to reduce costs: This is not accurate.
QA. QA is proactive, while QC is reactive.
Both QA and QC aim to optimize processes and improve quality, which may reduce costs in
B) Preventing defects by improving processes: This is the correct answer. QA focuses on the long term.
improving processes to prevent defects and ensure quality standards.
4. Answer: B) The color and design of the smartphone

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Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

Explanation: 7. Answer: B) QA is focused on prevention, and QC is focused on detection

A) Durability of a smartphone: This is a functional quality, not an aesthetic one. It refers to Explanation:
how well the product withstands wear and tear. A) QA is product-oriented, and QC is process-oriented: Incorrect. QA focuses on
B) The color and design of the smartphone: Correct. Aesthetic quality refers to the visual, processes, and QC focuses on the finished product.
tactile, and sensory aspects of a product, such as design, color, and appearance. B) QA is focused on prevention, and QC is focused on detection: Correct. QA aims to
C) The screen resolution of the smartphone: This is a functional attribute related to the prevent defects by improving processes, while QC is reactive, detecting defects in the final
product's performance, not aesthetic quality. product.

D) The battery life of the smartphone: This is a performance-related feature, not related to C) QA happens after production, and QC happens during production: Incorrect. QA is
aesthetics. generally proactive and occurs before and during production, while QC is typically after

5. Answer: B) The product's adherence to a predefined set of standards or guidelines production.

Explanation: D) QA deals with process design, and QC deals with sales: This is incorrect. QC deals with
inspecting and testing products, while QA deals with ensuring that processes meet quality
A) The product's ability to meet customer expectations: This is related to customer
standards.
satisfaction, not the technical specifications.
8. Answer: B) Training employees on quality standards
B) The product's adherence to a predefined set of standards or guidelines: Correct.
Conformance to specifications means that the product is manufactured to meet certain Explanation:

predefined standards or requirements. A) Statistical sampling: This is a QC technique used to inspect products to detect defects,

C) The product’s ability to perform well under various conditions: This refers to not a QA activity.

performance quality, not conformance to specifications. B) Training employees on quality standards: Correct. QA involves activities like training,

D) The product’s aesthetic appeal: This is related to the visual or sensory quality, not creating standards, and establishing best practices to prevent defects.

specifications. C) Product testing: Product testing is generally a QC activity used to find defects in the final

6. Answer: B) Preventing defects by improving processes product.

Explanation: D) Final product inspection: This is part of QC, where products are inspected to ensure they
meet the required quality standards.
A) Identifying defects in the finished product: This describes Quality Control (QC), which
focuses on inspecting the finished product to detect defects. 9. Answer: C) Identifying and correcting defects in the final product

B) Preventing defects by improving processes: Correct. QA is proactive and aims to prevent Explanation:

defects by ensuring that the processes and systems are effective and efficient. A) Ensuring the processes are designed correctly: This is part of QA, which focuses on

C) Testing products after production: This is a function of QC, not QA. process design and improvement.

D) Correcting product defects in the final stage: This is part of QC, which addresses issues B) Preventing defects during production: This is a characteristic of QA, not QC.

after they occur, whereas QA works to prevent them.

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Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals

C) Identifying and correcting defects in the final product: Correct. QC focuses on B) By reducing customer complaints and returns: Correct. High-quality products lead to
inspecting and testing the final product to detect and correct defects. fewer returns and complaints, reducing costs associated with repairs, replacements, and

D) Conducting process audits for improvements: Process audits are part of QA, which customer service.

looks to improve processes to ensure product quality. C) By increasing the complexity of production processes: Increased complexity doesn’t

10. Answer: B) During production necessarily improve cost efficiency. Quality aims to streamline and simplify processes.

Explanation: D) By lowering the price of the product: Quality is often associated with higher prices, not
necessarily lower. The focus is on value and performance.
A) After production: QA activities are not just after production; they occur throughout the
process, from design to delivery. 13. Answer: A) Increased market share and customer loyalty

B) During production: Correct. QA involves monitoring and improving processes during Explanation:

production to prevent defects. A) Increased market share and customer loyalty: Correct. Consistently providing high-

C) Before production: While QA starts with process design and planning before production, quality products or services builds a strong reputation, attracts more customers, and fosters

it also involves ongoing monitoring during production. loyalty, which helps in increasing market share.

D) During the shipping stage: QA is focused on production processes, not the shipping stage. B) Immediate increase in profits: While quality can lead to higher profits over time, the
impact is long-term, not immediate.
11. Answer: B) It helps in meeting or exceeding customer expectations
C) Fewer employees required: High quality may require a well-trained workforce, not
Explanation:
necessarily fewer employees.
A) It ensures that customers are always happy with the price: While price is important,
D) Reduced need for innovation: Quality management encourages continuous improvement
quality impacts how well the product or service meets customer needs, which goes beyond
and innovation to meet evolving customer expectations.
just price.
14. Answer: A) It builds trust and credibility in the market
B) It helps in meeting or exceeding customer expectations: Correct. High-quality products
and services meet or exceed customer expectations, leading to satisfaction and loyalty. Explanation:

C) It eliminates the need for marketing: Quality is important, but marketing still plays a A) It builds trust and credibility in the market: Correct. High-quality products and services

crucial role in promoting a product or service. create a strong, trustworthy reputation, which is essential for long-term business success.

D) It focuses only on the physical appearance of the product: While aesthetics matter, B) It makes the company more expensive to operate: While high quality may involve

quality includes performance, durability, and customer experience, not just appearance. investment, the long-term benefits (e.g., customer loyalty, fewer returns) outweigh the costs.

12. Answer: B) By reducing customer complaints and returns C) It decreases customer expectations: Quality increases customer expectations as they
expect reliable, well-performing products or services.
Explanation:
D) It eliminates the need for customer service: High quality reduces the number of service
A) By requiring fewer resources to produce the product: High quality doesn’t always
issues, but customer service remains necessary for addressing concerns and feedback.
reduce resource use but rather optimizes production processes.
15. Answer: A) High quality improves employee job satisfaction and morale

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Chapter-1 | Quality Control Fundamentals Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
Explanation: QUALITY CONTROL
A) High quality improves employee job satisfaction and morale: Correct. Employees feel
proud of working for a company that produces high-quality products and services, leading to
Chapter-2| Quality Control Tool and Techniques
higher job satisfaction.

B) High quality leads to more employee turnover: This is not true; employees are more 2.1 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
likely to stay with a company known for producing high-quality products. Statistical Process Control (SPC) is a method used in quality control and process
C) High quality requires fewer employees to produce products: High quality often management to monitor, analyze, and control a process through statistical techniques. It
requires skilled employees to maintain standards, not necessarily fewer employees. aims to ensure that the process operates efficiently, producing products that meet quality
standards with minimal variation. SPC involves using data from the production process
D) High quality results in more administrative tasks for employees: High quality should
to identify issues, monitor the stability of the process, and take corrective actions when
streamline processes, reducing unnecessary administrative burdens.
necessary to improve quality and performance.

2.1.1 Key Concepts of Statistical Process Control

a) Process Variation:
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WhatsApp group link: https://chat.whatsapp.com/IieDnwsmogG9XrpIQknyTr • Every process has inherent variation, and it is important to distinguish between
two types of variation:
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inherent variability in a process that is always present. It arises from factors
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uppsc-ae-2024-technical/CPC3EL1E like machine wear, material inconsistencies, and operator differences.
Common cause variation is expected and stable, and the process is considered
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https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-batch-for-uppsc-ae-2025-technical/XGNHE6UO "in control" when it is dominated by this type of variation.

➢ Special Cause Variation (Assignable Variation): This type of variation

occurs due to specific, identifiable factors such as equipment malfunction,
human error, or external environmental factors. Special cause variation
indicates that the process is "out of control" and needs investigation and
correction.

b) Control Charts:

• Control charts (also called Shewhart charts) are one of the primary tools used in
SPC. They visually display process data over time and help identify trends, shifts,
or outliers that suggest problems.

• A control chart typically includes:

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
➢ Central Line (CL): This is the average or target value of the process.

➢ Upper Control Limit (UCL) and Lower Control Limit (LCL): These are
the boundaries of acceptable variation. If the process data points fall outside
these limits, the process is considered to be out of control.

➢ Data Points: These represent the actual process measurements over time.

d) Process Capability:

• Process capability is the ability of a process to produce products that meet

specified quality standards. It is determined by comparing the natural variation of
c) Types of Control Charts: Control charts are tailored to different types of data and the process (its spread) to the specification limits (acceptable range of variation).
processes:
• The most common measure of process capability is the Cp index, which compares
• X-bar and R Charts: Used for monitoring the mean (average) and range of a the process spread to the specification limits. A value of Cp > 1 indicates that the
process when the data is collected in subgroups (e.g., samples of 5 units). process can meet the specifications consistently. If Cp < 1, the process may not be
• X-bar and S Charts: Similar to X-bar and R charts but used when the standard capable of producing products within specifications.
deviation is known or when sample sizes are large. e) Capability Indices (Cp, Cpk, Pp, Ppk):
• p-Chart (Proportion Chart): Used to monitor the proportion of defective items • Cp: Compares the width of the process distribution to the width of the
in a process when the data is in the form of proportions (e.g., percentage of specification limits. It does not consider the process mean.
defective units in a batch).
• Cpk: Similar to Cp, but it also accounts for how centered the process is. A higher
• np-Chart: Used for monitoring the number of defective items in a sample, similar Cpk indicates better capability.
to a p-chart but with fixed sample sizes.
• Pp: A measure of process capability based on overall variation, including both
• c-Chart (Count of Defects): Used to monitor the number of defects in a constant common cause and special cause variation.
sample size.
• Ppk: Similar to Pp but accounts for the process mean shift.
• u-Chart: Used for monitoring the number of defects per unit in a process when
2.1.2 Steps in Statistical Process Control
the sample size can vary.
a) Data Collection:

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
• Collect data from the production process. The data can be from the actual product f) Monitor the Process Continuously:
or the process itself, such as measurements of dimensions, weight, temperature, • SPC is a continuous improvement method, so regular monitoring is essential to
or other relevant attributes. ensure that the process remains stable and improvements are sustained over time.
• It is important to ensure that the data is representative of the process, and it is Continuous data collection and chart updates are necessary.
typically collected over time or across multiple batches.
2.1.3 Benefits of Statistical Process Control
b) Plot Data on a Control Chart:
a) Improved Product Quality:
• Organize the collected data and plot it on a control chart. The chart will have
• By detecting issues early, SPC helps in maintaining high product quality by
control limits based on historical data or specifications, with the central line
ensuring that processes stay within predefined limits.
representing the process mean or target value.
b) Reduced Waste and Defects:
• Data points that fall outside the control limits indicate potential issues that
• SPC helps identify and eliminate sources of variation, leading to less waste, fewer
require investigation.
defective products, and better resource utilization.
c) Analyze the Control Chart:
c) Cost Savings:
• Analyze the control chart for patterns. A process is considered "in control" if the
• By reducing defects and improving efficiency, SPC can lower production costs
data points fluctuate randomly within the control limits, with no clear trends or
and prevent expensive recalls or rework.
outliers.
d) Better Decision Making:
• Special patterns to look for include:
• SPC provides data-driven insights into the health of a process, allowing managers
• Trends: A consistent upward or downward movement over time.
and operators to make informed decisions based on real-time data rather than
• Cycles: A repeating pattern in the data.
guesswork.
• Sudden jumps: Large, abrupt shifts in data values.
e) Improved Customer Satisfaction:
• Outliers: Data points that fall far outside the control limits.
• With fewer defects and more consistent product quality, customer satisfaction
d) Investigate Special Causes: increases, leading to better customer retention and brand reputation.
• If special cause variation is detected (i.e., points outside the control limits or f) Continuous Improvement:
unusual patterns), investigate to identify the root cause. This could involve
• SPC helps establish a culture of continuous improvement by identifying trends
checking equipment, reviewing operator actions, or evaluating external factors
and areas for optimization, leading to ongoing process enhancement.
that might affect the process.
2.1.4 Challenges in Statistical Process Control
e) Take Corrective Actions:
a) Data Quality:
• Once the special causes are identified, corrective actions can be taken to bring
the process back into control. This might involve fixing equipment, changing • SPC is only effective if the data collected is accurate, representative, and timely.

procedures, or training employees. Poor data collection methods or incomplete data can lead to incorrect conclusions.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
b) Resistance to Change: • How it works: You randomly select participants or items from the population, often

• Employees may resist SPC if they perceive it as an additional workload or if they using random number generators or drawing lots.

are not trained on its benefits and applications. • Example: Selecting 10 employees randomly from a list of 100 employees in a

c) Understanding the Root Causes: company.

• While SPC can identify when a process is out of control, it doesn't always explain • Advantages:

why. Identifying the underlying causes of variation requires additional problem- ➢ No bias in selection.
solving tools (such as root cause analysis or fishbone diagrams). ➢ Every individual has an equal chance of being chosen.
d) Initial Setup Costs: • Disadvantages:
• Setting up SPC systems, including training staff, implementing monitoring ➢ It may not be practical for large populations, as it can be time-consuming and
systems, and establishing control charts, can be resource-intensive. However, this costly to obtain a truly random sample.
investment typically pays off through long-term savings.
b) Systematic Sampling:
2.2 Sampling Techniques
• Definition: Involves selecting every nth item from a list or population after choosing
Sampling Techniques are methods used to select a subset of items from a larger a random starting point.
population to estimate characteristics or make inferences about the entire population.
• How it works: After selecting a random starting point, every nth element in the
These techniques are widely used in various fields such as statistics, market research,
population is selected for inclusion in the sample.
quality control, and social sciences. By using a sample, researchers can draw conclusions
• Example: If you want a sample of 10 from a population of 100, you might select
without needing to examine every single member of a population, saving both time and
every 10th item after randomly choosing a starting point between 1 and 10.
resources.
• Advantages:
2.2.1 Types of Sampling Techniques
➢ Simpler to implement than simple random sampling, especially in large
Sampling techniques are typically categorized into probability sampling and non-
populations.
probability sampling. Let's dive into each category and its specific methods.
➢ Still ensures randomness if the population list does not follow any specific order.
A) Probability Sampling:
• Disadvantages:
In probability sampling, each member of the population has a known and non-zero
➢ If there’s an underlying pattern in the population that aligns with the sampling
chance of being selected. This type of sampling is advantageous because it allows for the
interval, this could introduce bias.
calculation of sampling error and generalization of results to the larger population. The
c) Stratified Sampling:
main probability sampling techniques are:
• Definition: The population is divided into different subgroups, or strata, that share
a) Simple Random Sampling:
similar characteristics (e.g., age, income, education), and then a sample is taken from
• Definition: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. It
each stratum.
is the most basic and straightforward type of probability sampling.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
• How it works: First, divide the population into strata, and then randomly sample • Definition: A combination of various sampling methods used in stages, typically
from each stratum, either proportionally or equally. starting with a larger group and narrowing down to smaller groups.

