The Diving

Manual
An introduction to scuba diving

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 First published in the UK in 2002
Fourth edition published in 2009
Reprinted 2013
AquaPress Ltd
25 Farriers Way
Temple Farm Industrial Estate
Southend-on-Sea
Essex SS2 5RY

© British Sub-Aqua Club

Telford’s Quay, South Pier Road
Ellesmere Port
Cheshire CH65 4FL
Phone: 0151 350 6200

Author
Deric Ellerby

Copy Editor
Richard Scarsbrook

Art Editor
Alistair Cook

Illustrations: Ian Legge

Source illustrations: Daphne Ellerby

Print
AquaPress Ltd

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, by
photocopy, recording or otherwise without the prior
permission of the publisher and copyright holder.

ISBN: 978-1-90549222-0

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 The Diving
Manual
An introduction to scuba diving

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Foreword

For over 50 years the British Sub-Aqua Club has been at the forefront
of recreational diving. In that time many divers, including myself, have
benefited from its excellent training. I am delighted to introduce this new
manual, which has been specifically produced for beginners. I feel sure it
will stimulate and inform all newcomers to the fascinating sport of scuba
diving. Qualifying as a diver is a tremendously rewarding experience and
I am certain this book will encourage many more people to discover the
joys of the underwater world.

HRH Prince Charles

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 Table of contents
Foreword
HRH Prince Charles 9

Introduction
The wonder of diving 16
Non-swimmers 18
Learning to dive 19
Underwater tourism 19
Entry-level training 19
Knowledge 21
Progression 21

Adapting chapter one

Pressure 24
Depth 24
Breathing underwater 25
The scuba unit 25
Ears 26
Sinuses and other spaces 27
Seeing underwater 27
The mask 28
Propulsion 28
The buoyancy compensator 29
Protective clothing 31

Basic underwater skills chapter two

Communication 34
Assembling the equipment 37
Regulator checks 38
Weight checks 38
Kitting up 38

10 Contents
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 Table of contents
Dive briefing 39
Entering the water 41
Descending 42
Moving in the water 43
Pressure changes 44
Breathing 44
Mask clearing 46
Buoyancy 48
Ascending 50
Leaving the water 50
After the dive 51

Breaking the surface chapter three

Visibility 54
Seaweed and animal life 57
Look, don’t touch! 59

Deeper in knowledge chapter four

Breathing freely 62
How long will it last? 64
Ambient pressure 64
Partial pressures 65
Oxygen 66
Hypoxia and anoxia 68
Nitrogen and diving 68
Nitrogen and decompression illness 69
Nitrox and decompression 71
Nitrogen and narcosis 71
Cold and heat 71
Medical conditions and diving 73

Contents 11
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 Table of contents
Equipment chapter five
Instruments 76
Depth gauges 76
Watches 76
Computers 77
Thermometers 78
Knives 78
Regulators 79
How does the regulator work? 82
Alternative breathing gas 83
Dive cylinders 84
Cylinder valves 86
Compressors 87
Oxygen analysers 89
Buoyancy compensators 89
Protective clothing 93
Compasses 97
Lights 97
Equipment maintenance 97

More diving skills chapter six

Buddy diving 100
Boat diving 104
Snorkel swimming 110
Problem solving 114
Self-rescue 115
Buddy rescue 116

A different world chapter seven

Light 120
Sound 123
Gravity 124
The water itself – salt and fresh 125

12 Contents
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 The way the water moves 127
The interaction of two worlds 127

What next? chapter eight

Marine life 130
Photography 133
Diving into history 137
Underwater sport 139
Personal development 141

Appendices 144
Appendix one
Using the BSAC ’88 decompression tables 144
Appendix two
Conversions and calculations 146
Appendix three
First aid 148
Drowning 148
Barotrauma and DCI 149
Shock 149
Bleeding 149
Fractures 149
Burns 149
Dislocations 149
Appendix four
British Sub-Aqua Club history 150
Appendix five
BSAC organisation 151
Appendix six
BSAC qualifications 152
Appendix seven
Divers’ Code of Conduct 154
Index 156
Contents 13
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 Introduction

Most people’s experience

of the oceans is limited
to a walk on the beach or
perhaps a brief splash in
the sea during the summer,
but for the diver the realm
beneath the oceans is a
beautiful world which is
endlessly fascinating. For
those unfamiliar with the
joys of diving, this book
aims to provide pertinent
information and will act as
the starting point for your
underwater adventure.

14 Introduction
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 Tides and tidal streams

The wonder of diving 15

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 Introduction
The wonder of diving

Diving beneath the surface of the oceans and seas the waters of our blue planet offer the chance of
occurs for a variety of reasons, including scientific, limitless choice and enjoyment.
military and commercial, but by far the greatest Today, the underwater world can be accessed at
number of people who dive do so for pleasure. many different levels, varying from simple underwater
For many, the chance to enter a ‘new world’ in which tourism to a whole variety of professional activities.
weightlessness, space and freedom of movement For most commercial activities it is usually the specific
combine to offer a wholly different experience from skills and knowledge of the profession that are crucial,
our everyday world is motivation enough to join diving being merely a transport activity. Similarly, in
the ranks of divers throughout the world. However, the recreational field, diving can also be seen as a mode
once a basic level of training has been completed, of transport enabling many leisure activities from our
more opportunities to explore and appreciate our normal world to be pursued underwater. The level of
oceans are unleashed. The oceans cover seven tenths these diving activities can range from a basic guided
of our world, and the scope for underwater activities underwater tour to a high-tech challenge of our current
is similarly wide. The underwater world is one of underwater limits. Whatever the ultimate diving goal,
remarkable contrasts of colour and topography, with there has to be a beginning, and the purpose of this
a diverse array of fish, plants and animals, all of book is to provide useful information to the new diver.
which are in stark contrast to our usual earthbound Whether your aim is simply to be a diving tourist or
surroundings. Aquatic animals range in size and type, to seek out the submarine equivalents of Himalayan
from small organisms such as plankton, to the largest ascents, the underwater world awaits.
of the world’s mammals, the blue whale. The simplest beginning to scuba diving is just
The stunning vistas below the seas are not just to sample the underwater world under the careful
pretty to look at, but provide the photographer and control of an experienced guide/instructor. This can
videographer with a different sphere in which to be achieved in a variety of situations, ranging from
work, allowing them to make use of shadow and light a local swimming pool to a dive at an exotic holiday
in a whole new genre. destination. This first underwater experience may be
History and anthropology also lure many divers provided by a diving club or a diving school. A choice
into the water – the chance to dive on wrecks, which preferred by many is to undertake an entry-level diver
now play host to schools of fish and colourful marine training course, again provided by either a club or a
life, or the search for lost civilisations. Underwater school. This, too, can take place locally or while away
archaeology is an exacting yet rewarding pursuit. on holiday, with a typical course lasting some four or
Whatever your interest in the marine environment, five days and normally including four or five dives.

16 Introduction
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 The wonder of diving

Divers can enjoy the wonders of the underwater world

Introduction 17
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 Non-swimmers

A diving instructor takes two students for a lesson

Non-swimmers
When recreational diving began, it was seen very Indeed, there are many previous non-swimmers who
much as the province of fit young men and the training have become proficient divers and swimmers through
was rather military in nature, a diver was something the water confidence they have gained from the use
of a pioneer and equipment was often home-made. of fins, dive mask and snorkel. Surface swimming is
Today, access to diving has totally changed. Thanks to a complex process that combines three basic features
modern equipment and training techniques, diving is – confidence, breathing and movement. In learning to
available to virtually everyone of normal fitness, from swim, movement is often perceived as the key skill to
people in their early teens to octogenarians. There learn, but it is breathing and water confidence that are
is often a belief that diving is only for the strongest crucial. Non-swimmers often lack confidence while in
of swimmers, but nothing could be further from the the water, because they have not been able to master
truth – the swimming techniques used for unaided the breathing element. The provision of a breathing gas
movement at the surface and the consequent breath- supply using either scuba (Self-Contained Underwater
control patterns are far removed from the relaxed Breathing Apparatus) or even air and a simple snorkel
fin strokes and natural breathing of a competent tube solves the breathing problem, allowing the
diver. While most diver-training agencies do require non-swimmer to gain water confidence. With water
a student to have a basic swimming ability, the key confidence the rest is easy. The key requirement is a
to success as a diver is to be relaxed in the water and desire to visit the underwater world: so what are you
comfortable with the equipment. waiting for?

18 Introduction
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 Entry-level training

Students learn some theory Practising skills in a swimming pool An open-water dive

Learning to dive Entry-level training

Born as land creatures, we obviously need some extra Such experiences usually whet the appetite for repeat
support to enable us to explore the underwater world dives and here a further decision must be taken. It is
safely and happily. Support comes partly from the possible to continue as a perpetual underwater tourist,
equipment we use and partly from the extra skills but such intensive support from the instructor is very
and knowledge we need to acquire. This immediately demanding on the resources of a dive centre and
raises two questions: what equipment is needed and this will have to be reflected in the charges it makes.
what degree of skill and knowledge is appropriate. Furthermore, the challenge of more adventurous dives
The answers are extremely variable, depending totally will be tempting you to visit places which require
on the kind of diving envisaged. longer underwater times and descents to greater
depths. Naturally, this also means a higher level of
skill and knowledge will be required. Also, as such
Underwater tourism diving usually occurs in groups organised by a club or
At the simplest level, diving can be enjoyed simply school, there is a greater need for self-responsibility.
as an underwater tourist. The diving instructor takes The simple answer to these needs is a progressive
total responsibility for the equipment of the student, system of education which matches the students’
ensuring it is fit for the planned dive, and all that is needs. Such training is usually offered as an entry-
required of the user is to wear it and breathe from it. level course typically taking either a few days of fairly
Similarly, the level of skill and knowledge required is intensive training or lasting some weeks, occupying
also very basic, often being delivered as an extended an evening each week. Whichever option, the course
briefing just before the dive. Elementary use of the should provide the student with the necessary skills
equipment is demonstrated along with balancing and knowledge to safely enjoy diving to a maximum
pressure on the ears and recommended breathing of 20m in water conditions matching those where the
rhythm. Armed with this very basic education and course was taken. The entry-level diver certification
escorted on a one-to-one basis by the instructor, the you gain after completing such a course will normally
tourist can start to explore the underwater world. be recognised by other responsible dive centres when
The dives will be limited, lasting between ten and 15 you travel to other dive sites, avoiding the need for
minutes and to a maximum depth of 5–6m (metres). repeat certification. Of course, if some years have
However, the first fin strokes can be made. These passed since such training has taken place and there
shallow depths are often home to an abundance of life is no evidence of regular and recent dive experience,
forms, especially if the dives are made on reefs. some refresher training may be advisable.