• Example: A survey of employees in a company might stratify the population by • How it works: For example, you could first use cluster sampling to select several
department (e.g., HR, marketing, IT) and then randomly select employees from each regions, then use simple random sampling to select individual households within
department. those regions.

• Advantages: • Example: A researcher might first sample entire schools (clusters), then sample

➢ Provides more precise estimates of the population characteristics because it individual classrooms within those schools, and then finally select students randomly

ensures representation from each subgroup. within those classrooms.

➢ Reduces sampling error. • Advantages:

• Disadvantages: • Highly flexible and practical for large-scale studies.

➢ More complex to administer than simple random sampling. • Can be used when population lists are incomplete or unavailable.

➢ Requires knowledge about the population’s stratification in advance. • Disadvantages:

d) Cluster Sampling: • Can introduce more sampling errors, especially if the stages are poorly executed.

• Definition: The population is divided into clusters, and a random sample of clusters B) Non-Probability Sampling:
is selected. All or a random sample of elements from the chosen clusters are then In non-probability sampling, the selection of individuals is not random. Some
included in the sample. individuals have a higher chance of being selected, and the results cannot be generalized
• How it works: Divide the population into clusters (often based on geographic to the population as precisely as in probability sampling. This technique is often used
location or other natural groupings), randomly select some clusters, and then collect when probability sampling is not feasible due to cost or time constraints.
data from all or a random subset of individuals within the selected clusters. a) Convenience Sampling:
• Example: A city is divided into different neighborhoods (clusters), and you randomly • Definition: The sample is taken from a group that is easy to access or convenient for
select a few neighborhoods to survey all households in those neighborhoods. the researcher.
• Advantages: • How it works: Researchers select subjects based on what is easiest to reach.
➢ Cost-effective and easier to implement, especially for geographically dispersed • Example: A researcher might survey people walking in a mall or customers visiting
populations. a store.
➢ Useful for large populations. • Advantages:
• Disadvantages: ➢ Very quick and easy to implement.
➢ May increase sampling error if the clusters are not homogenous (i.e., the people ➢ Inexpensive and convenient.
within each cluster differ significantly from each other).
• Disadvantages:
e) Multistage Sampling:

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
➢ Highly biased, as it does not represent the broader population. • Disadvantages:

➢ Limited generalizability. ➢ Can lead to bias because the sample may not represent the population accurately.

b) Judgmental (Purposive) Sampling: ➢ The sample may be homogenous, with participants sharing similar traits or

• Definition: The researcher selects participants based on their judgment or backgrounds.

knowledge about the population. This often involves selecting individuals who have d) Quota Sampling:
specific characteristics or expertise. • Definition: The researcher ensures that certain characteristics are represented in the
• How it works: The researcher deliberately chooses individuals who are deemed sample in proportion to their prevalence in the population. However, selection within
representative of the population or who possess specific qualities relevant to the the quotas is non-random.
study. • How it works: The researcher divides the population into subgroups (e.g., by gender,
• Example: A researcher studying healthcare professionals might specifically select age, income), and then selects participants from each subgroup to meet a
doctors, nurses, and medical researchers for interviews. predetermined quota.

• Advantages: • Example: A researcher might ensure that 50% of the sample is female, 30% is male,

➢ Useful when specific expertise or characteristics are needed. and 20% is non-binary, based on the population's gender distribution.

➢ Efficient for targeting a specific subgroup. • Advantages:

• Disadvantages: ➢ Ensures that key subgroups are represented in the sample.

➢ Subjective and prone to researcher bias. ➢ Easier and faster than random sampling.

➢ Not representative of the broader population, limiting generalizability. • Disadvantages:

c) Snowball Sampling: ➢ Non-random selection within quotas can introduce bias.

• Definition: A method often used when studying hard-to-reach populations. Existing ➢ The sample may not be fully representative of the entire population.

subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances, thus "snowballing" C) Acceptance sampling
the sample size.
• Acceptance sampling is the process of evaluating a portion of the product/ material in
• How it works: One participant refers another, and those referred participants may a lot for the purpose of accepting or rejecting the lot as either conforming or not
refer others, creating a chain of recruitment. conforming to quality specifications.
• Example: Studying a hidden population like drug users or individuals with rare • The process of performing a check of raw materials, components and parts supplied
medical conditions. by the vendors is called incoming inspection. Similarly, before dispatching a lot of
• Advantages: finished goods to the customers, an outgoing inspection is done. For both of these,

➢ Effective for studying populations that are hard to reach or identify. incoming and outgoing inspection, acceptance sampling may be used.

➢ Useful for qualitative research.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques

• Inspection for acceptance purpose is carried out at many stages in manufacturing.

There are generally two ways in which inspection is carried out: (i) 100% inspection
(ii) Sampling inspection.

• In 100% inspection all the parts or products are subjected to inspection, whereas in
sampling inspection only a sample is drawn from the lot and inspected. A sample
may be defined as the number of items drawn from a lot, batch or population for
inspection purposes.

• However, 100% inspection will be required when the lots contain items that are
critical in nature and any failure at a later stage of assembling or performance may
result in high cost of replacement or rework. 100% inspection may also be useful for
lots of expensive items having a very low volume of annual consumption. • Example: In the sampling plan, if N = lot size = 500, n = sample size = 50, c =
acceptance number = 10, it means that if we take a sample of 50 items from a lot of
• Through sampling inspection, we determine the acceptance or rejection of a lot or
500, and if the sample contains more than 10 defective item then the lot gets rejected,
population on the basis of number of defective parts found in a random sample drawn
otherwise the lot is accepted.
from the lot. If the number of defective items does not exceed a predefined level, the
b) Double Sampling Plan
lot is accepted, otherwise it is rejected.
• When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on the basis of
• Acceptance sampling can be performed during inspection of incoming raw materials,
sometimes only one and sometimes on the basis of two samples, the acceptance
components, and assemblies, in various phases of in-process operations, or during
plan is known as a double sampling plan.
final product inspection. It can be used as a form of product inspection between
companies and their vendors, between manufacturers and their customers, or
between departments or divisions within the same company.

• Acceptance sampling does not control or improve the quality level of the process.
As stressed previously, quality cannot be inspected into a product or service; quality
must be designed and built into it. Because of the very

Types of Acceptance Sampling

a) Single Sampling Plan

• When a decision on acceptance or rejection of the lot is made on the basis of only
one sample, the acceptance plan is known as a single sampling plan.

• If N is the lot size from which the sample is drawn. n is the sample size, c is the
number of allowable defectives in the sample, then the sampling plan shown in figure
below is applicable.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
Example: N= 500, n₁ = 25, n₂ = 40, c₁ = 1, C₂ = 4 • In this plan, a decision to accept or reject a lot is taken after inspecting more than

This may be interpreted as follows: two samples.

• Take a first sample of 25 items from a lot of 500 and inspect it. • A multiple sampling plan will generally involve less total inspection, than the
corresponding single or double sampling plan guranteeing the same protection. But
• Accept the lot on the basis of the first sample if it contains 0 or 1 defective item
they usually require higher administrative costs and higher calibre inspection
• Reject the lot on the basis of the first sample if it contains more than 4 defective personnel may be necessary to guarantee proper use of the plans.
items
d) Sequential Sampling Plan
• Take a second sample of 40 items if the first sample contains 2, 3 or 4 defective
• The ultimate extension of the multiple sampling plan is the sequential sampling plan,
items.
which is an item-by-item inspection plan.
• Accept the lot on the basis of the first and second sample combined, if the combined
• After each item is inspected, a decision is made to accept the lot, reject the lot, or
sample of 65 items contains 4 or less defective items.
choose another item for inspection, depending on whether the observed cumulative
• Reject the lot on the basis of the combined sample if the combined sample contains number of nonconforming items is less than or equal to the acceptance number,
more than 4 defective items. greater than or equal to the rejection number, or in between the two.
• The lot may be accepted in the following ways. Methods of Sampling Plan
• 0 or 1 defective item in the first sample (without taking second sample)
• The sampling methods can be classified as:
• 2 defective items in the first sample followed by 0, 1 or 2 defective items in the
➢ Simple random sampling
second sample.
➢ Stratified sampling
• 3 defective items in the first sample followed by 0 or 1 defective item in the
➢ Systematic sampling
second sample.
➢ Cluster sampling
• 4 defective items in the first sample followed by 0 defective items in the second
➢ Two stage sampling
sample.

• The probability of accepting the lot is the sum of probabilities of the different ways 2.3 Quality control tools
in which it may be accepted. As given by Kaoru Ishikawa, seven quality control tools are as under:

• Although double sampling plans are more complicated than single sampling plans, • Pareto Chart
usually fewer items need to be sampled, on average, to make a decision regarding
• Flow Chart
the lot. This is because a demonstration of extremely good or extremely poor batch
• Cause and Effect Diagram
quality in the first sample causes acceptance or rejection of the lot without the need
for a second sample. • Scatter Plot

c) Multiple Sampling Plan • Check Sheet

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques

• Histogram • Flow charts help in visualising and understanding a process, and also in finding
flaws and bottle necks in a process.
• Control Chart
• Commonly used symbols in flow charts
a) Pareto Chart
• It is given by Vilfredo Pareto, an Italian economist.
• It supports 80/20 rule, which states that approx "80% of problem are created by
approx 20% of cause".
• Pareto chart helps in identifying and distinguishing the vital few factors from the
trivial many. Thus, by finding out and eliminating few (unnecessary) factors, most
of the problems can be solved.
• The exact percentages (80/20) may vary in different situations but the sense is that
most of the problem are caused by very few factors.
• Pareto chart help prioritize problems by arranging them in descending order of
c) Cause-and-Effect Diagrams
importance, from left to right in a bar diagram.
• In an environment of limited resources, these diagrams help companies decide on • Cause-and-effect diagrams were developed by Kaoru Ishikawa and thus are often
the order in which they should address problems. called Ishikawa diagram.
• They are also known as fishbone diagrams because of their appearance (in the plotted
form).
• These diagrams are used to identify and attributed to a problem (or an effect). These
diagrams thus help determine which of several causes has the greatest effect.
• A cause-and-effect diagram can aid in identifying the reasons why a process goes out
of control Alternatively, if a process is stable, these diagrams can help management
decide which causes to investigate for process improvement.
• It is known as a fishbone diagram because of its shape, similar to the side view of a
fish skeleton. The defect is shown as the fish's head, facing to the right, with the
causes extending to the left as fishbones; the ribs branch off the backbone for major
causes, with sub-branches for root-causes to as many levels as required.
• The causes emerge by analysis, often through brainstorming sessions, and are
b) Flow Chart grouped into categories on the main branches off the fishbone. Each potential cause
is traced back to find the root cause, often using the why-why analysis. After
• It is a pictorial diagram which shows the sequence of events in a process.
determining the root cause, the causes may be prioritised to determine which are
• A flow chart would allow pin pointing of key problem areas that contribute to a
having the largest effect and which are easy to fix or control.
particular problem.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques

e) Check Sheet
• A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analysing data in real
d) Scatter Plots time at the location where the data is generated.

• The scatterplot consists of plotting data to depict the relationship between two • This is a generic tool that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.
variables. • The pattern and distribution of data helps in analysing the causes for problems.
• When we analyze processes, the relationship between a controllable variable and a
desired quality characteristic is frequently of importance. Knowing this relationship
may help us decide how to set a controllable variable to achieve a desired level for
the output characteristic.
• The measured or dependent variable is customarily plotted along the vertical axis.
Subsequently, a correlation, if it exists, may be established between the two
variables. For example, weight and height, weight would be on y axis and height
would be on the x axis.
f) Histogram
• Correlations may be positive (rising), negative (falling), or null (uncorrelated). If
the pattern of dots slopes from lower left to upper right, it indicates a positive • It is a bar graph that shows the distribution of data. It is used to determine the spread

correlation between the variables being studied. If the pattern of dots slopes from and variation of data point in graphical from.

upper left to lower right, it indicates a negative correlation. • It is most commonly used graph to show frequency distribution. It provides the easiest
way to evaluate the distribution of data.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques

• Control charts tell whether a process is under control or out of control. If the points
plotted in the control chart fall randomly within the UCL and LCL and don't show
any identifiable non-random pattern, then it will be said that the process is under
control.
• On the other hand, if a point falls outside the control limits or points lie within the
control limits but show any particular non-random pattern, then it is said that the
process has gone out of control.
• In the control chart, the value of the quality characteristics are plotted along the
Interval height (in cm) Frequency
vertical axis and the horizontal axis represents samples from which the quality
139.5 – 149.5 6
characteristic are found. The quality characteristics are obtained from the inspection
149.5 – 1595 9 of items in the samples.
159.5 – 169.5 7 • Quality characteristics are of two types - variables and attributes. Variable are those
169.5 – 179.5 5 quality characteristics, which can be measured, ex length, diameter, weight etc.
179.5 – 189.5 2 Thus numerical values can be obtained for these variable quality characteristics.
189.5 – 199.5 1 Attributes are those quality characteristics which are expressed in terms of good or
The above figure tells us about the variation of height among the people. bad, defective or non-defective, conformity or non-conformity etc. Ex - proportion
of defectives, number of defects in a unit etc.
g) Control Chart
• Variation and quality are opposite to each other. The more the variation, lower will
• A control chart is a graphical tool for monitoring the activity of an ongoing process. be the quality and vice-versa. Thus, to improve the quality, variation in the quality
Walter Shewhart first proposed their general theory. Hence, controlled charts are characteristic of the product should be minimised.
sometimes referred to as Shewhart control charts.
• Variations are of two types: (1) Natural variations, or common cause variations or
• Control charts contain three lines. The centreline (CL) which represents the average variations due to chance factors and (2) special cause variations or variations due to
value of the quality characteristic being plotted, is an indication of where the process assignable factors.
is centered. Control charts contain two lines on either side of the centreline, known
• Variations due to the common causes are always present in the process. Their
as upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL).
magnitude is small. These can't be eliminated but can be reduced, through quality
improvement. If these variations are present, then the points will fall randomly
within the control limits in the control chart and the process will be under control.

Benefits of Control Chart

• A control chart indicates when something may be wrong so that corrective action
can be taken.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques

• The pattern of the plot on the control chart can diagnose possible causes and hence • To check for cosmetic flaws or irregularities that may affect the appearance or
can indicate possible remedial actions. functionality of the product.
• Since variation is a part of any process, hence the control chart shows that when the • Often used for final inspections before packaging or shipment.
variation is normal due to common causes only and so no correction action is Advantages:
needed.
• Fast and non-destructive.
• If the control chart shows a process to be in statistical control, we can estimate the
• Relatively low cost and simple to implement.
capability of the process and hence its ability to meet customer's requirements. This
• Can be done in various stages of production (incoming materials, in-process, and
helps the product and process design.
final inspection).
• Control charts also provide useful information regarding actions to take for quality
Limitations:
improvement.
• Limited to visible defects and cannot detect internal problems like stress fractures or
2.4 Inspection and testing
hidden flaws.
Inspection and testing are critical steps in the manufacturing, quality assurance, and • Subjectivity in judgment, depending on the inspector’s skill and experience.
product development process. They ensure that a product or component meets the
b) Dimension Inspection
required standards and specifications. The different types of inspection and testing can
Definition: Dimension inspection involves measuring the physical dimensions (length,
be categorized based on the methods employed, such as visual, dimension, functional,
width, height, diameter, etc.) of a component to ensure it conforms to the specified
and destructive testing. Let’s break down each type in detail:
design tolerances.
a) Visual Inspection
Process:
Definition: Visual inspection is the process of examining a product or component using
• Common tools used include calipers (vernier, digital, or micrometer), height gauges,
the human eye or magnifying tools to detect any defects, surface flaws, or deviations
optical comparators, and coordinate measuring machines (CMM).
from the desired specifications.
• Measurement can be done manually or with automated systems, and the data can be
Process:
compared to the blueprint specifications.
• It can be conducted manually or using visual inspection tools like magnifying • Tolerances (acceptable limits for variation) are predefined, and deviations outside
glasses, microscopes, or digital cameras with high-resolution capabilities. these tolerances can indicate manufacturing issues.
• Light sources (e.g., UV lights) may be used to enhance visibility of certain defects, Purpose:
such as cracks or surface inconsistencies.
• To verify the precise size, shape, and geometry of components.
• It can also involve the use of technology like computer vision systems in automated
• To ensure that the part fits correctly within an assembly or meets functional
inspections.
requirements.
Purpose: • Ensures that components adhere to strict specifications, especially in industries like
• To detect surface defects like cracks, dents, scratches, corrosion, or paint aerospace, automotive, and electronics.
imperfections. Advantages:

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
• Accurate and precise measurements. • May require more time and resources (e.g., expensive testing setups or simulation

• Can be automated, reducing human error. environments).

• Ensures product fit and functionality, especially in complex assemblies. • Not suitable for all types of products (e.g., products with non-repetitive functions).

Limitations: d) Destructive Testing

• Only checks physical attributes, not performance or durability. Definition: Destructive testing involves testing a product or material to the point of
failure in order to understand its characteristics, strength, and limits. The product or
• Does not detect hidden defects or irregularities like cracks or internal stresses.
material cannot be used after testing.
c) Functional Testing
Process:
Definition: Functional testing ensures that the product or component works as intended
• Common tests include tensile testing, impact testing, fatigue testing, and fracture
under normal operating conditions. It involves testing the actual performance of the
testing, where samples are subjected to stress, pressure, or other extreme conditions.
item.
• Tensile testing measures how a material stretches under tension until it breaks.
Process:
• Impact testing evaluates how a material reacts to a sudden force or shock, typically
• The product is tested under real-world conditions or simulated environments to using a pendulum-type impact tester.
confirm it meets the performance specifications. • Fatigue testing assesses the number of cycles a material can withstand before failure
• For electrical devices, this might involve checking the power output, battery life, or due to repeated stress.
signal strength. • Fracture toughness testing evaluates the ability of a material to resist crack
propagation.
• For mechanical systems, it could involve checking the smooth operation of gears,
pistons, or any moving parts. Purpose:

• Test methods can include environmental simulations (e.g., temperature, humidity), • To determine material properties like strength, ductility, and elasticity.
vibration tests, load tests, or operational tests. • To understand failure modes and material behavior under stress.
• To ensure that materials or components can withstand the stresses they will
Purpose:
encounter during normal usage or extreme conditions.
• To validate the functionality of the product, ensuring that it works as expected.
Advantages:
• To detect any failure modes that may not have been evident in previous inspections.
• To verify that all features perform as intended when subjected to real-world usage or • Provides critical data on the limits and durability of materials.
stress conditions. • Essential for safety-critical applications (e.g., aerospace, automotive).
• Helps manufacturers improve product design by understanding failure points.
Advantages:
Limitations:
• Ensures product reliability and safety in actual usage.
• The sample or product is destroyed, meaning it cannot be reused.
• Verifies the performance under realistic or extreme conditions.
• Can be expensive and time-consuming due to the need for specialized equipment.
Limitations:

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
• Often involves testing a small sample size, which may not fully represent real-world d) To predict future performance of the process
conditions. 2. Which type of control chart would be most appropriate for monitoring the number of defects
in a batch of products where the sample size varies?

Type of Purpose Methodology Examples of Advantages Limitations a) p-chart

Testing Tools/Equipment
b) u-chart

c) np-chart
Visual Detects Manual or Magnifying Fast, simple, Limited to
Inspection visible assisted glasses, digital low-cost visible d) c-chart
defects and inspection cameras, UV defects, 3. In an SPC context, what does a "point outside the control limits" typically indicate?
flaws lights subjective
a) The process is in statistical control
Dimension Verifies Measurement Calipers, Accurate Cannot b) The process is stable and predictable
Testing physical tools and micrometers, and precise, detect
dimensions equipment CMMs automated hidden c) A special cause of variation has occurred
options defects or
d) The process is experiencing random variation
performance
4. When performing an X-bar chart, what does a "run" of 7 consecutive points all above the
centerline indicate?
Functional Assesses Performance Load testers, Validates Time-
a) The process is in control
Testing performance simulations or signal generators, operational consuming,
in real-world testing testing chambers performance expensive, b) There is a special cause of variation
use not always
applicable c) The process is statistically stable

d) The process is experiencing random variation

Destructive Determines Applying Tensile testers, Provides Destructive,
5. Which of the following best describes the concept of "process capability" in SPC?
Testing material stress until impact testers, valuable expensive,
limits and failure occurs fatigue testers data on time- a) The ability of the process to produce output without variation
failure durability intensive
modes and limits b) The degree to which a process meets customer specifications

c) The ability of a process to remain stable over time

QUESTIONS
d) The difference between the upper and lower control limits
1. What is the primary purpose of using control charts in SPC? 6. Which of the following best describes the primary use of a Pareto chart?
a) To determine the cause of process variation a) To identify the root cause of defects
b) To identify the presence of systematic errors b) To track the performance of a process over time
c) To monitor the stability of a process over time c) To display the most significant factors contributing to a problem

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
d) To visualize the relationship between two variables 12. Which of the following best describes a "go/no-go" gauge used in inspection?

7. What is the main advantage of using a Fishbone (Ishikawa) diagram in problem-solving? a) A tool used to measure the temperature of a product

a) It helps in collecting data from different sources b) A device used to test the visual appearance of a product

b) It allows the user to analyze the root causes of a problem systematically c) A measuring tool used to determine if a part meets specified tolerances

c) It tracks the changes in process over time d) A tool that analyzes the chemical composition of a material

d) It identifies potential process improvements 13. Which of the following types of testing would be most appropriate for identifying defects

8. What does a control chart primarily show? in the internal structure of a material without causing damage?

a) The relationship between input and output in a process a) Destructive testing

b) The frequency of defects in a product b) Visual inspection

c) The variation in a process over time c) Non-destructive testing (NDT)

d) The percentage of defect-free products d) Functional testing

9. Which of the following tools would be most useful for identifying the frequency of different 14. Which of the following inspection methods is most suitable for detecting surface cracks in

types of defects in a manufacturing process? a metal part?

a) Histogram a) Ultrasonic testing

b) Pareto chart b) Visual inspection

c) Scatter diagram c) Eddy current testing

d) Control chart d) X-ray testing

10. What is the primary purpose of a histogram in quality control? 15. What is the main advantage of using automated inspection systems over manual inspection?

a) To predict future defects in a process a) They eliminate the need for quality standards

b) To show the distribution of data and identify patterns b) They allow for faster, more consistent, and repeatable inspections

c) To track the causes of defects over time c) They reduce the need for employee training

d) To compare actual performance against a target d) They are less expensive to implement in the long term

11. What is the primary purpose of destructive testing in quality control? 16. Which of the following best describes the purpose of acceptance sampling?

a) To evaluate the process capability a) To verify the production process quality based on continuous inspection

b) To ensure that products meet customer specifications b) To determine the root cause of defects in a batch of products

c) To assess the physical properties of a material by causing failure c) To decide whether a batch of products should be accepted or rejected based on a sample

d) To determine the aesthetic quality of a product d) To measure the specific dimensions of a product

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
17. What does the "acceptance quality limit" (AQL) represent in acceptance sampling? b) To identify the presence of systematic errors: Control charts are not specifically designed

a) The maximum allowable defect rate for a single product for this purpose. They are more focused on identifying out-of-control signals (random or non-
random).
b) The maximum defect rate that is acceptable in a batch of products
c) To monitor the stability of a process over time: Correct. Control charts help assess whether
c) The number of products that must be tested in a batch
a process is stable (in-control) or if variation is occurring that needs attention (out-of-control).
d) The threshold at which all products in a batch must be tested
d) To predict future performance of the process: Control charts do not predict future
18. In acceptance sampling, what does the "lot size" refer to?
performance. They track current performance and identify variations that may require
a) The number of units in a sample corrective actions.

b) The total number of products produced in a batch 2. Answer: b) u-chart

c) The number of defective units in a batch Explanation of Options:
d) The number of units that pass the inspection a) p-chart: This chart is used to monitor the proportion of defective items in a sample when the
19. What is the role of the "sample size" in acceptance sampling? sample size is constant. It is not appropriate when the sample size varies.

a) It determines the total number of defects allowed in a batch b) u-chart: Correct. The u-chart is used for monitoring the number of defects per unit when
sample size varies. It accounts for the varying sample size in each subgroup.
b) It specifies the number of units that must be inspected in a batch
c) np-chart: The np-chart is used to track the number of defectives in a fixed sample size, so
c) It defines the acceptable defect rate in a batch
it’s inappropriate when sample sizes vary.
d) It defines the number of defect-free products needed to accept a batch
d) c-chart: This chart tracks the number of defects per unit in situations where the sample size
20. In a typical acceptance sampling plan, what does the "acceptance number" refer to?
remains constant. It does not work when the sample size changes.
a) The maximum number of defective items allowed in a sample for the lot to be accepted
3. Answer: c) A special cause of variation has occurred
b) The number of defects found in the sample after inspection
Explanation of Options:
c) The number of products that must be inspected before making a decision
a) The process is in statistical control: A point outside control limits indicates an out-of-control
d) The total number of products in the batch condition, meaning the process is not in control.

b) The process is stable and predictable: A point outside control limits suggests instability and
predictability issues.
1. Answer: c) To monitor the stability of a process over time
c) A special cause of variation has occurred: Correct. A point outside the control limits suggests
Explanation of Options: that a special cause (a non-random event) is influencing the process.
a) To determine the cause of process variation: Control charts help identify when a process is d) The process is experiencing random variation: Random variation usually stays within control
out of control, but they don’t pinpoint the specific cause of variation. Root cause analysis would limits. A point outside control limits signals something unusual or non-random.
be needed for that.
4. Answer: b) There is a special cause of variation

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
Explanation of Options: d) To visualize the relationship between two variables: This is more characteristic of a scatter

a) The process is in control: A run of 7 points all above the centerline suggests something out diagram, not a Pareto chart.

of the ordinary, so the process is not in control. 7. Answer: b) It allows the user to analyze the root causes of a problem systematically

b) There is a special cause of variation: Correct. A sequence of 7 consecutive points on one side Explanation of Options:
of the centerline typically signals a special cause of variation. a) It helps in collecting data from different sources: The Fishbone diagram doesn’t focus on
c) The process is statistically stable: A sequence of 7 points on one side of the centerline implies data collection, it focuses on categorizing potential causes of a problem.
instability in the process. b) It allows the user to analyze the root causes of a problem systematically: Correct. The
d) The process is experiencing random variation: Random variation should not show trends or Fishbone diagram helps to systematically categorize and analyze potential root causes of a
runs like this. Such patterns suggest special cause variation. problem.

5. Answer: b) The degree to which a process meets customer specifications c) It tracks the changes in process over time: This is more relevant to control charts or run

Explanation of Options: charts, not a Fishbone diagram.

a) The ability of the process to produce output without variation: This is an unrealistic d) It identifies potential process improvements: While Fishbone diagrams are great for

expectation. All processes have some level of variation. identifying causes, they do not directly identify solutions or improvements.

b) The degree to which a process meets customer specifications: Correct. Process capability 8. Answer: c) The variation in a process over time

refers to how well the output of a process meets the specifications or tolerances defined by Explanation of Options:
customers or product design. a) The relationship between input and output in a process: This is the focus of scatter diagrams
c) The ability of a process to remain stable over time: While stability is important, process or process flow diagrams, not control charts.
capability focuses on meeting specifications, not stability alone. b) The frequency of defects in a product: Control charts monitor process variation, not just the
d) The difference between the upper and lower control limits: This defines the control limits of frequency of defects.
a process, not its capability to meet specifications. c) The variation in a process over time: Correct. Control charts track the stability and variation
6. Answer: c) To display the most significant factors contributing to a problem within a process over time and help detect any out-of-control situations.

Explanation of Options: d) The percentage of defect-free products: This is more aligned with a defect rate chart like a

a) To identify the root cause of defects: A Pareto chart helps identify the significant factors p-chart, not a control chart.

contributing to a problem but does not directly identify the root cause. 9. Answer: b) Pareto chart

b) To track the performance of a process over time: A Pareto chart is not used for tracking Explanation of Options:
performance over time. It is used to prioritize issues based on frequency or impact. a) Histogram: A histogram displays the distribution of a single set of data points, such as the
c) To display the most significant factors contributing to a problem: Correct. The Pareto chart frequency of measurements. It doesn't focus on the categories of defects.
is based on the Pareto Principle (80/20 rule) and helps highlight the most frequent or impactful b) Pareto chart: Correct. A Pareto chart is used to show the frequency or significance of
causes. different categories of problems, allowing you to focus on the most important ones.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
c) Scatter diagram: A scatter diagram shows the relationship between two variables but doesn’t a) A tool used to measure the temperature of a product: This is typically a thermometer or
display frequencies or categories of defects. temperature sensor, not a go/no-go gauge.

d) Control chart: A control chart is used to monitor process stability over time, not to identify b) A device used to test the visual appearance of a product: Visual appearance is assessed
the frequency of different types of defects. through visual inspection, not a go/no-go gauge.