Introduction 19
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 Signalling to the support team on the boat that all is ‘okay’

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 Progression

A student learns how to set up her kit Using the buddy system during an open-water dive

Knowledge Progression
What knowledge is provided at this entry level? As your skills and knowledge develop, you will be
The prospective diver will require an elementary taken on the first of your open-water dives. These
understanding of the equipment and its use, an dives will be carefully chosen to suit your capabilities
understanding of the physical and physiological and to help you learn techniques such as buddy
effects of being underwater in these depths, and some diving, ascent and descent and simple navigation. You
awareness of the underwater environment. You will will gradually appreciate the various marine life forms
also want some knowledge of the various activities in all their colour, diversity and camouflage. Skills
that can be pursued underwater. This book is designed previously learned in your sheltered-water lessons
to provide you, the student, with some background to will be further developed and polished and by the
the knowledge you gain from your instructor and act time of your certification you will have mastered the
as your reference source as an entry-level diver. basics of scuba diving. You should be capable of being
While most knowledge will be best absorbed in a a competent dive buddy (of which, more later) in the
classroom environment, practical skills are generally depth zone and waters you have experienced, and
water-based. Most skills will be introduced to the have a foundation of knowledge and skill to commence
student in calm, sheltered conditions, often in a your exploration of the undersea realm. o
swimming pool. You will learn how to handle mask,
fins and the scuba unit, and how to enter and exit
the water as a fully equipped diver. One of the most
important yet exciting skills is the achievement of
neutral buoyancy, enabling you to truly feel weightless
in the water.

Introduction 21
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 Chapter one
Adapting to
the underwater
world
As land creatures, our
bodies are adapted to a
life surrounded by the
atmosphere and pinned to
the earth’s surface by the
force of gravity. Even as
swimmers we are restricted
to the water’s surface
and need exposure to the
atmosphere to continue
to breathe.
SCUBA (Self-Contained
Underwater Breathing
Apparatus) equipment
changes all that – the diver
has a breathing supply and
can descend to explore
the underwater world. In
descending, the important
physical effects of diving
rapidly become apparent…

22
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Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Adapting
To the underwater world

1 1 bar
+1 bar 1bar 1
0m 0m 1 bar
/2
1 +1 bar
10m 1
/3 2bar 10m 2 bar
/2
1
11/2

20m 3bar 20m 3 bar

/3
1

At sea level the 250,000m-deep layer of As pressure increases with depth, gas is Pressure decreases on ascent, causing the
atmosphere exerts a pressure equal to 1 bar compressed and takes up less space compressed gas inside a balloon filled at
depth to expand
Pressure Depth
At the surface of the earth we experience the pressure A mere 10m depth of water creates the same pressure
created by the 250,000m-deep layer of air that makes (1 bar) as the whole depth of the atmosphere. Starting
up the atmosphere. At sea level the weight of this layer from the zero pressure (0 bar) of space, we progress to
is equal to 1kg (kilogram) pressing on every square 1-bar pressure at sea level and so have 2-bar pressure
centimetre of surface. As you experience this pressure at a depth of 10m. Each additional 10m of depth
all your life, your body is naturally adapted to it adds another 1 bar of pressure. While water can be
and you experience no notable sensation. In diving, considered incompressible, this is not the case with
it is customary to refer to the sea level atmospheric gases. If a quantity of gas, such as that in your lungs, is
pressure as ‘1 bar’. Water is much denser than air taken to a depth of 10m, where the pressure is double
and as you descend through it, the pressure it exerts that at sea level (2 bar), it is squashed to occupy only
on your body increases. As most parts of your body half its surface volume. This relationship continues
have a similar density to water, these parts suffer no so that at 20m, with a pressure of 3 bar, its volume
adverse effects and, indeed, provide no sensation of will reduce to one third. Were you to dive by simply
pressure. The exceptions are the various cavities in holding your breath, the elasticity of your lungs could
the body which contain air, such as the lungs, middle cope with this reduction in volume over quite a depth
ear and sinuses. The air in these cavities is exposed to range. The diaphragm moves upwards into the chest
an increased pressure, depending on the depth of the cavity to compensate, often resulting in a flattering
diver. To understand how this affects you and how to slim waistline! Of course, things revert to normal on
adapt to these effects, you need to understand what return to the surface, as the pressure reduces and the
happens to gases such as those found in air when the gas in your lungs expands to its original volume.
pressure is increased.

24 Adapting
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 Breathing underwater

The scuba unit, comprised of a breathing gas cylinder, a A regulator allows the scuba diver to breathe on demand
regulator and a buoyancy compensator from a cylinder of compressed breathing gas

Breathing underwater
As a scuba diver, you will breathe underwater from In ascending, the surrounding pressure will reduce
your scuba unit. This provides your breathing gas, and the effect of this on a volume of gas is to allow it to
either air or an enriched gas called nitrox (see chapter expand. If this were to happen to the breathing gas
four), easily and comfortably through a mouthpiece contained in your lungs it would either stretch your
whenever you try to breathe in, and allows you lungs or the excess would have to be exhaled. Expanding
to breathe out equally easily. The breathing gas is your lungs in this manner is dangerous, and in extreme
supplied at the same pressure as the water surrounding cases can cause severe damage or even death. The
you (ambient pressure), and you will automatically golden rule is ‘Never hold your breath when breathing
fill your lungs (and connecting airways) to their from a scuba unit’. Always adopt a normal breathing
normal surface volume for the same inhalation effort. rhythm, being especially careful during any ascent.
So, no slim waistline! This means that you experience
no difficulty in continuing a normal breathing
pattern appropriate to your underwater activity level
The scuba unit
(sedentary fish-watching, vigorous finning, and so The scuba unit consists of a cylinder, a regulator and
on). It also brings us to the first conscious adaptation a buoyancy compensator. The high-pressure cylinder
you must make. A normal human reaction is to hold enables the large volume of breathing gas needed for
one’s breath whenever the face is wet, preventing a the dive to be compressed into a manageable space. It
lot of coughing and spluttering when face washing. is mounted on the buoyancy compensator and worn on
However, as a scuba diver you obviously have to the diver’s back. Commonly, cylinders with an internal
overcome this reaction and keep breathing normally. volume of between 10 and 15 litres are used, pressurised
This is particularly important whenever ascending to at least 200 bar. This is 200 times atmospheric
through the water. The breathing gas in your lungs pressure and effectively means that the volume of gas
will have been breathed in at the pressure of the of some 200 cylinders is squashed into one cylinder!
water surrounding you at the moment of inhalation. Cylinders are made from steel or aluminium alloy.

Adapting 25
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 Equalising

Ears
Most people have experienced the sensation of pressure, and even
pain, in the ear when simply swimming underwater. This is caused by
the pressure of the water acting on the outside surface of the eardrum.
The inside of the eardrum is exposed to the pressure of the gas in the
middle ear, which will usually be the same as the air at the surface. If no
adaptation is made, the increasing pressure that comes with increasing
depth would eventually cause the eardrum to rupture. To avoid this
the scuba diver allows breathing gas from the mouth/nasal passage to
pass through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear. As this breathing
gas is at the same pressure as the surrounding water, the pressure on
the eardrum is balanced and the problem removed. The clever trick,
Physiology of the ear referred to as ‘ear clearing’ (or ‘equalising’) by divers, is persuading
the breathing gas to pass through the Eustachian tube. This is normally
closed, but can often be opened by a swallowing or a jaw-wriggling action.
Failing these, breathing out against a pinched nose can raise the breathing
gas pressure in the back of the throat sufficient to force some gas up the
Eustachian tube and balance the middle-ear pressure. It is important not
to strain too hard with this manoeuvre. The best technique is to perform
ear clearing as soon as any sensation of pressure is felt, and well before
this develops into pain. Any pain is a symptom of damage. If successful
ear clearing cannot be performed, you must reduce your depth and
therefore the pressure before trying ear clearing again. During a descent
ear clearing usually needs to be repeated as pressure increases. On ascent
the excess middle-ear pressure is normally released naturally via the
Eustachian tube. Nose and throat infections often cause inflammation of the
Eustachian tube, which may prevent ear clearing. In these circumstances
diving should not be attempted.