10. Answer: b) To show the distribution of data and identify patterns c) A measuring tool used to determine if a part meets specified tolerances: Correct. A go/no-go

Explanation of Options: gauge is a simple tool used in inspection to verify whether a part meets the specified size or
dimensional tolerances. It has two elements: one for the "go" side (acceptance) and one for the
a) To predict future defects in a process: Histograms are not used for prediction; they visualize
"no-go" side (rejection).
the distribution of existing data.
d) A tool that analyzes the chemical composition of a material: Chemical analysis would require
b) To show the distribution of data and identify patterns: Correct. A histogram provides a visual
a different kind of testing equipment, such as spectrometers or chemical testing kits.
representation of data distribution, helping to identify patterns and variations.
13. Answer: c) Non-destructive testing (NDT)
c) To track the causes of defects over time: This is more suited to control charts or Fishbone
diagrams, not histograms. Explanation of Options:

d) To compare actual performance against a target: This is more appropriate for tools like a) Destructive testing: Destructive testing is used to determine how a material fails under stress,

control charts, not histograms. but it causes permanent damage to the product.

11. Answer: c) To assess the physical properties of a material by causing failure b) Visual inspection: Visual inspection can detect surface defects but does not provide insight
into internal structural issues.
Explanation of Options:
c) Non-destructive testing (NDT): Correct. NDT allows for the examination of internal
a) To evaluate the process capability: Process capability evaluation typically uses non-
structures (e.g., X-ray, ultrasonic, magnetic particle testing) without causing any damage to the
destructive methods and statistical tools like control charts, not destructive testing.
material.
b) To ensure that products meet customer specifications: Destructive testing focuses on testing
d) Functional testing: Functional testing verifies that the product performs according to its
the material's strength and properties by failure, not simply ensuring specification
intended function but does not assess internal material properties or defects.
conformance.
14. Answer: c) Eddy current testing
c) To assess the physical properties of a material by causing failure: Correct. Destructive testing
is used to measure the limits of materials and components by intentionally causing failure to Explanation of Options:

understand their properties under stress (e.g., tensile testing, impact testing). a) Ultrasonic testing: Ultrasonic testing is primarily used for detecting internal flaws in

d) To determine the aesthetic quality of a product: Aesthetic quality is typically assessed materials, not surface cracks.

visually, and destructive testing is not relevant for this purpose. b) Visual inspection: Visual inspection can be effective for detecting visible surface cracks, but

12. Answer: c) A measuring tool used to determine if a part meets specified tolerances it may not identify small or hidden defects.

Explanation of Options: c) Eddy current testing: Correct. Eddy current testing is highly effective for detecting surface
cracks and other surface defects in conductive materials like metals.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques
d) X-ray testing: X-ray testing is effective for detecting internal flaws, but not as ideal for a) The maximum allowable defect rate for a single product: AQL applies to a batch, not a single
surface defects, as it primarily highlights internal structural issues. product.

15. Answer: b) They allow for faster, more consistent, and repeatable inspections b) The maximum defect rate that is acceptable in a batch of products: Correct. AQL is the

Explanation of Options: maximum percentage of defective units allowed in a batch before the batch is rejected.

a) They eliminate the need for quality standards: Automated inspection systems still need to c) The number of products that must be tested in a batch: The number of products tested is

follow quality standards to ensure consistent product quality. determined by the sampling plan, not by the AQL.

b) They allow for faster, more consistent, and repeatable inspections: Correct. Automated d) The threshold at which all products in a batch must be tested: AQL doesn’t require testing

inspection systems can inspect parts more quickly and with higher consistency and all units; it determines the acceptable defect level in the sample.

repeatability than manual inspection, reducing human error. 18. Answer: b) The total number of products produced in a batch

c) They reduce the need for employee training: While automation may reduce the need for Explanation of Options:
certain manual tasks, employees still need training to operate and maintain the system. a) The number of units in a sample: The sample size is separate from the lot size. The lot size
d) They are less expensive to implement in the long term: Automation systems can have high refers to the entire batch.
upfront costs, though they may save money in the long term due to increased efficiency and b) The total number of products produced in a batch: Correct. Lot size refers to the total number
reduced labor costs. of products in a batch or production run.
16. Answer: c) To decide whether a batch of products should be accepted or rejected based c) The number of defective units in a batch: This refers to the number of defective items in a
on a sample batch, not the total lot size.
Explanation of Options: d) The number of units that pass the inspection: The number of passing units is a result of the
a) To verify the production process quality based on continuous inspection: Acceptance inspection, not the definition of lot size.
sampling typically involves sampling a subset of products, not continuous inspection. 19. Answer: b) It specifies the number of units that must be inspected in a batch
b) To determine the root cause of defects in a batch of products: Acceptance sampling is not Explanation of Options:
used for root cause analysis; it’s a decision tool for batch acceptance.
a) It determines the total number of defects allowed in a batch: The sample size does not directly
c) To decide whether a batch of products should be accepted or rejected based on a sample: determine the number of defects allowed; that is the role of the acceptance quality limit (AQL).
Correct. Acceptance sampling is used to inspect a sample and decide whether the entire batch
b) It specifies the number of units that must be inspected in a batch: Correct. The sample size
should be accepted or rejected.
is the number of units selected from the batch to inspect.
d) To measure the specific dimensions of a product: Dimension measurement is not the focus
c) It defines the acceptable defect rate in a batch: This is the role of the AQL, not the sample
of acceptance sampling; it deals with the acceptability of the entire batch.
size.
17. Answer: b) The maximum defect rate that is acceptable in a batch of products
d) It defines the number of defect-free products needed to accept a batch: The sample size is
Explanation of Options: about how many products to inspect, not how many need to be defect-free for acceptance.

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Chapter-2 | Quality Control Tool and Techniques Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

20. Answer: a) The maximum number of defective items allowed in a sample for the lot QUALITY CONTROL
to be accepted

Explanation of Options:
Chapter-3| Cost of Quality
a) The maximum number of defective items allowed in a sample for the lot to be accepted:
Correct. The acceptance number is the highest number of defective items allowed in the sample 3.1 Cost of Quality (COQ) is a concept that refers to the total cost incurred to ensure that
for the batch to be accepted. products or services meet quality standards and customer expectations. It encompasses the
costs associated with achieving and maintaining quality as well as the costs resulting from
b) The number of defects found in the sample after inspection: The acceptance number is the
defects or failures. COQ is a critical tool for organizations to manage and improve their quality
threshold for defective items, not the number found.
control systems because it helps to quantify the financial impact of quality efforts and
c) The number of products that must be inspected before making a decision: This is related to
deficiencies.
the sample size, not the acceptance number.
The Cost of Quality can be divided into four major categories:
d) The total number of products in the batch: This refers to the lot size, not the acceptance
number.

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Subscription link (Technical) by Dr. Jaspal Singh: • Cost of conformance i.e. prevention and appraisal costs can be considered as good
https://unacademy.com/store/batch/safalta-batch-for-uppsc-ae-2025-technical/XGNHE6UO amount spent. Cost of failure is an unnecessary amount spent in the form of internal
and external failure costs.

• Cost of quality Cost of conformance + Cost of non-conformance.

A) Prevention Costs
These are costs incurred to prevent defects from occurring in the first place. Prevention
costs are proactive and focus on reducing the likelihood of quality issues by improving
processes, systems, and employee training. Investing in prevention is generally seen as a

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Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

long-term, cost-effective strategy for maintaining product quality and customer Key Objective:
satisfaction.
Appraisal costs aim to detect defects early in the production process. While these costs
Examples of Prevention Costs: help ensure that only quality products reach customers, they do not directly prevent
defects from occurring; they merely help identify and correct them.
• Quality training programs for employees

• Investment in process improvement initiatives (e.g., Six Sigma, Lean Manufacturing)

C) Internal Failure Costs
Internal failure costs are incurred when defects are found before the product reaches the
• Supplier quality audits and evaluations
customer. These costs arise from defects that are identified and corrected during the
• Preventive maintenance of equipment
manufacturing or production process. While the defect is caught internally, there are still
• Development of quality plans and standards significant costs associated with rework, scrap, and delays.
• Product design reviews and testing Examples of Internal Failure Costs:
Key Objective: • Rework and repair costs to correct defects

The main objective of prevention costs is to eliminate the causes of defects before they • Scrapping of defective products that cannot be fixed
occur. By focusing on prevention, organizations can reduce future costs associated with • Costs of handling and storing defective items
defects, which can be much higher than investing upfront in quality systems. • Costs of disposal of defective materials or products
B) Appraisal Costs • Production delays and lost productivity

Appraisal costs are incurred for measuring and monitoring the quality of products and • Investigation and analysis of defects
services. These costs are associated with the activities required to assess whether a
Key Objective:
product meets quality standards. Appraisal is essentially a form of inspection, testing,
Internal failure costs are incurred because of defects discovered during the production
and verification to detect defects before products are delivered to customers.
process, and while the products are not delivered to customers, these costs can still be
Examples of Appraisal Costs:
significant. Reducing internal failure costs is a key goal of quality improvement
• Inspection and testing of materials, components, and final products initiatives, as it helps save resources and avoid redoing work.
• Quality control audits and reviews
D) External Failure Costs
• Maintenance and calibration of testing equipment
External failure costs are the costs associated with defects found after the product has
• Sampling and statistical quality control
been delivered to the customer. These costs are typically the most expensive and
• Incoming and outgoing product inspection damaging because they affect customer satisfaction, brand reputation, and market share.
• Inspection during production External failures represent defects that could have been caught during production but
were missed, leading to costs incurred when customers experience problems with the
product or service.

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

Examples of External Failure Costs: top) is external failure costs. The idea is that focusing on prevention (and appraisal) can
significantly reduce the much higher costs associated with internal and external failures.
• Warranty claims and repairs

• Product returns and replacements

How to Use Cost of Quality for Decision Making

• Loss of customer loyalty and future sales a. Quantifying and Analyzing Costs

• Brand damage and loss of market reputation • Organizations can analyze their COQ to assess which areas are contributing the most
to quality problems. For instance, if internal failure costs are high, it might indicate
• Legal costs due to product liability or lawsuits
poor process control or a need for better training and preventive measures.
• Customer complaints and the associated handling costs
b. Improving Profitability
• Product recalls and the associated costs
• By identifying where money is being spent inefficiently on internal and external
• Costs of field service and support for defective products
failure costs, an organization can redirect resources toward more effective prevention
Key Objective: and appraisal activities, which will reduce overall COQ in the long run.

External failure costs are the most detrimental to an organization because they directly c. Making Strategic Investments
impact the customer and can damage the organization’s reputation. These costs are • COQ analysis helps in making informed decisions about investments in quality
typically the result of failing to catch defects earlier in the process, and they can lead to management systems, technology, training, or process improvement initiatives. For
customer churn and reduced sales. instance, investing in automation or better quality assurance tools could lead to higher
NOTE: Hidden Quality costs: These are also costs incurred when trying to understand appraisal costs initially but may lead to significant reductions in failure costs over
the cost of poor quality. Commonly measured failure costs include scrap, rework, time.
warranty etc., but the hidden failure costs will include increased inventory. decreased Example Calculation of Cost of Quality
capacity, potential loss of sales. engineering and management time etc
Imagine a company that manufactures consumer electronics. The company incurs the
3.2 The Relationship Between the Different Costs of Quality following costs in a given year:
• Prevention and Appraisal Costs are often seen as investments. These costs are • Prevention Costs: Rs 100,000 (training, process improvements)
intended to reduce or eliminate defects and failures, particularly internal and external
• Appraisal Costs: Rs 50,000 (inspection, testing)
failures. Investing in prevention and appraisal will generally result in lower failure
• Internal Failure Costs: Rs 200,000 (rework, scrap)
costs (both internal and external).
• External Failure Costs: Rs 500,000 (warranty claims, returns, and reputational
• Internal and External Failure Costs are reactive costs that arise due to defects. The
damage)
higher the level of internal and external failures, the greater the total cost of quality.
Total COQ = Prevention + Appraisal + Internal Failure + External Failure
3.3 COQ Quadrant or "Pyramid of Quality"
In this case, Total COQ = 100,000 + 50,000 + 200,000 + 500,000 = Rs 850,000
A common illustration of COQ is a pyramid where the largest section (at the bottom)
consists of prevention costs, followed by appraisal costs, and the smallest section (at the

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Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

By focusing more on prevention and reducing both internal and external failure costs, the • The costs associated with poor quality are due to both sporadic and chronic quality
company can significantly lower the total COQ, especially the expensive external failure problems. A sporadic problem is sudden which requires remedy through restoration
costs, which impact customer loyalty and long-term profitability. of the status quo. A chronic problem is a long-standing, adverse situation which
requires remedy through a change in status quo. The approach to solving sporadic
Why Managing the Cost of Quality is Important
problems differs from the that used to solve chronic problems. The process control
a) Competitive Advantage: By focusing on prevention and reducing failure costs, an
solves sporadic problems while chronic problems are solved through quality
organization can enhance its product quality, reduce waste, improve customer
improvement. Sporadic problems must receive immediate attention. On the other
satisfaction, and differentiate itself in the market.
hand, the chronic problems occur over a period of time, are often difficult to solve
b) Profitability: A company that manages its COQ effectively will incur lower costs in and are accepted as inevitable.
dealing with defects and failures, thus increasing profitability.
• Total quality cost curve may be divided into three zones. The zone in which a
c) Customer Loyalty: Reducing external failure costs ensures customers receive company is in can usually be identified from the prevailing ratios of the quality costs
quality products, which can lead to increased loyalty, repeat business, and positive in the principal categories as follows:
word-of-mouth referrals.
• Zone of Improvement Projects: This is the left-hand portion of the total quality cost
3.4 The optimum quality cost model shows three curves: curve. Failure costs constitute more than 70 per cent of the total quality costs while

• Failure costs: These reduce as the failures decrease or lesser products are defective. prevention costs are less than 10 percent of the total. In such cases, there are

These increase as the level of quality decreases. opportunities for reducing total quality costs by the quality of conformance. The
approach is to identify specific improvement projects and pursue them to improve
• Prevention and appraisal costs: These are low when the level of quality is less and
the conformance, thereby reducing the costs of poor quality, especially failure costs.
these increase as the level of quality increases.

• Total quality cost: This is sum of the failure costs and the prevention and appraisal
costs The objective is to minimise the total cost of Quality.

• Zone of High Appraisal Costs: This is the right-hand portion of the total quality cost
curve. It is usually characterized by the fact that appraisal costs exceed failure costs.
In such cases there are also opportunities to reduce costs.

• Zone of Indifference: This is the central area of the total quality cost curve. In this
zone, the failure costs are usually about half the quality costs while prevention costs

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

are about 10 per cent of the quality costs. In the indifference zone, the optimum has • The balance between the cost of quality and value of quality gives optimum quality
been reached. Continuous improvement is always desirable. of design.

• Cost of quality (COQ) data is useful as a measurement tool for it can be used very • From company's point of view profit is more important. It is not necessary that the
effectively to identify and prioritize improvement opportunities and to track the company should manufacture 100% quality products. The study of optimum quality
impact of the change once it is initiated. The COQ data is aimed at attacking the of design involves market survey. While carrying out market survey expected sale for
failure costs and driving them to zero. This strategy is implemented to enable quick particular quality, profit and competition in the market is to be considered The quality
problem solving and initiation of change of improvement in the processes that of design should meet the needs of the customers and at the same time its
produce the product or service. manufacturing cost should be such which will yield maximum profit. The aim should

• Appraisal cost activities should be minimized as they do not add value since they do be to improve quality at lower cost.

not change the quality of the product or service being evaluated. The more the
inspections or verifications conducted, the less likely that the poor quality product
will be shipped to the customer. However, these activities do not prevent the poor
quality product from being produced. By spending more money on prevention
activities, appraisal activities can be reduced and this also leads to low failure costs.

3.5 Value of Quality

• With superior quality, the company can earn higher share of market, firm prices, a
higher percentage of successful bids, and still other benefits to income. It is this effect
on income which makes quality to have value. Hence, value of quality can be defined
as the return directly or indirectly gained by the manufacturer due to mission of
quality.

• The value of quality is to be assessed considering various factors, a few of which are
as under: • The curves representing the cost and value of quality of design are shown in figure.

➢ The saving due to increased production. If we want to improve the quality of design from point 1 to point 2, the cost of quality
will increase by amount A whereas the value of quality will increase by amount B.
➢ Reduction in scrap and re-work cost.
Now B > A and therefore, improvement in quality at this level will yield more income.
➢ Increased sales of good quality product.
➢ Reputation of the manufacturer and goodwill of the customer.
➢ Psychological stability in the enterprise due to increased sales and security of
jobs to Jolas workers.

3.6 Balance Between the Cost of Quality and Value of Quality

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Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

Q1. Which of the following is an example of a prevention cost in the context of the Cost of Q6. In the context of Cost of Quality, what is meant by the term “hidden costs”?
Quality? a) Costs that are not accounted for in the traditional financial reporting system
a) Rework costs to fix defective products b) Costs incurred from defects that occur after the product has been shipped

b) Product inspections performed during production c) Costs associated with training and preventive measures

c) Supplier evaluation and selection processes d) The cost of appraisal activities, such as inspections
Q7. How does the Cost of Quality (COQ) help in making decisions about resource allocation?
d) Warranty claims from customers
a) It identifies areas where quality improvement efforts can be most effectively focused
Q2. What would be the most likely consequence of reducing prevention costs in an
b) It measures the direct return on investment for quality improvement programs
organization’s quality program?
c) It helps determine how many products need to be tested to ensure quality
a) Increased external failure costs
d) It estimates the costs of failure after product release to the customer
b) Decreased internal failure costs
Q8. Which of the following is an example of external failure cost in a software development
c) Lower appraisal costs
company?
d) Fewer product inspections a) Costs of employee training on software testing techniques
Q3. Which of the following would be considered an external failure cost in a company b) Bug-fixing during development phase
manufacturing automobiles? c) Customer complaints and returns for defective software
a) Costs of training employees on quality control methods d) Time spent conducting internal code reviews
b) Warranty costs for repairing faulty engines Q9. Which of the following scenarios is most likely to result in the highest external failure
c) Inspection of car parts during production costs?

d) Repairing defects identified during final inspection before shipment a) A manufacturing company produces a batch of products that do not meet customer
expectations, but the defects are identified before shipment
Q4. Which of the following is true about appraisal costs?
b) A software company releases an update that causes widespread system failures across
a) They are incurred to prevent defects from occurring
customer systems
b) They are costs associated with discovering defects during production
c) A construction company discovers that their building project is behind schedule
c) They include the cost of reworking defective products
d) A food company experiences waste during production due to quality control issues
d) They represent the cost of warranty claims from customers Q10. Which of the following would most likely increase the Cost of Quality (COQ) for an
Q5. Which of the following actions is most likely to reduce both internal failure costs and organization?
external failure costs? a) Reducing the number of inspections performed during production
a) Reducing employee training programs on quality b) Investing in advanced automation to reduce manual errors
b) Investing in more robust quality control systems and preventive maintenance c) Decreasing employee training and development programs

c) Increasing the sample size for product inspections d) Focusing on preventive maintenance of machinery

d) Cutting back on supplier audits and inspections

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

1. Answer: c) Supplier evaluation and selection processes c) Inspection of car parts during production: This is an appraisal cost because it involves

Explanation of Options: measuring and testing the quality of products during production.

a) Rework costs to fix defective products: This is an example of internal failure cost, as d) Repairing defects identified during final inspection before shipment: This is an internal

rework occurs when defects are identified during production. failure cost, as the defects are found internally before the product is delivered.

b) Product inspections performed during production: This is an example of appraisal cost, 4. Answer: b) They are costs associated with discovering defects during production

as it involves checking the quality of products during production. Explanation of Options:

c) Supplier evaluation and selection processes: Correct. Supplier evaluation is a prevention a) They are incurred to prevent defects from occurring: Prevention costs are related to
cost because it focuses on selecting suppliers who can meet quality requirements, preventing preventing defects, not appraisal costs.
defects before they happen. b) They are costs associated with discovering defects during production: Correct. Appraisal
d) Warranty claims from customers: This is an example of external failure cost, as it occurs costs are the costs associated with measuring and evaluating products to detect defects before
after the product has been delivered to the customer. delivery.

2. Answer: a) Increased external failure costs c) They include the cost of reworking defective products: Reworking defective products is

Explanation of Options: an example of internal failure costs, not appraisal costs.

a) Increased external failure costs: Correct. If prevention costs are reduced, defects are more d) They represent the cost of warranty claims from customers: Warranty claims are

likely to escape detection and reach the customer, leading to higher external failure costs. external failure costs, not appraisal costs.

b) Decreased internal failure costs: Prevention costs aim to reduce internal failures. Reducing 5. Answer: b) Investing in more robust quality control systems and preventive maintenance

them would likely lead to an increase in internal failure costs. Explanation of Options:

c) Lower appraisal costs: Appraisal costs might remain unaffected by a reduction in a) Reducing employee training programs on quality: This would likely increase both
prevention costs. internal and external failure costs, as employees would be less equipped to prevent and detect

d) Fewer product inspections: Reducing prevention costs doesn't directly correlate with fewer defects.

inspections; instead, it might lead to more defects, thus increasing inspection needs. b) Investing in more robust quality control systems and preventive maintenance: Correct.

3. Answer: b) Warranty costs for repairing faulty engines Improving quality control systems and preventive maintenance reduces defects and the
likelihood of failure both internally (during production) and externally (after delivery).
Explanation of Options:
c) Increasing the sample size for product inspections: While increasing inspections can catch
a) Costs of training employees on quality control methods: This is a prevention cost
more defects, it does not address the root cause of defects and may increase appraisal costs
because training is aimed at preventing defects.
rather than reducing failure costs.
b) Warranty costs for repairing faulty engines: Correct. Warranty repairs are an example of
d) Cutting back on supplier audits and inspections: This would likely increase failure costs
external failure costs, as they involve correcting defects after the product has been delivered
due to defects entering the system from suppliers.
to the customer.

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Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality

6. Answer: a) Costs that are not accounted for in the traditional financial reporting system b) Bug-fixing during development phase: This is an internal failure cost, as it addresses

Explanation of Options: defects found before the software is released.

a) Costs that are not accounted for in the traditional financial reporting system: Correct. c) Customer complaints and returns for defective software: Correct. These are external

Hidden costs refer to costs that organizations may not explicitly track in their regular failure costs, as they occur after the product has been delivered to the customer.

accounting systems but are still significant, such as lost opportunities, customer dissatisfaction, Time spent conducting internal code reviews: This is an appraisal cost, as it involves
or internal inefficiencies. checking the quality of the code before release.
9. Answer: b) A software company releases an update that causes widespread system failures
b) Costs incurred from defects that occur after the product has been shipped: These are
across customer systems
external failure costs, not hidden costs.
Explanation of Options:
c) Costs associated with training and preventive measures: These are prevention costs, not
hidden costs. a) A manufacturing company produces a batch of products that do not meet customer
expectations, but the defects are identified before shipment: These are internal failure
The cost of appraisal activities, such as inspections: These are appraisal costs, not hidden
costs. costs, not external failure costs, as the defects are caught before delivery.

7. Answer: a) It identifies areas where quality improvement efforts can be most effectively b) A software company releases an update that causes widespread system failures across
focused customer systems: Correct. This is a classic example of external failure costs because defects

Explanation of Options: are discovered only after the product is delivered to customers, and they can lead to customer
dissatisfaction, legal costs, and brand damage.
a) It identifies areas where quality improvement efforts can be most effectively focused:
Correct. COQ analysis helps organizations identify high-cost areas (such as external failures) c) A construction company discovers that their building project is behind schedule: This

and target improvement efforts where they will have the greatest financial impact. is not directly related to failure costs but could affect the appraisal or internal failure costs.

b) It measures the direct return on investment for quality improvement programs: COQ d) A food company experiences waste during production due to quality control issues:

does not directly measure ROI; it is a tool to assess the total cost of quality and identify areas This would lead to internal failure costs, as the defects are discovered before the product is

for improvement. shipped.

c) It helps determine how many products need to be tested to ensure quality: This is related 10. Answer: c) Decreasing employee training and development programs

to appraisal costs, but COQ itself is broader and focuses on total quality-related costs. Explanation of Options:

d) It estimates the costs of failure after product release to the customer: This would fall a) Reducing the number of inspections performed during production: This could reduce
under external failure costs, but COQ encompasses more than just failure costs. appraisal costs, but it may increase failure costs if defects go unnoticed.

8. Answer: c) Customer complaints and returns for defective software b) Investing in advanced automation to reduce manual errors: This would likely reduce

Explanation of Options: internal failure costs by improving consistency and quality, thereby lowering the overall
COQ.
a) Costs of employee training on software testing techniques: This is a prevention cost, as
it is aimed at preventing defects during software development.

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Chapter-3 | Cost of Quality Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

c) Decreasing employee training and development programs: Correct. Reducing training QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
could increase internal failure costs due to a lack of knowledge and skills, which could lead
to higher defects and quality issues.
Chapter-4| Quality Management System
d) Focusing on preventive maintenance of machinery: Preventive maintenance reduces the
risk of equipment breakdowns and defects, which would decrease failure costs. 4.1 Standards
• The more the variation, the lesser will be the quality and vice-versa. Thus in order to
improve quality, the variation should be minimized.
• Thus standardisation leads to reduction of variation and thus improvement in quality.
How to connect?
Further, standardisation helps in interchangeability which makes mass production
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• Standards lead to increase in confidence of investors and trust in consumers. Thus,
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uppsc-ae-2024-non-technical/TX7E53JR standards can also be used as a marketing strategy.
• Development of standards is a dynamic process. It means standards evolve over a
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period of time depending on the changing requirements.
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• Standardization can help to maximize environmental protection, compatibility,
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4.2 Certification Marks used in India
• Agmark: It is used for all agricultural products. It is given by Directorate of Marketing
and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture.
• BIS hallmark: It is a system of hallmarking of gold and silver jewellery sold in India
for certifying the purity of metal. If BIS Hallmark is present on the jewellery then it
means that it is certified and quality assured according to set of standards laid by Bureau
of Indian Standards.
• Ecomark: It is an ecolabel for various products issued by the Bureau of Indian
Standards.
• FPO mark: It is given for all processed fruit products in India. It certifies that the
product was manufactured in a hygienic 'food-safe environment.
• Geographical Indications marks: It is defined under the WTO Agreement on Trade-
Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Examples, include the
Darjeeling tea and Basmati mark.
• India Organic certification mark for organically farmed food products. It certifies that
the product conforms to the specifications of National Standards for Organic Products,
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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

2000. The certification is issued by testing centres accredited by the Agricultural and Subscriber members are countries with small economies. They pay reduced
Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) under the National membership fees, but can follow the development of standards.
Program for Organic Production of the Government of India. 4.3 ISO 9000 Series
• ISI mark: It is used for industrial product. It certifies that a product conforms to a set ISO 9000 is a set of international standards on quality management developed to help
of standards laid by the Bureau of Indian Standards. companies effectively document the quality system elements to be implemented to
• Non Polluting Vehicle mark: It is given for mo vehicles certifying conformity to the maintain an efficient quality system. They are not specific to any one industry and can
Bharat Stage emission standards. The standards and timelines for its implementation be applied to organizations of any size.
are set by Central Pollution Control Boards.
ISO 9000 series can help a company satisfy its customers, meet regulatory requirements,
• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is an international
and achieve continual improvement. However, it should be considered to be a first step,
standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards the base level of a quality system, not a complete guarantee of quality. Third-party
organizations. The organization promotes worldwide proprietary, industrial and
certification bodies provide independent confirmation that organizations mest the
commercial standards. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
requirements of ISO 9001.
• The International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-
• ISO 9000:2015: Quality management systems. Fundamentals and vocabulary
governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of
• ISO 9001:2015: Quality management systems. Requirements
the 162 member countries. It is the world's largest developer of voluntary international
• ISO 9004:2009: Quality management systems - Managing for the sustained success of
standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations.
an organization (continuous improvement)
Over twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured
products and technology to food safety, agriculture and healthcare.
4.4 Other Popular Standards

• Use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable • ISO 14001 Environmental management

and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while • ISO 19011 Guidelines for auditing management systems
minimizing errors and waste. By enabling products from different markets to be directly • ISO 31000 Risk management
compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the • ISO 50001 Energy management
development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard • ISO 45001 Occupational health and safety
consumers and the end-users of products and services, ensuring that certified products • ISO 13485 Medical devices
conform to the minimum standards set internationally. • ISO 17025 Testing and calibration laboratories
ISO has three membership categories: • ISO 27001 Information security management
Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body • ISO 16949 automotive industry supply chain
in each country. These are the only members of ISO that have voting rights. BIS
represents India in this.
4.5 ISO 9001
Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards
ISO 9001 is a globally recognized standard for Quality Management Systems (QMS)
organization. These members are informed about ISO's work, but do not participate in
that provides organizations with a framework to ensure they consistently meet customer
standards promulgation.
and regulatory requirements, while also enhancing customer satisfaction. It is part of the