The ear in a normal state, with balanced Increased external pressure and a blocked Increased pressure from inside the ear
pressure on the eardrum Eustachian tube stretches the eardrum and a blocked outer ear stretches the
inwards eardrum outwards

26 Adapting
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 Seeing underwater

Sinuses are air spaces in the bone of the skull Good visibility can make a major contribution
to the enjoyment of a dive

Sinuses and other spaces

Sinuses are rigid spaces filled with air within the bone As it is close to the eyes, it is important that this window
of the skull and are mostly connected and open to the is of tempered (safety) glass. The body of the mask
upper nasal passages. Normally the pressure within needs to make a comfortable seal with the face and
them will adjust automatically. However, it is possible allow access for you to pinch your nose for ear clearing.
that mucus or inflammation during nose and throat The mask contains air, which will reduce in volume as
infections can block them – another reason for not you descend and this can cause the mask to squeeze the
diving until recovered. There are usually pockets of face and result in bruising (black eyes). The remedy is
gas in the stomach and gut, but the responses of these simple: diving masks also enclose the nose, allowing
gases to increases and decreases in pressure should you to breathe out ambient-pressure breathing gas
not cause problems. into the mask as you descend – no more bruising. On
ascent, excess breathing gas will escape from the mask
skirt automatically. As the water outside the mask will
Seeing underwater be colder than the body-temperature breathing gas
Our eyes have developed to operate normally when inside, moisture will condense on the inside of the glass.
in contact with air. As water has different optical Coating it with an anti-fogging product before diving
properties from air, direct contact with the eyes can prevent condensation. Many divers use saliva
produces very blurred vision. To overcome this instead, simply spitting on the inside of the glass,
problem you need a diving mask, which will trap a rubbing the saliva around and rinsing the mask in
pocket of air around the eyes and provide a window the sea immediately before diving. For those needing
for you to look through. spectacles or contact lenses, masks with corrective
lenses are also available.

Adapting 27
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 Propulsion

Strap
Body

Lens
Frame

A typical scuba-diving mask Fins: top, a full-shoe-style fin; bottom, a heel-strap-style fin

The mask Propulsion

Frame – secures the body to the lens. Conventional swimming is neither effective nor
Strap – either a split or single strap, holding the mask appropriate when diving with scuba equipment.
against the face. Buckles allow the length of the strap Instead, propulsion comes from fins fitted to the feet,
to be adjusted. leaving the hands free for equipment management
Lens – scratch and shatter-resistant and usually made and other tasks. The fin is made up of two main parts
from tempered glass. Avoid plastic, which tends to – the shoe and the blade. The shoe may fully enclose
scratch and fog more easily. the heel, or just the front of the foot and have a heel-
Body – usually made from a soft-rubber compound retaining strap. If you intend diving in warm water
to form a waterproof seal against the diver’s face. with bare feet or lightweight bootees or socks, a full-
Non-allergenic silicone rubber is often used for the shoe-style may be comfortable. For colder water in
body of the mask as it maintains its flexibility over which you will be wearing thick boots, the heel-strap-
a wide temperature range and is very long-lasting. style will be more practical. Whichever style you use,
Translucent materials are popular because they allow it is important that you achieve a good fit, neither too
light to enter the body of the mask. tight so as to constrict or so slack that it causes chafing.
Test a new mask for comfort and correct fit by The blade is usually of a harder material and may
putting it on your face without using the strap and incorporate stiffening ridges, slots and other devices
inhaling through your nose. A correctly fitting mask to enhance the propulsive effect. Heel straps should
will stay in place until you exhale. Choose a mask with be easily adjustable and many come with quick-
a good angle of vision both vertically and horizontally. release features to assist removal. Many divers prefer
Avoid masks which have built-in snorkels. to own rather than rent fins, in which case, for travel,
the weight of the fins may be a consideration when
buying them.

28 Adapting
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 Buoyancy compensator

The buoyancy compensator

The buoyancy compensator (BC) – sometimes known
as a buoyancy compensation device or BCD – serves
two main functions. It acts as a harness, allowing you
to wear the cylinder on your back, and also allows
you to introduce or release breathing gas from its
chamber(s), thereby altering your overall buoyancy.
The harness can vary from a simple waistcoat with
an adjustable waist strap, to complex designs with
adjustable shoulder, chest and waist straps. The waist
strap frequently takes the form of, or is supplemented
by, a Velcro-fastening cummerbund helping distribute
the weight of the scuba unit more equally across the
hips and providing added security and comfort. The
cylinder is usually connected to the BC by a quick-
release strap mechanism. Make sure that your BC is
correct for your size and, while fitting securely, can be
quickly jettisoned.
The BC will also have a hose connecting it to the
medium-pressure side of the regulator first stage The buoyancy compensator allows the diver to adjust his
attached to the cylinder. This provides a medium- or her buoyancy
pressure breathing gas supply from which to inflate
the BC, thus increasing your buoyancy – referred to as a
direct feed or power inflator. There will also be another
hose allowing inflation by mouth, which is possible
underwater but usually reserved for surface operation.
This mouth inflation tube commonly incorporates the
control valve for direct inflation and also for releasing
breathing gas from the BC to decrease buoyancy. These
manual controls provide fine buoyancy control, but
there will also be an automatic pressure-relief valve to
prevent accidental overpressurisation of the BC, and
frequently this can also be manually operated. Such
devices are often referred to as ‘dump valves’, as they
allow a rapid dumping of breathing gas (and positive
buoyancy).
Some BC’s incorporate pouches around the waist in
which some or all of the divers weight can be carried.
These pouches need to retain any weight securely,
so that it is not released inadvertently, but in such a
manner that it can be quickly and simply jettisoned.

Adapting 29
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 Protective clothing is worn in order to
maintain body heat

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 Protective clothing

Wetsuits are popular when diving in warmer water Drysuits are more appropriate for temperate and
cold-water diving

Protective clothing
On most dives some form of protection other than a that immediately surrounds it; therefore, preventing it
conventional swimsuit is appropriate. Probably the flowing away by some form of protective clothing will
main reason for extra protection is to maintain body help reduce heat loss.
heat. Even in tropical waters the duration of a dive can In tropical waters even a T-shirt can be sufficient
be enough to cause discomfort brought on by cold, thermal protection in the warm waters near the surface.
while in more temperate or polar climes the need for For protection in deeper waters, thin Lycra suits
thermal protection is obvious. Although it is good dive can serve the dual purpose of abrasion and thermal
practice to avoid unnecessary contact with marine life, protection, besides looking stylish on the right figure.
some form of abrasion protection is also often wise. For For improved heat retention, wetsuits tailored from
these reasons a variety of protective clothing solutions foam neoprene – a synthetic rubber – are popular.
have evolved, which are specifically manufactured for The gas bubbles in the neoprene help make it a poor
the diver. conductor of heat and the thin layer of water trapped
You normally provide your body with thermal inside a close-fitting suit is soon warmed to near body
insulation by trapping a layer of air close to your temperature. Suits of different thicknesses and style,
skin. This air is warmed by body heat and, because often worn with hoods and gloves, can be chosen
air is a poor conductor of heat, gives you a stable appropriate to the temperature of the waters being
thermal environment. If that layer of air is removed dived. For colder waters, drysuits with seals at the neck
by wind, draught or deliberate ventilation, you are and wrists which keep the water away from the body
cooled, so windproof clothing helps keep you warm. can be worn. These drysuits instead trap a layer of air
Water is 25 times better at heat conduction than air, against the body, often using warm under-clothing, and
so you will cool much more rapidly when submerged. so help maintain body temperature. o
The flow of heat from your body will warm the water

Adapting 31
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 Chapter two
Basic
underwater
skills
While scuba diving is
by no means a difficult
pursuit, there are some
basic skills which need to
be learned. These range
from equipment checks to
underwater communication
and are essential for both a
diver’s safety and comfort.
Learning these skills is an
ongoing process and the key
to improving your diving is
practise, practise, practise.
Eventually, you will find
that performing buddy
checks and mask clearing
become second nature, while
familiarisation with safety
procedures should increase
your confidence.

32
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 Seamanship
Tides and tidal streams

Seamanship 4
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 Basic underwater skills
Communication

‘I am okay,’ or ‘Are you okay?’ Used as ‘Stop, stay where you are.’ This signal is ‘You’ or ‘Me’. The diver points to himself
both a question and a reply. often followed by more signals explaining or another diver, indicating the person
why. referred to in the signal which follows.

Diving is an activity best shared with others, so an Divers use these signals to communicate between
ability to communicate between divers is important. members of the group both underwater and at the
This is particularly so while you are learning – good surface. Some signalling is also necessary between
instructor/student communication is vital. We use all divers in the water and their surface support, who
of our senses to convey information and the ability to are either in a boat or on the shore. In communicating
hear speech is of major importance in our day-to-day these signals divers pose questions, provide responses
life. However, underwater with a diving regulator in and make statements, such as:
your mouth, speech is not a realistic option. Instead, ‘Are you okay?’
as soon as you start breathing from a regulator, divers ‘I am okay.’
communicate using an internationally recognised ‘Go this way.’
system of simple hand signals. Inevitably, local dialects ‘Descend’ or ‘Ascend.’
creep in to augment such a system, so it is always wise Make sure you have the attention of the diver you
when diving in a new locality, or with strangers, to are signalling and that you give slow, clear signals
check what signals are understood. within that person’s field of vision.

34 Basic underwater skills

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 Hand signals

‘Go up,’ or ‘I am going up.’ An instruction ‘Go down,’ or ‘I am going down.’ An ‘Something is wrong.’ This is not a sign
to ascend. instruction to descend. of emergency, but an indication that all
is not well.

‘I am in distress.’ Should you see Distress at surface. ‘Come and get me.’ Okay at surface. ‘I am okay.’ Used to
this signal offer the distressed diver The signal demands immediate assistance indicate to the surface support that all
immediate help. for the signalling diver. is well

‘I am out of breath.’ By moving his or her ‘I have no more breathing gas.’ Move ‘I am on reserve,’ or ‘I am on 50 bar,’ used
hands to and fro, your buddy indicates your outstretched hand back and forth to indicate that the diver’s breathing gas
fatigue/breathlessness. horizontally from your throat. supply is low.