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

broader ISO 9000 family of standards, which focus on quality management principles. g) Relationship Management: Organizations should maintain good relationships with
ISO 9001 is applicable to any organization, regardless of size, type, or the products or external stakeholders (such as suppliers and partners) to create value and ensure long-
services it offers. term success.
The latest version of ISO 9001 is ISO 9001:2015, released in September 2015. It 4.7 Structure of ISO 9001:2015
introduced some important changes, including a greater emphasis on risk-based thinking The structure of ISO 9001:2015 follows a common framework known as Annex SL,
and a focus on leadership engagement, strategic alignment, and continual improvement. which is used across all ISO management system standards. This structure makes it easier
Here’s a detailed breakdown of ISO 9001, its structure, principles, and the benefits of for organizations to integrate multiple management systems (e.g., ISO 14001 for
implementing the standard. environmental management) as they all share the same high-level structure.
4.6 Key Principles of ISO 9001 Here’s a breakdown of the main sections of ISO 9001:2015:
ISO 9001 is built upon seven key principles of quality management. These principles a) Clause 1: Scope
guide organizations in creating and improving their QMS. They are: This section defines the purpose of the standard and its applicability. It specifies that
a) Customer Focus: The organization must understand customer needs, meet their ISO 9001 applies to all organizations, regardless of their size or sector, aiming to
requirements, and strive to exceed their expectations. This is the core of a quality improve their overall performance.
management system. b) Clause 2: Normative References
b) Leadership: Leaders at all levels should establish a unified vision and set clear This section lists any referenced documents that are required for implementing ISO
directions to align the organization with its goals, ensuring everyone works towards 9001.
a common objective. c) Clause 3: Terms and Definitions
c) Engagement of People: Employees at all levels should be involved in the processes This section provides key terms and definitions used in the standard, ensuring clarity
and decisions of the organization. Engaging people helps in leveraging their abilities and consistency in interpretation.
and fostering a culture of continuous improvement.
d) Clause 4: Context of the Organization
d) Process Approach: ISO 9001 advocates for managing activities as processes, where
Organizations must understand the context in which they operate, including external
each process is interlinked and managed effectively to achieve consistent and
and internal factors that can impact their quality management system. This includes
predictable results. identifying stakeholders and their needs.
e) Improvement: Continual improvement is a permanent objective of the organization.
e) Clause 5: Leadership
Through regular reviews, the organization identifies opportunities to enhance
Top management must demonstrate leadership and commitment by ensuring that
efficiency, effectiveness, and quality.
quality management is integrated into the organization’s strategy and culture. This
f) Evidence-based Decision Making: Organizations are encouraged to make decisions
section also highlights the need for establishing roles and responsibilities.
based on data and factual analysis. This helps in reducing risks and improving
processes.
f) Clause 6: Planning
Planning is central to ISO 9001. Organizations are required to establish quality
objectives and determine the actions needed to address risks and opportunities. This

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

section also emphasizes the need for setting measurable goals and defining actions d) Consistency: ISO 9001 helps standardize processes and workflows, ensuring that
for improvement. quality is consistent across the organization and that employees understand their
g) Clause 7: Support roles in delivering quality.

This clause outlines the resources required for the QMS, including human resources, e) Market Advantage: ISO 9001 certification is widely recognized and respected. It
infrastructure, and organizational knowledge. It also includes requirements for demonstrates to customers, regulators, and stakeholders that the organization is
competence, awareness, communication, and documented information (such as committed to maintaining high standards of quality, which can provide a
procedures and records). competitive edge in the marketplace.

h) Clause 8: Operation f) Continuous Improvement: ISO 9001 fosters a culture of continuous improvement.

This section focuses on the core processes of the organization. It includes By regularly evaluating performance, identifying opportunities for enhancement,

requirements for managing operations, meeting customer requirements, and and implementing corrective actions, organizations can adapt to changing market

controlling any external resources or suppliers involved in the process. conditions and customer expectations.

i) Clause 9: Performance Evaluation g) Regulatory Compliance: ISO 9001 helps organizations meet regulatory

The organization must monitor, measure, analyze, and evaluate the performance of requirements and industry standards, reducing the risk of legal issues and penalties.

its QMS. This includes internal audits, management reviews, and assessment of h) Employee Engagement and Motivation: With a focus on leadership and people,

customer satisfaction. ISO 9001 encourages employee involvement in decision-making and process
improvements, boosting morale and motivation.
j) Clause 10: Improvement
Organizations must continually improve the QMS. This section addresses corrective 4.9 Certification Process
actions, how to address nonconformities, and ensure that improvements are made to While ISO 9001 is not a mandatory certification, many organizations choose to become
the system in response to performance evaluations or customer feedback. certified to gain credibility and demonstrate their commitment to quality. The
certification process typically involves the following steps:

4.8 Benefits of Implementing ISO 9001 a) Preparation: The organization assesses its current processes and identifies gaps in
meeting the ISO 9001 requirements.
Implementing ISO 9001 brings a variety of benefits to organizations:
b) Implementation: The organization implements the necessary changes, including
a) Enhanced Customer Satisfaction: By focusing on customer needs and delivering
documentation of the quality management system (QMS) and staff training.
quality products and services, ISO 9001 helps improve customer satisfaction,
c) Internal Audits: Conduct internal audits to ensure that the QMS is working
leading to repeat business and improved customer loyalty.
effectively and that all ISO 9001 requirements are being met.
b) Improved Efficiency: ISO 9001 promotes process optimization, reducing waste,
and improving resource utilization. This results in greater operational efficiency. d) Management Review: The top management reviews the system to ensure that it
aligns with organizational goals and is effective.
c) Better Risk Management: The 2015 version of the standard places a strong
e) Certification Audit: An external ISO certification body conducts an audit to assess
emphasis on risk-based thinking. By identifying and addressing potential risks,
compliance with the standard. If the organization meets all requirements, the
organizations can proactively manage uncertainties and prevent disruptions.
certification is granted.

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

f) Surveillance Audits: After certification, regular surveillance audits (usually Questions
annually) are conducted to ensure ongoing compliance and continual improvement.
Q1. Which of the following is NOT a requirement for leadership under ISO 9001:2015?

a) Assigning clear responsibilities and authorities for quality management

b) Ensuring engagement of people at all levels of the organization

c) Establishing a quality policy that aligns with the organization’s strategy

d) Ensuring customer satisfaction through routine audits

Q2. ISO 9001:2015 requires organizations to use which type of approach for decision-making?

a) Intuition-based approach

b) Risk-based approach

c) Experience-based approach

d) Analytical approach

Q3. Which of the following is part of Clause 6, 'Planning,' in ISO 9001:2015?

a) Determining the organization's internal and external context

b) Conducting customer satisfaction surveys

c) Addressing risks and opportunities

d) Setting up the management review process

Q4. Which of the following activities is NOT part of the 'Support' clause of ISO 9001:2015?

a) Managing organizational knowledge

b) Ensuring employee competence

c) Conducting internal audits

d) Controlling documented information

Q5. In ISO 9001:2015, which clause requires organizations to define their quality policy?

a) Clause 4

b) Clause 5

c) Clause 6

d) Clause 7

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

1. Answer: d) Ensuring customer satisfaction through routine audits

Q6. What is the main objective of Clause 10: Improvement in ISO 9001? Explanation of Options:
a) Assigning clear responsibilities and authorities for quality management: Correct. This
a) To ensure corrective actions are implemented when there are nonconformities
is a requirement under ISO 9001 for top management to establish clear leadership.
b) To ensure the quality policy is communicated to all employees
b) Ensuring engagement of people at all levels of the organization: Correct. Leadership in
c) To manage resources effectively ISO 9001 emphasizes the need for engagement of all employees to ensure the success of the
d) To assess the effectiveness of quality audits quality management system.
c) Establishing a quality policy that aligns with the organization’s strategy: Correct. Top
Q7. Which of the following is a key benefit of adopting ISO 9001?
management must define a quality policy that reflects the organization’s overall strategic
a) Guaranteeing a 100% defect-free product
direction.
b) Reducing the need for quality audits d) Ensuring customer satisfaction through routine audits: Incorrect. While audits assess
c) Enhancing customer satisfaction and business performance QMS effectiveness, they do not directly ensure customer satisfaction. Customer satisfaction is
addressed more through process management and continual improvement.
d) Reducing the need for employee training
2. Answer: b) Risk-based approach
Q8. Which of the following would typically be considered a nonconformity in ISO 9001:2015?
Explanation of Options:
a) A document has been incorrectly filed a) Intuition-based approach: Incorrect. ISO 9001 requires decisions to be based on evidence
b) A new product is being developed and data, not intuition.

c) Customer complaints are received b) Risk-based approach: Correct. ISO 9001 emphasizes a risk-based approach to decision-
making, which helps organizations identify and mitigate risks and opportunities that can affect
d) A new employee is hired without formal training
product or service quality.
Q9. In ISO 9001:2015, which of the following best describes the role of management reviews? c) Experience-based approach: While experience can be helpful, ISO 9001 stresses the need
a) To monitor customer satisfaction for data and evidence-based decisions, not solely experience.

b) To evaluate the effectiveness of the QMS and identify areas for improvement d) Analytical approach: Analytical thinking is important, but the standard specifically calls
for a risk-based approach to manage uncertainty.
c) To define new quality objectives
3. Answer: c) Addressing risks and opportunities
d) To conduct internal audits
Explanation of Options:
Q10. Which of the following activities should be considered when assessing customer a) Determining the organization's internal and external context: This is addressed in
satisfaction in ISO 9001:2015? Clause 4, ‘Context of the Organization,’ not Clause 6.
a) Reviewing feedback from suppliers b) Conducting customer satisfaction surveys: This is part of performance evaluation (Clause
9), not planning.
b) Conducting market research on competitors

c) Monitoring complaints, returns, and surveys

d) Analyzing employee performance reviews

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-4 | Quality Management System

c) Addressing risks and opportunities: Correct. Clause 6 focuses on planning for the QMS, c) To manage resources effectively: This is part of Clause 7 (Support), not Clause 10.
which includes addressing risks and opportunities that could affect the ability to meet d) To assess the effectiveness of quality audits: This is covered in Clause 9 (Performance
objectives. Evaluation).
d) Setting up the management review process: This is covered in Clause 9, not Clause 6. 7. Answer: c) Enhancing customer satisfaction and business performance
4. Answer: c) Conducting internal audits Explanation of Options:
Explanation of Options: a) Guaranteeing a 100% defect-free product: ISO 9001 does not guarantee a 100% defect-
a) Managing organizational knowledge: Correct. Clause 7 includes managing organizational free product but helps in reducing defects through quality management.
knowledge to ensure that employees have the information necessary to perform their jobs b) Reducing the need for quality audits: Audits are necessary to assess the effectiveness of
effectively. the QMS, so ISO 9001 does not reduce the need for them.
b) Ensuring employee competence: Correct. Clause 7 emphasizes the need to assess and c) Enhancing customer satisfaction and business performance: Correct. ISO 9001 aims to
ensure employee competence through training and development. improve processes, reduce inefficiencies, and increase customer satisfaction, which leads to
c) Conducting internal audits: Incorrect. Internal audits are part of the 'Performance better business performance.
Evaluation' (Clause 9), not 'Support'. d) Reducing the need for employee training: Training is essential for maintaining quality,
d) Controlling documented information: Correct. This is addressed in Clause 7, which and ISO 9001 emphasizes its importance.
emphasizes the control of documents and records related to the QMS. 8. Answer: a) A document has been incorrectly filed
5. Answer: b) Clause 5 Explanation of Options:
Explanation of Options: a) A document has been incorrectly filed: Correct. A nonconformity is any deviation from
a) Clause 4: This clause defines the context of the organization, including its external and established procedures or standards, such as improper document control.
internal environment, not quality policy. b) A new product is being developed: This is part of regular business operations and is not a
b) Clause 5: Correct. Clause 5 requires top management to define a quality policy that is nonconformity unless it does not meet established quality standards.
aligned with the organization’s strategy and direction. c) Customer complaints are received: Customer complaints may highlight a nonconformity
c) Clause 6: Clause 6 is related to planning and addressing risks and opportunities, not quality but are not inherently a nonconformity on their own.
policy. d) A new employee is hired without formal training: While this could be a risk, it does not
d) Clause 7: This clause deals with support, such as resources, competence, and directly qualify as a nonconformity unless it violates a specific quality requirement.
documentation, not quality policy. 9. Answer: b) To evaluate the effectiveness of the QMS and identify areas for improvement
6. Answer: a) To ensure corrective actions are implemented when there are nonconformities Explanation of Options:
Explanation of Options: a) To monitor customer satisfaction: Monitoring customer satisfaction is part of performance
a) To ensure corrective actions are implemented when there are nonconformities: Correct. evaluation, not management reviews.
Clause 10 focuses on the continual improvement of the QMS, which includes addressing b) To evaluate the effectiveness of the QMS and identify areas for improvement: Correct.
nonconformities and taking corrective actions. Management reviews are conducted to evaluate the performance of the QMS, review
b) To ensure the quality policy is communicated to all employees: This is part of Clause 5, not opportunities for improvement, and align the system with the organization’s strategic direction.
Clause 10.

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Chapter-4 | Quality Management System Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)

c) To define new quality objectives: Defining quality objectives is part of the planning QUALITY CONTROL
process, not the management review.
d) To conduct internal audits: Internal audits are a separate process, usually conducted by
internal auditors, not during management reviews. Chapter-5| Total Quality Management (TQM)
10. Answer: c) Monitoring complaints, returns, and surveys Total Quality Management (TQM) is a comprehensive and structured approach to
Explanation of Options: organizational management that seeks to improve the quality of products and services through
a) Reviewing feedback from suppliers: This is part of the relationship with suppliers, not continuous improvements, focusing on the long-term success of the organization by satisfying
directly related to customer satisfaction. both customer and employee needs. TQM involves the participation of all members of an
b) Conducting market research on competitors: This is important for strategic planning but organization in improving processes, products, services, and the organizational culture. It
is not a direct measure of customer satisfaction. emphasizes customer satisfaction, employee involvement, process management, and the
c) Monitoring complaints, returns, and surveys: Correct. ISO 9001 recommends importance of data-driven decision-making.
organizations monitor customer satisfaction through direct feedback, such as complaints,
5.1 Core Principles of Total Quality Management (TQM)
returns, and surveys.
a) Customer Focus
d) Analyzing employee performance reviews: This is part of internal performance
management, not customer satisfaction. • The primary goal of TQM is to meet or exceed customer expectations. The
customer’s perception of quality drives all improvements in the organization.
TQM emphasizes understanding customer needs and using feedback to refine
products and services.
How to connect?
• Companies practicing TQM are committed to continuous improvement in
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• TQM encourages the involvement of all employees, from top management to
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workforce committed to continuous improvement and quality.

c) Process-Centered Approach

• TQM is based on the idea that the overall quality of an organization depends on
how well individual processes perform. By optimizing processes, organizations
can reduce waste, improve efficiency, and consistently produce high-quality
products and services.

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
• Every activity or operation within the organization is viewed as a process that can 5.2 Key Components of Total Quality Management
be improved, and the focus is on improving processes rather than blaming
a) Leadership Commitment
individuals.
• For TQM to be successful, top management must commit to the principles and
d) Integrated System
goals of the program. Leaders are responsible for setting the vision, providing
• TQM is not a standalone program; it involves integrating quality principles into resources, and creating an environment where quality is valued.
every aspect of the organization, including marketing, sales, production, and
• Leadership should encourage a quality-focused culture, provide guidance, and
finance.
empower employees to contribute to quality improvements.
• The goal is to create a seamless system where every part of the organization works
b) Customer Satisfaction
together to achieve the common objective of providing high-quality products and
• TQM is built around the understanding that quality is defined by the customer.
services.
Organizations must continuously gather feedback from customers, both external
e) Continuous Improvement (Kaizen)
and internal, to understand their expectations and deliver products or services that
• Continuous improvement, often referred to as Kaizen (a Japanese term for "good meet or exceed these expectations.
change"), is the cornerstone of TQM. It involves a relentless pursuit of small
• Tools like customer surveys, focus groups, and net promoter scores (NPS) are
improvements in processes over time, which leads to significant enhancements in
used to assess satisfaction levels and make improvements based on customer
the overall quality.
input.
• TQM encourages adopting a mindset of never being satisfied with the current state
c) Employee Involvement
of quality and always seeking ways to improve.
• Employee participation is crucial for TQM. All employees should be empowered
f) Fact-Based Decision Making
to suggest improvements, identify quality issues, and be involved in decision-
• Decisions in TQM are based on the use of data and analysis rather than making processes that affect their work. This leads to higher morale and a greater
assumptions or gut feelings. Statistical tools, data collection, and analysis are used sense of responsibility for quality outcomes.
to monitor performance and identify areas for improvement.
• Techniques such as teamwork, suggestion schemes, and quality circles are
• Using facts helps eliminate subjective opinions and enables organizations to make implemented to engage employees at all levels in the quality management process.
informed decisions that lead to quality improvements.
d) Process Management
g) Communications
• TQM emphasizes the importance of process management. It aims to identify and
• Effective communication is essential to TQM. Information must be shared at all understand the processes that drive quality within an organization. Managers
levels of the organization to ensure everyone is aligned with the quality goals and analyze and document processes, measure performance, and work to optimize
objectives. This transparency fosters a sense of ownership and collaboration. efficiency while ensuring product or service quality.
• Open and clear communication also ensures that feedback from customers and • Tools such as flow charts, cause-and-effect diagrams, and process mapping are
employees is gathered and addressed. used to visualize and manage processes.

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
e) Integrated System d) Histogram: A histogram displays the frequency of occurrences of a set of data,

• TQM is an integrated system that requires alignment of all parts of the helping to identify patterns and areas for improvement.

organization with the goal of achieving quality. It brings together people, e) Control Charts: These charts track process performance over time to ensure that a
processes, policies, and procedures into a unified approach where each part process remains stable and that any variation is predictable.
supports the overall quality goals. f) Six Sigma: A set of techniques and tools for process improvement that focuses on
• The Quality Management System (QMS) is used to ensure that every aspect of reducing variability and defects. It uses the DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze,
the organization’s operations is aligned with the desired quality outcomes. Improve, Control) methodology.

f) Continuous Improvement g) Benchmarking: This involves comparing an organization’s processes and

• Continuous improvement is the philosophy of consistently seeking better ways to performance metrics to industry bests or competitors to identify areas for

achieve quality. It is not a one-time effort but an ongoing pursuit of incremental improvement.

improvements. 5.4 Benefits of Total Quality Management (TQM)

• Techniques like Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) and Six Sigma can help a) Improved Product Quality
organizations achieve continuous improvement.
• By focusing on quality throughout the entire organization, TQM helps in
g) Data-Driven Decision Making delivering higher-quality products and services, leading to improved customer
• TQM encourages using data and statistical methods to identify areas for satisfaction and fewer defects.
improvement, measure performance, and make informed decisions. The use of b) Increased Efficiency
data ensures that improvements are based on facts and are not arbitrary.
• TQM promotes the optimization of processes, leading to more efficient operations,
• Common tools for data analysis include Pareto analysis, scatter diagrams, reduced waste, and cost savings.
histograms, and control charts.
c) Enhanced Customer Satisfaction
5.3 TQM Tools and Techniques • When organizations focus on understanding and meeting customer needs, they are
There are several tools that are commonly used to implement TQM effectively: better able to deliver products that delight customers, leading to stronger customer

a) Pareto Analysis (80/20 Rule): This tool helps to identify the most significant loyalty.

problems by highlighting the vital few factors (often 20%) that contribute to the d) Employee Motivation and Engagement
majority (often 80%) of problems or defects. • TQM fosters a sense of involvement and ownership among employees, leading to
b) Fishbone Diagram (Ishikawa): This visual tool helps identify the root causes of a improved morale and job satisfaction. This empowerment can lead to higher
problem by categorizing potential causes (e.g., people, processes, equipment, productivity and innovation.
materials). e) Continuous Improvement
c) Flowcharting: A flowchart helps map out a process to understand how work is done
and where improvements can be made.

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
• The emphasis on continual improvement means that the organization is constantly strategies like Six Sigma, Lean Manufacturing, and Kaizen, help organizations achieve
evolving, learning from past experiences, and enhancing its processes and continuous improvement and excellence. Below is a detailed explanation of these TQM tools
performance. and techniques within the contexts of Six Sigma, Lean Manufacturing, and Kaizen:

f) Long-Term Success A) Six Sigma: Tools and Techniques

• TQM drives long-term success by focusing on sustainable growth, customer Six Sigma is a data-driven methodology focused on improving processes by identifying
retention, and continuous improvement rather than short-term fixes. and removing the causes of defects and variation. The goal is to achieve near-perfect
g) Reduction in Costs processes, targeting fewer than 3.4 defects per million opportunities.

• With improved processes, reduced defects, and better resource management, Statistical Concepts Related to Six Sigma
organizations practicing TQM often experience a reduction in operational costs
• Six sigma is a set of techniques and tools for process improvement. It was introduced
and waste.
by engineer Bill Smith while working at Motorola in 1986.
5.5 Challenges of Implementing TQM • Six sigma seeks to improve the quality of output of a process by identifying and

a) Resistance to Change removing the causes of defects and minimising the variability in processes. Each six
sigma project carried out within an organisation follows a defined sequence of steps
• Employees may resist changes in culture, processes, and leadership approaches
and has specific value targets. Six sigma may lead to reduced process cycle time,
required for TQM. Overcoming this resistance requires clear communication,
reduced costs, increased customer satisfaction and increased profits.
training, and leadership commitment.
• A six sigma process is one in which 99.99966% of all opportunities to produce some
b) Time-Consuming
feature of a part are statistically free of defects i.e. six sigma process will give 3.4
• TQM requires long-term commitment and can be a time-consuming process, as it defects per million opportunities (DPMO). It relies on use of Normal Distribution to
involves deep cultural changes and ongoing monitoring and improvement. predict defective rates.
c) Resource Intensive • Six Sigma quality is a benchmark of excellence for product and process quality,
popularized by Motorola based on zero defect concept introduced by Philip B. Crosby.
• Implementing TQM often requires investment in training, tools, and resources to
It provides a quantitative statistical notion of quality useful in understanding measuring
analyze and improve processes. Organizations may face challenges in allocating
and reducing variation. Six sigma is an overall strategy to accelerate improvements in
resources for these activities.
its processes, products and services.
d) Lack of Management Commitment
• The philosophy of Six Sigma is the same as that of TQM which is reducing defects.
• If top management does not fully support TQM or fails to allocate the necessary However, Six Sigma has a direct link with profitability by reducing the cost of poor
resources, it can be difficult to implement successfully across the organization. quality which the firm has to incur through rework, rejects and lost customers.
5.6 Total Quality Management (TQM) Tools and Techniques • Six sigma requires continuous efforts to achieve stable and predictable process results
by reducing variation. Achieving such level of sustained improvement requires
Total Quality Management (TQM) Tools and Techniques are methodologies used to
commitment from the entire organisation, particularly from the top-level management.
enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of processes, reduce waste, and improve the overall
quality of products and services within an organization. These tools, when integrated with

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)

• For six sigma projects, there is a clear focus on achieving measurable and quantifiable • Six sigma as a business strategy increases customers' responsiveness, builds customer
financial returns. Also, there is an increased emphasis on strong and passionate relationships, improves organisational resilience to respond to market conditions and
management leadership and support. aligns people and processes behind agreed objectives.
• ISO 13053: 2011 and ISO 18404: 2015 deal with six sigma process. • Six sigma is also a measure of excellence. Embarking on a six sigma programme means
• Lean management differs from six sigma in the sense that lean management emphasises delivering top quality products and services while virtually eliminating all internal
on eliminating waste and ensuring efficiency while six sigma focuses on eliminating inefficiencies.
defects and reducing variability. • Six sigma characteristics include operating processes under statistical control,
• Six sigma is the process that has six standard deviations on each side between the mean controlling input process variables rather than the usual output product variables,
and the specification limit. maximising equipment uptime and optimising cycle time.
• It contrasts to six sigma quality, the three sigma quality performance of 99.73% results • Six sigma may mean not only the obvious reduction of cycle time during production
in 2700 DPMO. For a process with a series of steps, the overall yield is the product of but more importantly optimising response time to inquiries, maximising the speed and
the yields of the different steps. Considering the complexity involved in the modern accuracy with which inventory and materials are supplied and fool proofing such
processes, three sigma quality level will result in larger number of defects thus making support processes from errors, inaccuracies and inefficiency.
the organisation unviable. • A six sigma process has very low standard deviation. As the sigma rating of a process
• In a six sigma process, over a period of time, a 1.5 sigma shift is introduced into the increases, the process capability increases. It means that as sigma rating increase, the
calculation. Accordingly, a process that fits 6 sigma between the process mean and the proportion of defects produced on average decreases.
nearest specification limit in a short term will fit only 4.5 sigma in the long term. • Six sigma quality level is the closest to zero defect. Less than 60 does not yield
• This may be because the process mean will shift over a period of time or because the acceptable level of quality and more than 60 does not yield substantial benefits. Total
long term standard deviation of the process will be greater than that observed in the customer satisfaction can be achieved with reliable product/services. It leads to
short term or both. This increase in variation over a period of time may be due to small reduction in cost of poor quality.
variation in process inputs, changing conditions etc. • It starts with the recognition of a problem, and the defining of project to cure or alleviate
• If a process is originally designed to be twice as good as a customer demands then even that problem. The project is undertaken by a team using DMAIC- Define, Measure,
with a shift in the distribution of output the customer demands are likely to be met. Analyse, Improve, Control.
• A six sigma process with no shift in the mean results in 2 defects per billion Limitation of Three Sigma Quality
opportunities.
• Let us consider that a product consists of 100 mutually independent parts and the
• Six sigma is a breakthrough management process that is used to improve a company's
probability of producing the product within 3-sigma control limit is 0.9973. Then, the
performance by variation reduction.
probability that any specific part of the product is non-defective is 0.9973 0.9973 ×
• Six sigma methodology has two elements which comprise the voice of customer and
0.9973 x...100 times = (0.9973)100 0.7631.
the voice of process. It essentially reduces the gap between two voices and ensure that
• If it is assumed that all 100 parts must be non- defective for the product to function
they match.
satisfactorily, then 23.70% of the products produced under the three-sigma quality will

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
be defective. This is not an acceptable situation, because there are many products that
have many components assembled in them.

Six Sigma Quality

• Under six-sigma quality, the probability that any specific unit of the hypothetical
product above is non-defective is 0.9999998, or 0.002 parts per million (ppm), a much
better situation.

Specification Percent Ppm Process Cost of Competitive

inside defective capability poor Level
specification Quality
(% of
Specification limit Percent inside ppm defective Process capability sales)
specifications ± 1 sigma 30.23 697700 –0.167 74% Non-
68.27 ± 1 sigma 317300 0.33 69.13 308700 0.67 30 to 40% competitive
± 2 sigma
95.45 ± 2 sigma 45500 0.67 ± 3 sigma 9.32 66810 0.5 20 to 30% Industry

99.73 ± 3 sigma 2700 1 ± 4 sigma 99.3790 620 0.934 15 to 20% Average

99.9973 ± 4 sigma 63 1.33 ± 5 sigma 99.9740 233 1.167 10 to 15% World Class

± 5 sigma 0.57 1.67 ± 6 sigma 99.999660 3.4 1.5 <10%

99.9999943

99.9999998 ± 6 sigma 0.002 2.0

• Process capability is the ability of a process to produce output within specification
limits. The concept of process capability only holds meaning for processes that are in a
state of statistical control. Process capability indices measure how much "natural
variation" a process experiences relative to its specification limits. The various process
capability indices are: Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6 σ
• It estimates what the process is capable of producing if the process mean were to be
centered between the specification limits.