Basic underwater skills 35

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 A diver signals that his breathing gas
supply is low

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

 Assembling the equipment

Regulator: first stage

Cylinder
valve

Cylinder ‘Octopus’
second
stage

Buoyancy
compensator Contents
gauge
Regulator:
Depth
second stage
gauge
Purge valve

Attaching a regulator and BC to a cylinder The scuba unit

Assembling the equipment

During the early stages of training your instructor O-ring avoiding excessive force (O-rings require little
will do most of the equipment preparation and pressure to seal). Open the cylinder valve slowly, at the
assembly. However, as your training progresses you same time ensuring that the contents gauge is pointing
will be expected to take more and more responsibility. away from you or anybody else. Ensure the cylinder
Understanding the equipment and developing a valve is turned to the fully open position. Check the
logical assembly and check sequence is important for cylinder pressure by reading the contents gauge (this
your personal safety. is sometimes referred to as a submersible pressure
Attach the BC to the cylinder, making sure that the BC gauge or SPG).
is positioned correctly, with the cylinder valve outlet
facing towards the BC, before tightening the cylinder
strap. For best weight carrying, the cylinder should be
Checklist
positioned as high as possible on the back. This will • Attach BC to cylinder
be limited by the need to bend your head backwards • Check valve is facing towards BC
without hitting the regulator and cylinder valve. Then • Tighten cylinder strap and check BC is secure
stand the cylinder up with the outlet facing away from • Stand cylinder up facing away from you
you and open the cylinder valve momentarily to clear • Clear dust and check O-ring
any water or dust from the valve. Before connecting • Connect first stage
your regulator to the cylinder valve, check that the • Check regulator is not upside-down
O-ring seal is in place and undamaged. Connect the • Gently tighten first stage connection
first stage by locating the A-clamp or DIN screw • Connect BC hose
into the recess/thread on the cylinder valve. Check • Slowly fully open cylinder valve
that the regulator is positioned correctly and is not • Check contents gauge
upside-down! Tighten the first stage gently onto the

Basic underwater skills 37

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 Regulator checks

Breathing gas supply and contents gauge should be checked A weight belt and various weights

Regulator checks Weight checks

It is worth spending time checking your regulator for Your weights may also need some preparation.
any minor leaks. Open the cylinder valve and listen Depending on the amount of breathing gas in their
for leaks – an initial, slight leak from the second stage lungs most people have a slight positive buoyancy.
may be stopped by briefly pressing the purge button. This means that, relaxed, you will float at the surface
Close the cylinder valve and watch the contents gauge. with virtually all your body submerged. Just a small
Should the reading fall this is an indication of a leak amount of lead weight will allow you to sink. You will
in the system. Submerging the regulator and cylinder carry weights on a weight belt or on a harness or in
valve assembly and checking for bubble streams can special pockets attached to your BC, to provide this
help locate leaks. small amount of weight, plus the weight needed to
Re-open the cylinder valve and take a few breaths counteract any residual positive buoyancy when all
from the second stage, at the same time watching your equipment is taken into account. As the aim is
the contents gauge. If the needle swings drastically to be neutrally buoyant underwater, it is a mistake
or shows a significant pressure drop this could be an to carry either too much or too little weight. Initially,
indication of a blocked filter or a cylinder valve not your instructor will advise and help you arrive at the
fully open. In either case this must be remedied correct amount of lead to carry.
before the equipment is used. Next, close the cylinder
valve and continue to breathe from the regulator. The
contents gauge reading should now drop to zero and
Kitting up
you should be unable to breathe from the regulator. If Initial checks complete, you are now ready to put on
you can still inhale there is a leak in the system, possibly the equipment. If you have not already done so you
in the second stage exhaust valve. Again, this must be should now put on any protective clothing, such as
remedied before the equipment is used. your wetsuit or drysuit. Most divers prefer to leave
gloves and hood until just before entering the water.

38 Basic underwater skills

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 Kitting up

Buddies assist each other when kitting up A dive leader talks divers through the dive brief

Make sure all your equipment is to hand and not Once kitting up is complete, the buddy pair should
scattered around in a way that may cause problems cross-check each other’s equipment, verifying that
for yourself or other divers. Check the BC waist and cylinder valves are fully open and there is sufficient
chest straps are unfastened and loosen off the shoulder breathing gas pressure indicated for the planned
straps if they are adjustable. dive. Direct feed connections should be checked, as
Fit the weights, ensuring that should you need to well as BC inflation and deflation and octopus second
release them, they will fall free and not snag on any stage operation. Ensuring each diver understands
other piece of equipment you will be wearing. the operation of his or her buddy’s equipment is an
Even when diving in groups, divers use a buddy important safety factor and this should extend to
pairing system as a means of providing immediate weight belt and other equipment-release mechanisms.
assistance should any be needed. This is immediately
helpful for the next stage of kitting up. Use your
buddy to hold up your scuba unit while you slip into
Dive briefing
the BC. Avoid trapping regulator hoses and make Safety is paramount during diving operations, so they
sure shoulder straps are not twisted. Lean forward are organised under the overall supervision of a dive
and tighten waist fastenings, before pulling down on manager, who selects the dive site, assesses risks,
the shoulder adjusters to tighten them. Next, if fitted, arranges divers into pairs or groups, sets the overall dive
fasten the chest strap with sufficient slack so that the plan, and appoints surface cover. The dive manager
BC can be inflated without causing discomfort. may have additional roles to perform, such as skipper
With the scuba unit in place and secure, check the or instructor. Before entering the water it is important
position of the cylinder by tilting your head back – if that all members of the dive group understand what is
your head hits the regulator first stage, the position is planned for the dive. This means that everyone needs
too high and the BC cylinder strap will require further to know about entry and exit factors, timeand depth
adjustment. Now it is your turn to help your buddy. limits, the route, planned exercises and equipment

Basic underwater skills 39

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 Divers wade out to deeper water at the beginning of a shore dive

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

 Entering the water

Entering the water from a boat A stride entry from a platform

operation, communication procedures and any safety negotiating slippery surfaces – until submerged you
concerns. The dive manager usually provides this will be unwieldy as your centre of gravity will have
information by giving a dive briefing. During your shifted. Make maximum use of the buddy system for
first few dives much of this may have been conveyed mutual support on difficult surfaces and when finally
during earlier training sessions, so your instructor fitting fins.
may give a brief summary highlighting points relevant Probably the most common entry system, particularly
to the planned dive. from fair-sized dive boats, is the stride entry. This
requires sufficiently deep and unobstructed water and
Entering the water is most easily performed from a level platform with
Immediately before entry, fit the last of your equipment, a hand support for an upright, fully equipped diver.
typically your wetted mask and your fins. It is usually Using this method, you stand as close to the platform
a good idea to have a small amount of breathing gas edge as possible with one hand on the hand-hold.
in your BC, enough to ensure some positive buoyancy Double-check that the water is clear of obstructions,
when you enter the water. You should not enter the especially other divers. When the signal is given to
water until signalled to do so either by your instructor go, release the hand-hold and position that hand so
or the surface-cover controller. Depending on the as to retain the regulator in your mouth and your
nature of the dive site, a number of different entry mask on your face. At the same time you should
methods can be employed. If you start in shallow water take a large stride forward to clear the platform. Try
with steps or a ladder for access, you may descend to hit the water in a vertical position. Once the cloud
this and fit fins in the water. Similarly, entering from of bubbles from your splash entry subsides, you
a shelving beach may make it more practical to wade should find yourself bobbing gently to the surface.
out before fitting fins. Otherwise, it may be easier to Check that your equipment has not become displaced
wade out to deeper water while wearing your fins by and everything is operating as it should, locate your
walking backwards. In either case, be careful when buddy and confirm everything is okay before turning

Basic underwater skills 41

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 Descending

As you descend be sure to equalise your ears before pressure causes discomfort

and signalling ‘Okay’ to the surface cover. Remember: hand over it on the back of the head. Otherwise the
when you stride forward you have a bulky cylinder comments relating to forward roll entries apply. The
strapped to your back, which needs to clear the dive dive can now begin!
platform as you descend.
Another method of entry is a forward roll – often
favoured by photographers as a method of protecting
Descending
their camera equipment. Starting from a standing To descend from the surface you must change from
position, bend your knees and bend forward from the being positively buoyant to neutrally buoyant. It is
waist, while tucking your chin into your chest and normal to enter the water with your BC, and drysuit
keeping your head as near to your knees as possible. if worn, partially inflated so that you are positively
As you roll into the water, the weight of the cylinder buoyant. When ready to descend gradually vent the
will provide momentum so that you enter the water BC and then dry suit, if worn, until you are neutrally
backwards, cylinder-first. One hand remains free for buoyant. If you are correctly weighted – carrying the
gripping other equipment which is further protected minimum weight to be neutral at the end of the dive
by being held in the chest/stomach area. Until you are – you should achieve neutral buoyancy just before the
used to them, roll methods can be a little disorienting BC or dry suit is totally vented. This is because the
and can sometimes dislodge your mask strap. Make weight of the bre athing gas in your cylinder will make
sure you surface clear of the dive platform. you slightly heavier. When correct weighting and
When diving from small boats, which have a low buoyancy are mastered, starting the descent by simply
freeboard, a backward roll technique works well. With exhaling will usually be possible. When completely
this type of entry you should sit on the side of the submerged you can pivot to continue the descent head
boat and adopt a similar position to the forward roll, first. An alternative is to position yourself horizontally
check your fins are clear and simply roll backwards face down at the surface and obtain neutral buoyancy.
into the water. Secure your mask strap by placing one Then exhale, bend your upper body down underwater