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)

• If the process mean is not centered, Cp over estimates process capability then another • Analyze the data to investigate and verify cause-and-effect relationships. Determine
index Cpk may be used. Cpk = Min [(USL- mean)/3 σ; (Mean- LSL)/3 σ] what the relationships are, and attempt to ensure that all factors have been considered.
• It estimates what the process is capable of producing, considering that the process mean Seek out root cause of the defect under investigation.
may not be centered between the specification limits. • Improve or optimize the current process based upon data analysis using techniques
• Cp2 and Cpk = 1.5 assuming a 1.56 mean shift. The higher the value of Cpk the lower such as design of experiments, poka yoke or mistake proofing, and standard work to
will be the amount of product which is outside specification limits. In certifying create a new future state process. Set up pilot runs to establish process capability.
suppliers, some organisations use Cpk as one element of certification criteria. • Control the future state process to ensure that any deviations from the target are
• Comments concerning Cp and Cpk are as follows: corrected before they result in defects. Implement control systems such as statistical

1. The Cp value does not change as the process center changes. process control, and continuously monitor the process.

2. Cp = Cpk when the process is centered. DMADV

3. Cpk is always equal to or less than Cp. • The DMADV project methodology features five phases:

4. A Cpk value greater than 1.00 indicates the process conforms to specifications. • Define design goals that are consistent with customer demands and the enterprise
strategy.
5. A Cpk value less than 1.00 indicates that the process does not conform to
• Measure and identify CTQs (characteristics that are Critical To Quality), measure
specifications.
product capabilities, production process capability, and measure risks.
6. A Cp value less than 1.00 indicates that the process is not capable
• Analyze to develop and design alternatives
7. A Cpk value of zero indicates the average is equal to one of the specification limits. • Design an improved alternative, best suited per analysis in the previous step
8. A negative Cpk value indicates that the average is outside the specifications. • Verify the design, set up pilot runs, implement the production process and hand it
over to the process owner(s).
Methods Used In Six Sigma
Implementation of Six Sigma
• Six Sigma projects follow two project methodologies DMAIC and DMADV:
• DMAIC is used for projects aimed at improving an existing business process. • The six sigma project has the following hierarchy levels:
• DMADV is used for projects aimed at creating new product or process designs. • Executive Leadership includes the CEO and other members of top management. They
are responsible for setting up a vision for Six Sigma implementation. They also
DMAIC
empower the other role holders with the freedom and resources to explore new ideas
• The DMAIC project methodology has five phases: for breakthrough improvements by transcending departmental barriers and
• Define the system, the voice of the customer and their requirements, and the project overcoming inherent resistance to change.
goals, specifically. • Champions take responsibility for Six Sigma implementation across the organization
• Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate the in an integrated manner. The Executive Leadership draws them from upper
'as-is' Process Capability. management. Champions also act as mentors to Black Belts.
• Measure key aspects of the current process and collect relevant data; calculate the • Master Black Belts, identified by Champions, act as in-house coaches on Six Sigma.
'as-is' Process Capability. They assist Champions and guide Black Belts and Green Belts Apart from statistical

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
tasks, they spend their time on ensuring consistent application of Six Sigma across c) Process Mapping and Flowcharting:
various functions and departments. • Process mapping and flowcharts are tools used to visualize processes. In Six
• Black Belts operate under Master Black Belts to apply Six Sigma methodology to Sigma, process mapping helps to understand the steps involved, identify
specific projects. They primarily focus on Six Sigma project execution and special inefficiencies, and pinpoint areas for improvement.
leadership with special tasks, whereas Champions and Master Black Belts focus on
d) Fishbone Diagram (Ishikawa or Cause-and-Effect Diagram):
identifying projects/functions for Six Sigma. Black Belts are projects leaders and they
• The fishbone diagram helps identify all potential causes of a problem,
are held responsible for the results. The allocate roles and responsibilities to the
categorizing them into areas like people, processes, equipment, materials, and
various team members.
environment. This technique is crucial in the Analyze phase of Six Sigma to ensure
• Green Belts are the employees who take up Six Sigma implementation along with
all root causes are considered.
their other job responsibilities, operating under the guidance of Black Belts. They
may lead small scale improvement projects within their functional area. e) Pareto Analysis:

• Yellow Belts These don't lead any project on their own. Basically they are support • Based on the 80/20 Rule, Pareto analysis is used to identify the most significant
staff. causes of defects. It helps prioritize efforts on the few causes that will have the

Key Tools and Techniques in Six Sigma: greatest impact on process improvement.

f) FMEA (Failure Modes and Effects Analysis):

a) DMAIC Methodology (Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control):
• FMEA is used to identify potential failure modes in a process and assess the
• Define: Identify the problem and define the scope of the project. Establish
severity, likelihood, and detectability of each failure. It helps prioritize
customer requirements and project goals.
improvements based on the risk they pose to the process.
• Measure: Collect data to understand the current process performance and identify
areas of improvement. B) Lean Manufacturing: Tools and Techniques

• Analyze: Use statistical tools to analyze the data, determine root causes of issues, Lean Manufacturing focuses on eliminating waste and improving efficiency in

and quantify the extent of the problem. production processes. The goal of Lean is to create value for customers while minimizing
resource use, such as time, materials, and labor.
• Improve: Implement solutions to eliminate the root causes and improve the
process. Key Tools and Techniques in Lean Manufacturing:
• Control: Put systems in place to sustain improvements over time and prevent a) Value Stream Mapping (VSM):
regression. • Value Stream Mapping is a tool used to visualize the flow of materials and
b) Statistical Process Control (SPC): information in a process, from raw material to finished product. It helps identify

• SPC involves using control charts to monitor and control a process. These charts non-value-added activities (waste) and areas where improvements can be made.

help identify variations in processes, allowing for corrective actions before defects b) 5S (Sort, Set in Order, Shine, Standardize, Sustain):
occur. Control charts are essential in Six Sigma to ensure that improvements are • 5S is a methodology for organizing and maintaining a clean and efficient
maintained. workspace. The five steps are:

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
▪ Sort: Eliminate unnecessary items. Key Tools and Techniques in Kaizen:
▪ Set in Order: Organize items for easy access. a) Kaizen Events (Kaizen Blitz):
▪ Shine: Clean the work area and equipment. • Kaizen Events or Kaizen Blitz are focused, time-limited improvement initiatives
▪ Standardize: Establish standard practices for work. that typically last from a few days to a week. These events involve cross-functional
teams working together to identify and solve problems in specific areas, such as a
▪ Sustain: Maintain improvements over time.
production line or service process.
c) Kanban (Pull System):
b) 5 Whys Technique:
• Kanban is a scheduling system that helps control inventory levels and production
• The 5 Whys technique is a simple problem-solving tool that involves asking
flow. It uses visual signals (e.g., cards or boards) to trigger the replenishment of
"Why?" multiple times (typically five) to uncover the root cause of a problem. By
materials only when needed, reducing excess inventory and minimizing waste.
drilling down to the underlying cause, Kaizen ensures that corrective actions
d) Just-in-Time (JIT):
address the source rather than just the symptoms of a problem.
• Just-in-Time is a Lean technique that aims to produce and deliver goods only
c) A3 Problem Solving:
when they are needed in the production process. This reduces inventory levels and
• The A3 report is a structured, visual problem-solving approach used in Kaizen. It
improves flow efficiency, ensuring that resources are used efficiently.
provides a concise summary of the problem, root causes, analysis, solutions, and
e) Poka-Yoke (Error Proofing):
action plans. The A3 methodology is used to facilitate problem-solving and ensure
• Poka-Yoke involves designing processes and systems in a way that makes it everyone is aligned on the issue and solution.
impossible or very difficult to make mistakes. For example, error-proofing devices
d) Standardized Work:
or mechanisms that prevent incorrect assembly or configuration of parts.
• Standardized work involves creating and documenting the most efficient way to
f) Kaizen (Continuous Improvement):
perform a task, ensuring that the process is carried out consistently. Kaizen focuses
• Kaizen is a core principle of Lean, focusing on continuous, incremental on continuously improving these standards to achieve higher efficiency and
improvements. It encourages all employees to suggest small, incremental changes quality.
that can lead to significant improvements over time. Kaizen involves teamwork,
e) Visual Management:
communication, and a bottom-up approach to solving problems.
• Visual management involves using visual cues (e.g., charts, labels, color-coding)
C) Kaizen: Tools and Techniques
to convey information about process status, issues, and performance. This helps
Kaizen is a Japanese term meaning "continuous improvement." It is a philosophy that teams identify problems quickly and take corrective actions in real-time.
focuses on improving productivity, efficiency, and quality by making small, incremental
f) Gemba Walks:
changes in daily operations. Kaizen emphasizes the involvement of all employees in the
• A Gemba Walk is when managers and team leaders go to the "Gemba" (the place
improvement process.
where work is done) to observe processes firsthand, engage with employees, and
identify opportunities for improvement. This practice emphasizes the importance

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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
of understanding the actual work environment and collecting insights from those Q1. Which of the following is NOT a principle of Total Quality Management (TQM)?
closest to the work. a) Continuous improvement
5.7 How TQM, Six Sigma, Lean, and Kaizen Interact b) Customer focus

While Six Sigma, Lean Manufacturing, and Kaizen are separate methodologies, they c) Top-down management approach
share common principles and can complement each other within a Total Quality
d) Employee involvement
Management (TQM) approach.
Q2. Which of the following is the primary goal of the 5S methodology in TQM?
• Six Sigma focuses on reducing defects and variation using data and statistical
a) To identify and remove waste
analysis. It is highly effective in improving the quality of processes and reducing
variability. b) To streamline customer complaints

• Lean Manufacturing focuses on eliminating waste and improving efficiency in c) To standardize production schedules

processes. It aims to improve the flow of materials, reduce cycle times, and optimize d) To improve employee morale
resource use. Q3. What does the “A” in DMAIC stand for in Six Sigma and TQM methodologies?
• Kaizen is about continuous improvement through small, incremental changes. It a) Analyze
empowers employees at all levels to contribute to improvements.
b) Act
When combined, these methodologies form a powerful approach to achieving TQM goals:
c) Apply
• Six Sigma provides the tools and methods for reducing defects and variation.
d) Arrange
• Lean Manufacturing removes waste and optimizes processes for greater efficiency.
Q4. Which of the following best describes the role of leadership in TQM?
• Kaizen provides a culture of continuous improvement and employee involvement.
a) Ensuring quality goals are met through employee compliance
Together, they create a system where processes are improved, waste is minimized, and
b) Acting as a visionary and motivating employees to embrace quality principles
quality is consistently enhanced, all contributing to an organization’s long-term success
c) Assigning quality tasks to employees
and customer satisfaction.
d) Monitoring production output closely for defects

Q5. Which of the following is a key characteristic of Kaizen in TQM?

a) Large-scale changes at irregular intervals

b) Continuous improvement through small, incremental changes

c) Centralized decision-making by management

d) Focus on short-term profits

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
Q6. Which of the following tools is primarily used to identify the root cause of a problem in 1. Answer: c) Top-down management approach
TQM? Explanation of Options:
a) Control charts a) Continuous improvement: This is a core principle of TQM, as it involves continuously
b) Fishbone diagram making small incremental improvements in all processes.

c) Pareto chart b) Customer focus: TQM emphasizes understanding and meeting customer needs and

d) Histogram requirements as a primary objective.

Q7. What does the “P” in the PDCA cycle stand for? c) Top-down management approach: This is not a TQM principle. TQM encourages bottom-
up involvement where all employees contribute to quality improvements, not just top
a) Process
management dictating the changes.
b) Plan
d) Employee involvement: TQM promotes full involvement from all levels of the
c) Performance
organization, ensuring that employees at all levels contribute to quality efforts.
d) Prove
2. Answer: a) To identify and remove waste
Q8. What is the primary focus of Total Quality Management (TQM)?
Explanation of Options:
a) Financial performance
a) To identify and remove waste: 5S focuses on creating a clean, organized, and efficient work
b) Cost reduction environment by eliminating unnecessary items and ensuring that everything has its proper

c) Customer satisfaction through continuous improvement place. This helps remove waste and improves efficiency.

d) Employee welfare b) To streamline customer complaints: This is not the goal of 5S. Customer complaints may
be addressed through other quality management processes, not 5S.
Q9. Which of the following is an example of a non-value-added activity (waste) in Lean
Manufacturing? c) To standardize production schedules: This is more related to planning and scheduling
methodologies, not 5S.
a) Overproduction
d) To improve employee morale: While 5S can contribute to improved morale by creating a
b) Customer feedback
more organized and clean workplace, its primary focus is on waste reduction.
c) Regular training
3. Answer: a) Analyze
d) On-time delivery
Explanation of Options:
Q10. What is the purpose of statistical process control (SPC) in TQM?
a) Analyze: DMAIC stands for Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, Control. The "Analyze"
a) To increase worker productivity
phase focuses on identifying the root causes of problems or variations in a process.
b) To reduce customer complaints
b) Act: “Act” is part of the PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) cycle, not DMAIC.
c) To monitor and control process variability
c) Apply: “Apply” is not part of DMAIC.
d) To reduce the cost of raw materials
d) Arrange: This is not part of the DMAIC methodology.
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 UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination UPPSC Assistant Engineer Combined State Engineering Services Examination

Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM) Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)
4. Answer: b) Acting as a visionary and motivating employees to embrace quality principles c) Pareto chart: Helps prioritize problems based on frequency, but does not directly identify

Explanation of Options: root causes.

a) Ensuring quality goals are met through employee compliance: Leadership should Histogram: Shows the distribution of data, but does not directly identify root causes.

motivate and involve employees in the process, not just enforce compliance. 7. Answer: b) Plan

b) Acting as a visionary and motivating employees to embrace quality principles: Correct. Explanation of Options:
Leaders are responsible for creating a vision of quality and driving a culture of quality within a) Process: This is not the correct term for the PDCA cycle.
the organization.
b) Plan: Correct. The PDCA cycle stands for Plan, Do, Check, Act. The "Plan" phase involves
c) Assigning quality tasks to employees: Leadership should not just assign tasks; they should setting goals and deciding how to achieve them.
foster a culture of quality and involvement.
c) Performance: Performance is related to assessing results, but not what "P" stands for in
d) Monitoring production output closely for defects: While monitoring is important, PDCA.
leadership in TQM focuses more on enabling processes and motivating employees, rather than
d) Prove: Prove is not part of the PDCA cycle.
merely focusing on output defects.
8. Answer: c) Customer satisfaction through continuous improvement
5. Answer: b) Continuous improvement through small, incremental changes
Explanation of Options:
Explanation of Options:
a) Financial performance: Financial performance is an outcome of effective TQM but is not
a) Large-scale changes at irregular intervals: Kaizen emphasizes small, continuous
the primary focus.
improvements, not large changes.
b) Cost reduction: While TQM can lead to cost reduction through improved processes, the
b) Continuous improvement through small, incremental changes: Correct. Kaizen
main goal is customer satisfaction.
encourages small improvements that lead to significant long-term gains.
c) Customer satisfaction through continuous improvement: Correct. The goal of TQM is to
c) Centralized decision-making by management: Kaizen encourages employee
improve customer satisfaction by continuously improving quality across all areas of the
involvement and decision-making at all levels, not just centralized by management.
organization.
d) Focus on short-term profits: Kaizen is focused on long-term continuous improvement, not
d) Employee welfare: While TQM involves employee involvement, the primary goal is
on short-term profits.
customer satisfaction through quality improvement.
6. Answer: b) Fishbone diagram
9. Answer: a) Overproduction
Explanation of Options:
Explanation of Options:
a) Control charts: Used for monitoring process stability and variation, not for root cause
a) Overproduction: Correct. Overproduction creates excess inventory and waste, which is a
analysis.
key concept in Lean Manufacturing.
b) Fishbone diagram: Correct. A fishbone diagram (Ishikawa) helps identify potential root
b) Customer feedback: Customer feedback is valuable and helps improve processes, so it is
causes of a problem by categorizing causes into several areas (e.g., people, processes,
not waste.
materials).

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Chapter-5 | Total Quality Management (TQM)

c) Regular training: Training employees is valuable for continuous improvement and not
considered waste.

d) On-time delivery: Timely delivery adds value to the customer, so it is not considered waste.

10. Answer: c) To monitor and control process variability

Explanation of Options:

a) To increase worker productivity: SPC focuses on process control, not specifically on

worker productivity.

b) To reduce customer complaints: While SPC can indirectly help reduce complaints by
improving process quality, its primary purpose is controlling variability.

c) To monitor and control process variability: Correct. SPC uses control charts to monitor
process stability and ensure that it stays within acceptable limits.

d) To reduce the cost of raw materials: SPC focuses on quality and process control rather
than direct cost reduction of raw materials.

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