42 Basic underwater skills

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 Moving in the water

Finning in a relaxed and energy-saving style

and lift your legs straight up in the air. The weight of while fully kitted up and spoil streamlining. Observe
your legs will drive you downwards. Avoid finning how seals swim underwater. You will find that finning
until you are completely submerged, as your fins do when you are completely submerged is more effective
not work in air and it will make for a lot of ineffectual than at the surface. If surface swims are necessary,
splashing and a very untidy start to the dive! Make BCs with frontal buoyancy should make swimming
sure you keep close contact with your buddy and any on your back more comfortable. However, this has the
descent guide rope, such as a shot-line or anchor rope disadvantage of you not being able to watch where
while descending, but do not pull yourself down any you are going, so frequent over-the-shoulder glances
such guides. are needed.
Underwater, life is much more comfortable.
Here you have true freedom of movement in three
Moving in the water dimensions, and happiness is neutral buoyancy. Away
When finning try to adopt an energy-saving style from from the surface, fins react more effectively with the
the outset. Start by keeping your legs as straight as water. If you are correctly weighted, small changes to
possible, pivot from the hips and avoid excessive knee the amount of breathing gas you inhale or exhale can
bending (bicycling). Some knee bending will always move your overall buoyancy from neutral to negative
occur, but a fluid finning action involving the whole or positive allowing you to move up or down in the
body and including some hip rotation is much more water. Remember, never hold your breath, especially
effective than just knee and ankle movements. Use when ascending. With freedom of movement in
your hands as little as possible, they are ineffective all dimensions, forward, backward and corkscrew

Basic underwater skills 43

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 Pressure changes

As depth increases so does pressure, divers must equalise the pressure Developing confidence and familiarity with your regulator is an
in their ears in order to alleviate pressure differences in air spaces important diving skill

rolls are all possible. You will observe competent will have been reduced by a half due to the increase
divers move through the water with the minimum of in pressure. Gas bubbles in a foam neoprene suit will
effort, making long, slow fin strokes. Body attitude be affected and the suit’s buoyancy considerably
is often controlled by depth of breathing, and hand reduced. A corresponding volume of breathing gas
movements are rare, always kept to a minimum. Keep from the direct feed will have to be allowed into your
a safe distance from the sea bed and other underwater BC in order to regain neutral buoyancy. Divers wearing
objects to avoid contact that could damage either drysuits will also experience a reduction in buoyancy
yourself or the environment. Be careful when finning as the gas inside the suit is compressed. Besides loss
that you don’t hit your buddy and likewise avoid their of buoyancy, this can create an uncomfortable or even
fins, as masks and regulators can be dislodged. painful squeeze. The remedy is simple, bleed breathing
gas from the direct feed into the suit at intervals during
your descent, always seeking to keep your buoyancy
Pressure changes close to neutral.
Remember that as you descend you must equalise
pressure differences in gas spaces. Some divers find
it easy to clear ears simply by swallowing, and often
Breathing
only have to clear in the first part of the dive as they To best enjoy your diving in complete safety, you need
descend. Others find it essential to perform nose to develop familiarity with, and confidence in, the
pinching and blowing whenever descending during a equipment and techniques you will be using. A key
dive. You must not forget to exhale through the nose to piece of equipment is your regulator. Initially this will
balance the pressure in the mask, particularly during probably be fitted and checked for you, but as your
the early stages of the descent. diving progresses you will do this yourself. Using
Presuming you were neutrally buoyant at the the regulator is relatively straightforward, it is just a
surface, at a depth of 10m any enclosed volumes of gas matter of holding the mouthpiece bite pegs between

44 Basic underwater skills

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 Breathing

A diver practises using his buddy’s alternate supply

your teeth and sealing your lips around the outside As a skill, regulator removal and replacement is
of the mouthpiece. Once in the water it should feel important, because it teaches you the basis of how to
comfortable and be easy to breathe from, whatever replace your primary regulator with either your own
your attitude or depth, as long as the feed hose is or your buddy’s alternate supply (AS) should the
positioned correctly. If at the end of the dive your jaw need ever arise. You will be taught regulator recovery
is aching, it will probably be because you are gripping techniques such as sweeping an arm behind you or
it too hard. Don’t worry, this is not uncommon at the adopting a head-down position should the regulator
beginning of your diver training, on your next dive swing completely out of your field of view.
just try to relax the pressure you are exerting. It is a small step from removing and replacing
At an early stage in your training you will be taught your own regulator underwater, to learning how
how to remove the mouthpiece from your mouth while to breathe from your buddy’s AS. When using this
underwater and then replace it without surfacing. This technique positioning and contact are the keys to
is not difficult – either use the regulator purge button success. You need to be positioned so that the AS
to clear the small amount of water which will enter the regulator is correctly, comfortably and securely fitted
mouthpiece, or simply blow it out yourself. in your mouth, and ideally so that you and your buddy

Basic underwater skills 45

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Mask clearing

have eye contact with each other. As you are now using a breathing source
fitted to your buddy, there must be secure contact between the pair of
you. Such an event will mean the termination of the dive, and you both
must be able to ascend safely and comfortably.
Mask clearing
Another early skill to master is that of emptying water out of your dive
mask without surfacing, a technique called mask clearing. While masks
are normally quite watertight, there are occasions when water can seep
in. Altering your facial shape by smiling or laughing – both of which
are possible underwater – can cause leaks. So, too, can a poor seal under
the nose for those with a moustache. Consequently, another important
Hold the top of the mask against your and confidence-building skill you will be taught is that of mask clearing.
face and tilt your head backwards The principle is very simple. Position yourself to be head-up so that the
dive mask faceplate is vertical, then tilt your head slightly backwards.
Any water inside the mask will obey the pull of gravity and collect at
the bottom of the mask in and around the nose pocket, not a problem
because you are inhaling with your mouth. In this position exhale gently
from your nose, so the breathing gas will bubble up through the water
in your mask, pressurising it to force the water out of the bottom of the
mask skirt, where the seal is weakest. Correctly performed, as soon as you
see bubbles escaping up past the outside of your mask, all the water that
was inside the mask will have been expelled. There are various preferred
methods of holding masks while clearing, some of which are shown in the
diagrams (left).
This same procedure works equally well with a small amount of water
or a mask full of water. In fact, you will learn to cope with both situations
and progress to completely removing, replacing and then clearing your
mask underwater. Sometimes people have a little difficulty in maintaining
a normal breathing rhythm when first learning this skill. To automatically
As you gently exhale, the water in the hold your breath when your nose becomes submerged is a natural human
mask will be forced out of the bottom of protective response. You have to learn to override this reflex and continue
the mask skirt to breathe from the regulator in your mouth while sealing off the nasal
passages. The easiest way to do this is to stand or kneel in shallow water,
breathing through your mouth from your regulator but without a dive
mask, and then to put your face in the water while continuing to breathe
normally. After a few tries you will master the technique of continuing to
breathe with your nose exposed to the water and are ready to complete
the technique of mask clearing.

46 Basic underwater skills

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 Mask clearing allows you to remove
any water that may have entered
your mask

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

 Buoyancy

A neutrally buoyant diver Learning buoyancy skills

Buoyancy
One of the joys of diving is the weightlessness of effectively change your volume, the actual amount
neutral buoyancy. To fully enjoy this aspect of diving of volume change depending upon the extent of your
the learner diver should master buoyancy control as inhalation or exhalation. This is termed your tidal
early as possible. Good buoyancy control at all stages volume and in a relaxed state will be of the order of
of a dive is essential for safety reasons. With a small about 0.5 litres. Assuming your torso is submerged
amount of instruction, this is not a difficult task and this will create a change in your displacement of 0.5
once mastered will pay you back for the rest of your litres and thus a change of upthrust of 0.5kg (1 litre
diving career. You must develop a concept of yourself of water weighs 1kg). Because of the density of water,
and your equipment as a small submarine. To remain you experience a fair amount of resistance in moving
at the surface the gravitational force pulling you down through it, so in practice there is a degree of time
must be exceeded by the upward force of the water lag before small changes of buoyancy produce any
that is trying not to be displaced by your presence. significant upwards or downwards movement. So,
The upward force of the water depends directly on the with a normal breathing depth and rate, this means
volume displaced – the submerged portion of yourself inertia will dampen out any tendency to yo-yo up
and your equipment – so any changes in that volume and down in the water. On the other hand, larger
that do not involve a change in your weight will inhalations and exhalations will have a proportionally
change your state of buoyancy. If you increase your greater effect and can initiate vertical movement.
overall volume the upthrust will increase and you will Another factor used to affect buoyancy is to change
be more buoyant. If you decrease your overall volume the amount of breathing gas retained in your lungs over
the upthrust will decrease and you will tend to sink and above the tidal volume. If you inhale deeply and
There are two principal means of changing your then control your breathing at a relatively small tidal
volume, using your body or using your diving level (using shallow breaths), your overall volume will
equipment. Every time you breathe in and out you have increased and you will tend to float upwards.

48 Basic underwater skills

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 Buoyancy
This technique is sometimes referred to as ‘breathing off the top’ of your
lungs. It is used to help temporarily lift yourself should you inadvertently
become too close to the sea bed, your buddy or some other object. It is a
technique to be used carefully and should not in any way be allowed to
lead to a dangerous breath-holding ascent. It is also a major part of the
reason you tend to need more weight at the start of your diving career.
In the early stages of your diving there is a natural tendency to want to
hold your breath underwater, and to initially inhale a larger amount
of breathing gas than normal. At this stage you are not accustomed to
having a breathing source underwater, and will also tend to take shorter
and more rapid breaths. The opposite of this technique is to reduce your
buoyancy by exhaling more deeply than normal and then to ‘breathe off
the bottom’ of your lungs. This can be used to help initiate a descent or
temporarily avoid an overhead obstruction such as your buddy or an Increasing the amount of breathing
obstacle. Being able to change buoyancy, and therefore position in the gas in your lungs, BC or dry suit
water, in this manner is particularly advantageous when the use of your increases your buoyancy, when you
fins is restricted, such as when you are too close to a silty sea bed, a buddy decrease the amount of breathing
or other obstruction. gas in your lungs, BC or dry suit your
The second method of buoyancy control is by altering your overall buoyancy decreases
volume by means of an external piece of diving equipment. Normally this
would be your BC or, if worn, drysuit. It is easy to see that introducing
breathing gas into either of these enclosed spaces will increase their
volume, thus increasing the amount of water they displace. In turn, this
will increase the upward-acting force on them and result in an increase in
your overall buoyancy. Similarly by venting gas from your BC or drysuit
you will decrease their volume, creating less upthrust and so have less
buoyancy. To avoid unwanted rapid upward or downward movements
take care to control the amounts of breathing gas you allow in or out of
such equipment.
It is worth noting that changing depth will also change the volume
of breathing gas in your BC or drysuit, as the ambient water pressure
increases or decreases. If you add breathing gas to become more buoyant,
you may rise through the water thus decreasing the ambient pressure,
which will allow the breathing gas to expand creating still more upthrust.
This will cause your upward movement to accelerate and if care is not
taken to vent excess gas an uncontrolled ascent can result.
Venting gas will tend to produce the same effect, but in the opposite
direction. As you descend, gas in your BC or drysuit compresses, thereby
reducing buoyancy and accelerating the descent. Unless breathing gas
is added to correct the negative buoyancy an uncontrolled descent can
occur, causing either your planned depth limits to be exceeded or for you
to collide with the bottom – or both!
This may sound a little daunting, but if you understand the principles
a little practise in the water will soon see you in complete control of your
buoyancy. A good exercise for all divers is to fine tune your buoyancy so
you can hover motionless in mid-water, able to sense the slight upward
and downward movement as you breathe gently in and out. Many
divers perform this by ‘sitting’ cross-legged holding their fin tips in an
underwater yoga like position.

Basic underwater skills 49

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 Ascending

Making a safety stop before ascending to the surface A diver hands over his equipment before entering the boat

Ascending Leaving the water

The key word during an ascent is control. Breath- All good things must come to an end and at some
holding is potentially dangerous, so make sure your stage the dive will have to end. As part of any dive plan
breathing is normal. Maintain neutral buoyancy by the exit procedure should be understood by the divers.
controlled venting of your BC or drysuit if necessary. Remember, swimming on the surface is more difficult
If you are too heavy, upward progress is difficult and than underwater. With good navigation most of the
hard finning will be required. If you are too light, the return should be possible underwater. The whole idea
speed of ascent will be difficult to control. Remember is to go diving, not swimming! Once the surface has
that the closer you get to the surface the more rapid the been reached, ensure positive buoyancy by inflating
change in pressure so the more rapid the expansion of your BC. The exit point will frequently be the same as
any breathing gas in buoyancy devices, drysuits and or close to the entry point. If this is shore-based it will
lungs. A safety stop at 6m to check buoyancy control normally be the reverse of the entry procedure. It is
is good practice. When you get close to the surface important to work as a team with your buddy to clear
listen and look to avoid surface craft and obstructions. the water and remove equipment.
In poor visibility a hand raised high can help protect If returning to a boat, make sure the boat knows
you from striking your head on unseen obstructions. you are there and all propeller movement is stopped.
Ascending face-to-face with your buddy enables good Then approach the boarding point or the point where
visual contact with each other for communications and equipment will be handed in prior to boarding.
you can each scan opposite areas for potential hazards, Some dive boats have a specially designed ladder,
especially when breaking the surface. On arrival at the with rungs projecting each side of a central spine.
surface, continue to keep a look out before checking These ladders often extend underwater and are angled
‘Okay’ with your buddy and the surface cover party. to make it easy to climb. This type can be ascended
fully kitted, making diver recovery quick and simple
and the divers can remove equipment in the boat,

50 Basic underwater skills

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 Leaving the water

Divers should retain their regulators in their mouths Using a ladder to climb back on board the boat
until back on board the boat

After the dive

again this is best performed with buddy assistance. Back on dry land you can relive your dive, discuss
Conventional ladders are more difficult for equipped it with your dive buddy and see what you can
divers to climb and it is usual to hold on to the ladder, take from the experience to help you enjoy future
remove fins and hand them to a member of the surface dives even more. Before this happens, report in
cover on the boat before climbing the ladder. If the to the dive manager or surface cover to confirm
ladder climb is difficult, it may be advisable to remove that they know you are safely back. Record your
and hand in your weights and possibly even remove cylinder’s end-of-dive pressure and dismantle and
your scuba unit, letting the surface cover haul this in stow away your equipment safely, in a manner
while you climb the ladder. that will not cause problems for other divers. If it is
To gain entry into small boats such as rigid inflatable possible to rinse your equipment in fresh water, this
boats (RIBs) it is usual to keep your fins on, but remove should be done at the earliest opportunity. Check
and hand in your weights and scuba unit. You can back to see how accurately you were able to adhere to
then submerge a little, retaining a firm hold of the your dive plan, particularly regarding planned depth
boat, before finning up strongly and at the same time and time. Finally, make a record of the dive in your
pulling yourself up and into the boat. dive logbook. This logged experience record will be a
In all exits remember that once you have removed pleasure to you in the future and will also allow other
the scuba unit you lose a breathing gas source and dive centres to see the extent of your experience. o
your prime source of buoyancy. Also, once you remove
your fins you will find your mobility in the water is
drastically reduced. Always try to keep your regulator
in your mouth as long as possible, even until you are
back in the boat and retain your mask in place while in
the water. Save the talking until back on board!

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 Chapter three
Breaking
the surface

Having learned the basic

skills and made the first of
your early dives, it’s time
to take a look around. The
visibility underwater will
have a big effect on your
diving. While some divers
prefer to dive in clear water,
others enjoy the challenge
of successfully completing a
dive in low visibility. Light
and the weather also play
their part in unwrapping
stunning sights for those
prepared to enter the
underwater world.

52
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 SUB HEADER HERE

Breaking the surface 53

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 Breaking the surface
Visibility

Organisms and sedimentary matter can cause poor visibility In good visibility magnificent seascapes are revealed

Where land-bound people talk of the weather, divers divers carry a waterproof torch to light up darker
talk about the visibility. You might think that water crevices or even to enable diving at night.
temperature is the prime concern, but in fact it is the The biggest influence on underwater visibility is the
distance you can see that is a major distinction between material suspended in the water. Sedimentary matter
dive sites and individual dives. As the whole point is and minute living organisms in the water can block
to observe a different world, this is hardly surprising. our vision, rather like a fog. The sedimentary matter
So what are the factors influencing our ability to see in the sea frequently comes from material flushed into
underwater? Given reasonable eyesight (possibly the vicinity from local rivers. The areas affected vary,
corrected by lenses) and a good mask, there remain the depending on both the size and hinterland of the river,
amount of light and the water itself as variables. The and according to inland rains.
amount of light is obviously important. The changing Tidal conditions can also change the flow of a river,
elevation of the sun at different times of the day means giving differing visibility at different states of the tide.
light penetration also differs, with midday giving the Storms can raise sediment from the sea bed, especially
strongest lighting for most sites. Cloud cover will also in shallow waters, and adversely affect visibility until
affect underwater lighting. the silt settles.
Water absorbs the light, so the deeper you go, The way in which visibility is affected by marine
the less light there is available. Lack of light can be organisms tends to be more a function of climate and
compensated for by lights carried by the diver. Many geography. There is a food chain underwater with a

54 Breaking the surface

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 Good visibility can make a major contribution
to the enjoyment of a dive

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 Food chain

Some mammals, such as dolphins, feed on fish The shy basking shark feeds on plankton

base of plant life using sunlight to gain its life energy As plankton is climate-sensitive, divers will often
through photosynthesis. To exploit the vast areas of come into contact with plankton ‘blooms’, when
the oceans, plant life has evolved in both fixed and waters are filled with newborn plankton. This is
free-floating forms. These floating forms affect our especially so in temperate waters, where spring and
underwater visibility. The often microscopic plants autumn blooms create periods when the underwater
are in turn used as a food source by minute animals, visibility is drastically reduced.
frequently the young or larval forms of other sea The drifting plankton provides a food source for a
creatures, and these in turn will also reduce visibility. wide range of other marine creatures, ranging from
As the plant life is using light as its basic energy the smallest of fish right through to enormous whales.
source there are optimum conditions where this can be In turn, many of the plankton-eating fish are the main
successful. Too little light means the plankton cannot food source for other fish, even to the extent that adult
survive, and too much can also have an adverse effect. forms prey on junior forms of the same species. So,
The water temperature also has a role to play in while divers often grumble about poor visibility, this
providing the most suitable growth conditions. cloudy murk is a basic food source for the fish life we
This means that there tends to be a depth zone where want to see during our underwater excursions.
plankton growth will be prolific, and hence visibility
reduced. This zone often varies in depth depending on
the time of day or strength of the sunlight, and is found
deeper at midday than early morning or late afternoon.
At night, the plankton layer is often found at the
surface and can provide spectacular bioluminescent
effects as divers’ movements leave phosphorescent
trails in the water.

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 Seaweed and animal life

A feeding tubeworm Lobsters tend to hide in rocky crevices

Seaweed and animal life

Not all marine life is free swimming. Many underwater really not an end in itself. Learning to dive is learning
life forms spend their existence attached to rocky a new form of movement, just like walking, riding a
walls or to the sea bed. Some of these life forms are bicycle or flying an aeroplane. Once you have learned
seaweeds, such as the beautiful forests of kelp found in to dive you have the ability to enter this strange and
temperate waters, or the savannahs of sea grass in seas wonderful region of our planet. And as with walking,
such as the Mediterranean. Others, while superficially you can use this ability for many associated activities
appearing to be plants, are actually animals, such as and at many levels. You can enjoy the undersea
the community dwelling corals of the tropics or the equivalents of walking on moors, climbing mountains,
many coloured sponges and siphons. These sedentary exploring jungles. You can enjoy the scenery and
colonies often form the basis of an undersea habitat photograph, film or video it to reinforce memories.
for other life forms, providing either a food source You can simply admire or study in depth the
or shelter or both. Many varieties of shellfish are also seaweeds and creatures you encounter. Because of
bottom dwelling, some preferring to grow attached the more limited visibility we experience, underwater
to rocky surfaces, others preferring to be hidden in panoramas are necessarily more restricted than above
the sand or mud. Crustacea such as crabs, crayfish the surface. However, they can be just as spectacular,
and lobsters hide in rocky crevices, while starfish, sea with underwater cliffs, arches, caverns and boulder
cucumbers and the more mobile shellfish roam the fields to delight the eye and intrigue those with an
bottom, grazing on kelp, sea grass or coral. Marine interest in geology.
biology is a massive and fascinating science and
many divers, having seen the wonderful forms of life
underwater, become totally captivated by its study.
It is worth mentioning here that while in the
beginning diving itself may be totally absorbing, it is

Breaking the surface 57

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 A titan triggerfish

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 Look, don’t touch!

Look, don’t touch!

Diving is your new form of transport, providing you
with privileged access to the underwater world, and
it is important that you do not abuse that privilege,
even inadvertently, by lack of knowledge or skill.
Equally, you do not want to expose yourself or others
to unnecessary risk. By entering this world you can
create a potentially damaging imbalance unless you
understand the effects of your intrusion. The ideal
is to take only memories, and as a diver underwater
you have the opportunity to do that without even
leaving footprints! Be careful that careless finning
does not cause physical damage to what are often
delicate seaweeds or animals. Avoid damaging
things by unnecessary contact. Seaweeds and animals
underwater are constantly striving to be successful and
survive, and certain organisms develop quite powerful
defence mechanisms and strategies to help in life’s
battle. Some of these defences can have unpleasant or
even dangerous effects on humans, such as stings from Moray eels are generally not dangerous, but may bite any hands
fire coral or jellyfish, the poisonous spines of stonefish that stray into the crevices or holes in which they live
or lionfish, or attacks by territorial triggerfish.
While unprovoked attacks from larger fish are
extremely rare, even minor cuts and wounds from
sharp or spiny objects underwater can take a long what you have to consider when swimming close to
time to heal and should be carefully cleaned to avoid other divers, cliffs, the sea bed or other underwater
infection. The simple rule that benefits both the marine objects. Stirring up the sea bed with careless fin
environment and the diver is: ‘Look, but don’t touch’. strokes is not environmentally friendly and can ruin
While on the subject of avoiding possible problems, the visibility, even to the extent of making enclosed
it is worth remembering that at some stage in the dive areas dangerous. It is embarrassing to be brought to
it will be necessary to return to the surface. With this an abrupt halt because a trailing contents gauge or
in mind you should always be conscious of situations some other dangling piece of equipment has become
which could obstruct a direct ascent by creating a entangled in the coral, shipwreck or rocks you were
‘no-clear surface’ situation. This obviously happens if swimming over. With the restricted angle of vision
you are tempted to enter a shipwreck or cavern, but imposed by your dive mask, this embarrassment can
even boulders and rock arches and overhangs can be downright dangerous if you cannot see to free
obstruct your route to the surface. Exploring such yourself, so keep hoses and other dangly bits tucked
obstructed areas requires the use of additional safety away and secured as close to your body as possible. o
techniques and more advanced training. Therefore,
be careful to avoid places requiring such special
penetration diving techniques until you have gained
the right training and experience.
You should also try to develop an awareness of the
changes to your profile once you are dressed in all
your equipment. Your girth is enlarged by the addition
of your dive cylinder, and your length is increased by
wearing fins, while gauges and hoses also protrude to
increase the space you occupy. This enlarged space is

Breaking the surface 59

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 Chapter four
Deeper
in
knowledge
While some of the effects
of pressure, such as the
need to equalise, are
easily recognisable, others
require a more in-depth
understanding of human
physiology. When we are
underwater, nitrogen
bubbles in the bloodstream
can have a significant impact
on our bodies and, if correct
procedures are not followed,
can lead to instances of
decompression illness.
However, an understanding
of how our bodies work
will lead to safer and more
enjoyable diving.

60
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Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Deeper in knowledge
Breathing freely

Windpipe !IR IN AND OUT

Lung structure
/XYGENATED BLOOD s !IR IS INHALED TO AND EXHALED FROM
the alveoli via the windpipe and
the two bronchi.
$E OXYGENATED
s %ACH ALVEOLUS IS COVERED WITH A
blood
NETWORK OF TINY BLOOD VESSELS THAT
RECEIVES DE OXYGENATED BLOOD FROM
"RONCHUS THE PULMONARY ARTERY
s 'AS EXCHANGE TAKES PLACE THROUGH
THE ALVEOLUS SURFACE OXYGEN BEING
taken up by the blood and carbon
,UNGS DIOXIDE LEAVING THE BLOOD
s /XYGENATED BLOOD LEAVES THE ALVEOLI
VIA THE PULMONARY VEIN
!LVEOLI
"LOODLUNG GAS EXCHANGE

Our bodies consist of a variety of cells, all of which waste products are removed via the excretory system.
perform particular functions that enable us to exist. In As divers, it is our breathing mechanism that is
turn, these individual cells require energy to live and most affected by our underwater activity and therefore
operate. They obtain this energy through a process this requires a fuller understanding. Respiration is
called ‘metabolism’, where oxygen is used to ‘burn’ the process of inhaling air (or another breathing gas
food, thus creating energy and some by-products. that contains sufficient oxygen) into the lungs via the
Food + oxygen = mouth or nose and then exhaling the unused parts of
energy + water + carbon dioxide + waste products this gas along with the carbon dioxide produced by the
It is the job of the bloodstream to deliver food and cells. The surface of the lungs brings our bloodstream,
oxygen to the cells and then to remove by-products. flowing through tiny capillaries, into close contact
The heart acts as a pump to circulate the blood with the inhaled gases in the alveoli.
between the vital organs and the rest of our body cells, In the alveoli, some of the oxygen from the inhaled
where the necessary gas and chemical interchanges air diffuses into the blood and, similarly, carbon
can be made. Food is made available by regular eating dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the alveoli.
and subsequent digestion and storage, while oxygen The air we breathe is made up of a number of gases
intake and carbon dioxide expulsion are achieved by in various proportions. Nitrogen, a normally inert gas,
the breathing cycle. Excess water and other cellular forms the largest part at roughly 80 per cent. When

62 Deeper in knowledge
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 Breathing

Inhalation FAR LEFT !S YOU BREATHE IN

YOUR RIBS ARE PUSHED OUTWARDS AND YOUR
DIAPHRAGM IS TIGHTENED THUS PULLING IT
DOWNWARDS 4HESE ACTIONS EXPAND THE
CHEST CAVITY CAUSING THE LUNGS TO DRAW
AIR IN THROUGH THE MOUTH OR NOSE
Exhalation LEFT "REATHING OUT IS THE
REVERSE OF THIS PROCESS THE RIBS MOVING
-OVEMENT -OVEMENT INWARDS AND THE DIAPHRAGM UPWARDS
OF DIAPHRAGM of DIAPHRAGM SHRINKING THE CHEST CAVITY AND EXPELLING
AIR FROM THE LUNGS

Inhalation %XHALATION

#ARBON DIOXIDE 
s 4HE PIE CHART FAR LEFT GIVES A
BREAKDOWN OF THE GASES CONTAINED IN
inhaled air.
/XYGEN  /XYGEN 
s 4HE PIE CHART LEFT SHOWS THE
PROPORTION OF GASES CONTAINED IN
.ITROGEN  .ITROGEN  EXHALED AIR

Inhaled air %XHALED AIR

we breathe this in and out, it usually has no effect serious. Contaminants such as carbon monoxide from
on our living processes. Oxygen is the next largest exhaust fumes can have serious physiological effects
constituent, at around 20 per cent. The amount and when breathed at the surface. Even small quantities
pressure of oxygen in the air we normally inhale is can have enhanced effects if breathed at depth
more than we need and only about four per cent of it under pressure.
is involved in our living processes, the rest is simply Underwater, breathing gases other than air can
breathed out along with the nitrogen and carbon also bring advantages. Divers often use breathing gas
dioxide. The percentages of nitrogen and oxygen mixtures with oxygen percentages greater than 21%.
listed here are approximate and there are also traces These gases are generally known as nitrox, sometimes
of other gases in the atmosphere, but these are very referred to as enriched air. A typical mix is Nitrox 32,
tiny and usually play no active role in our respiration. which contains 32% oxygen and 68% nitrogen.
On land, changes in either the mixture of gases that
we breathe, or the way in which we breathe, can
cause us problems. The same applies while diving,
but we must always bear in mind that because we
are underwater, the consequences can be much more

Deeper in knowledge 63
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 Breathing gas consumption

How long will it last?

Living in an environment of air, we don’t pay much attention to its
availability, but that certainly has to change when it comes to diving. The
4WO THIRDS OF THE
Two amount of breathing gas we carry in our cylinders is one of the crucial
BREATHING GAS IN THE
thirds limitations on our diving. As mentioned earlier, breathing gas is compressed
CYLINDER IS ALLOCATED
at very high pressure in order that we can carry as much as possible in
for the dive
a cylinder of manageable size. A cylinder with an internal volume of
/NE THIRD OF THE 10 litres, filled with breathing gas compressed at 200 bar, will contain
BREATHING GAS IN THE (10 litres x 200 =) 2,000 litres of breathing gas at normal atmospheric
One
third CYLINDER IS KEPT AS A pressure. To establish how much breathing gas we use during a dive we
RESERVE need to understand something about our bodies’ respiration and oxygen
usage. A typical adult will have a total lung volume of around 6 litres.
However, as we cannot totally empty our lungs and rarely fully inflate them,
this is an academic amount. What we need to know is how much air we
actually breathe in (and out), and can therefore be said to have consumed
over a set period of time. Your consumption will vary, depending on your
activity at the time. Sitting reading this book, you are probably breathing in
and out about 0.5 litres with each breath and taking about 12 breaths each
minute. That gives a breathing gas-consumption figure of (0.5 litres x 12 =)
6 litres a minute and would allow you to breathe from the 10-litre cylinder
pressurised to 200 bar for (2,000 litres ÷ 6 litres =) 333 minutes. Engaging in
more strenuous activity, such as swimming, will increase both your depth
and rate of breathing, and consequently increase your air-consumption rate.
The exact rate is going to vary with the intensity of the physical effort and
will also vary from person to person, with factors such as size and fitness
being significant. When diving, we take a consumption rate of 25 litres per
minute as a planning guide. While it is possible to exceed this rate, it is also
possible to conduct dives at below this figure, so it is important to analyse
your diving habits to see if this is a reasonable figure for your own dive
planning. Typically, breathing gas consumption is high in the early stages
of learning to dive and then reduces to a steady level with more experience.
Experienced divers may well find rates such as 15 litres per minute more usual.

Ambient pressure
We must also take into account how the depth of a dive affects the ambient
pressure. As our depth increases so does the surrounding pressure, and
consequently the regulator delivers breathing gas to us at higher pressure.
At 10m the ambient pressure is doubled, so we need to breathe the gas
at 2 bar to balance that external water pressure. This means each breath
we take consumes twice as much gas as that same breath at the surface
– effectively doubling our breathing gas consumption rate. At a depth
of 20m we have an ambient pressure of 3 bar, and the gas we breathe
needs to be at 3 bar. Three times as much breathing gas occupies the
same lung volume as at the surface and our consumption rate becomes
(25 litres x 3 =) 75 litres per minute. Obviously we must then take
into account depth as well as breathing rate when we plan how long
a particular breathing gas supply might last. Our 2,000-litre supply

64 Deeper in knowledge
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 Ambient pressure

 BAR  BAR

/XYGEN
will only last (2,000 litres ÷ 25 litres ÷ 3 =) 26.7 minutes when diving at
20m (3 bar) and breathing at 25 litres per minute. This is a fairly crude  BAR  BAR 20%
calculation as not all of the dive would be spent at that depth and you
would obviously not want to end the dive at 20m with no breathing gas.
You should plan to arrive back at the surface with some reserve of
breathing gas in the cylinder. There are many factors to take into account  BAR  BAR 80%
in deciding what is a sensible reserve for a particular dive. A reasonable

Nitrogen
rule of thumb at this stage is using the rule of thirds – one third of the
cylinder contents is used for the descent and halfway or turn around
point, one third of the cylinder contents is used for the second half of the
dive or return journey, including surfacing, and the remaining third of the
contents is your reserve. !IR PARTIAL PRESSURES

Partial pressures
To best understand the effects that the gases we breathe have on us, we
need to appreciate the effects of pressure on the gases themselves. At the  BAR  BAR

/XYGEN
earth’s surface the atmospheric pressure is about 1 bar, and each of the
gases forming the atmosphere contributes proportionately to creating that  BAR  BAR 32%
pressure. Therefore, the nitrogen contributes some 80 per cent or 0.8 bar
and the oxygen about 20 per cent or 0.2 bar. These are called the ‘partial
pressures’ of the various gases. Within a fully charged air cylinder, with  BAR  BAR 68%
the air compressed to 200 bar, the partial pressure of the nitrogen will

Nitrogen
be approximately (200 x 0.8 =) 160 bar and the oxygen partial pressure
(200 x 0.2 =) 40 bar. As the regulator supplies us with breathing gas at the
pressure of the water surrounding us, it follows that the partial pressures
of the gases we inhale will vary, depending on the depth we are at.
So at 10m the ambient pressure is 2 bar and we will inhale breathing gas at
2 bar. If this is normal compressed air, the nitrogen will form (2 x 0.8 =) 1.6 .ITROX  PARTIAL PRESSURES
bar and the oxygen (2 x 0.2 =) 0.4 bar – or double the partial pressure we
are used to at the surface. If the breathing gas was Nitrox 32, the partial
pressure of oxygen would be (2 x 0.32=) 0.64 bar, and the partial pressure
of nitrogen would be proportionately lower at (2 x 0.68=) 1.36 bar. Our
bodies are quite used to breathing in an excess of oxygen, and the excess is
simply breathed out – the cells of our body simply take what they need.

Deeper in knowledge 65
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 Oxygen

Too much of a good thing

Although the amount of oxygen your body takes in
increases at depth, this is of no importance as long
as the increase is relatively small, but it is possible to
have too much of a good thing. At the surface, 100-per-
cent oxygen is often used to treat a variety of medical
problems. As a result of such use, it has been found
that there are limits to our tolerance of excess oxygen,
both in time exposure and quantity. Prolonged
exposure to oxygen can produce convulsions and
unconsciousness, so its use underwater is restricted to
special circumstances. Similarly, the use of breathing
gas mixtures where the oxygen content is artificially
increased, such as nitrox, requires special precautions
and training in their use and limitations. A particular
limitation is depth, because as depth – and therefore
pressure – increases, so does the partial pressure of the
oxygen content, eventually to potentially dangerous
levels. Many diver training agencies advise a maximum
Divers should check their breathing gas consumption by reading oxygen partial pressure of 1.4 bar for underwater
their contents gauges frequently use. If the oxygen level in the breathing gas mixture
increased to 40 per cent (double the normal level) then
the 1.4 bar limit would be reached with an ambient
pressure of 3.5 bar, a depth of 25m. It is interesting
to note that this same limit applied to normal air is
reached at 7 bar ambient or 60m.
The depth at which the maximum partial pressure
is reached for a particular mix is called the Maximum
Operating Depth (MOD), but until you have received
training beyond entry-level your dives should not exceed
about 20m, considerably shallower than the MOD of
even the richest nitrox mixes used for ordinary diving.

Too little is also bad

While the air that we breathe – either compressed or at
atmospheric pressure – provides us with a more than
ample quantity of oxygen, we need to understand the
consequences of oxygen deprivation. Getting oxygen
from our breathing supply to our cells involves a long
and complex chain and it is worth considering each of
the links in turn. Our normal breathing-gas supply is
the atmosphere, and as long as it is not contaminated
with pollutants causes no real supply problem. While
diving we depend on the limited gas supply from our
cylinder and the correct functioning of our regulator.

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 Oxygen

,UNGS

0ULMONARY 0ULMONARY
ARTERIES Right Left VEINS
ATRIUM ATRIUM

Right Left
ventricle ventricle

Body

)T IS GOOD PRACTICE TO KEEP YOUR REGULATOR IN YOUR MOUTH 4HE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
EVEN AT THE SURFACE

A contents gauge indicates the quantity of gas in the worth developing the habit of keeping your regulator
cylinder and regulators are designed and built to be in place in your mouth all the while you are in the
highly reliable, robust devices with mainly fail-safe water and resist the temptation to chat with your
operation, as long as they are treated properly and buddy unnecessarily while at the surface – wait until
serviced according to the manufacturers’ guidelines. you are out of the water.
Breathing gas supply failures as a result of faulty Once in the lungs the oxygen is transferred from the
equipment are very rare. Failure caused by divers’ alveoli to the bloodstream where, combined with the
poor monitoring of their contents gauges is regrettably haemoglobin of the red cells, it is carried around the
less rare. We also need to be sure that the gas we are rest of the body. The efficiency of these links in the
breathing contains an appropriate amount of oxygen. chain depends on the health of the lungs, the heart
As long as the gas is compressed air there should be and the blood and circulatory system. Any respiratory
no problem, but if the gas is artificially mixed (such disease affecting the lungs can also affect the proper
as nitrox) then the oxygen content must be verified transfer of oxygen into the bloodstream. It is wise to
at all stages of production and immediately prior to get a knowledgeable medical opinion on any serious or
use. Having established what gas we are breathing, persistent respiratory conditions and to avoid diving
the next stage of oxygen intake comes through our when suffering from minor respiratory ailments. Of
breathing passages – the air-filled spaces of our lungs, course, smoking is known to damage the lungs and
mouth and nose. As the nose is usually enclosed in the should be avoided by divers, especially just before
diving face mask, inhalation and most exhalation is via or after a dive. The heart is the pump which moves
the mouth. Provided the regulator is in the mouth, and the blood around the body and plays a vital role in
there are no obstructions in the mouth, throat or lungs, keeping our body cells adequately supplied with
there should be no problems with oxygen supply. It is oxygen. Any disease which reduces the efficiency of

Deeper in knowledge 67
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 Hypoxia and anoxia
lose its normal pinkness and will be particularly visible
in the lips and nail beds. A shortage of oxygen is called
‘hypoxia’ and will cause impaired functioning of the
cells, producing fatigue and mental confusion as the
brain cells are affected, followed by unconsciousness
and convulsions. If the situation is not rectified
rapidly, permanent cell damage can occur. The
brain cells are especially sensitive and if deprived of
oxygen for as little as four minutes can be irreversibly
damaged. A condition referred to as ‘anoxia’, occurs
when there is no available oxygen and unless
immediately corrected will lead to death.

Nitrogen and diving

When we breathe nitrogen at the surface it is
considered to be inert. However, when we dive,
nitrogen has considerable effects on our bodies.
Breathing normal air at the surface, with a nitrogen
content of 80 per cent, the gas dissolves in our body
5SING DECOMPRESSION TABLES CORRECTLY WILL MINIMISE THE RISK OF tissues normally until a saturated state is reached,
DECOMPRESSION ILLNESS which has no apparent effect on us. However, when
we dive, the nitrogen in our breathing gas is at a
higher partial pressure than at the surface and this
the heart can have a direct and adverse effect on that causes our body tissues to absorb still more of the
oxygen supply. Once again a non-smoking policy is gas. If we remained at a particular depth for long
advisable. enough our tissues would again become saturated at
The liquid part of the blood known as plasma, carries that pressure, but the important factors are that the
in solution the complex sugars used as food by the higher the ambient pressure and the longer the dive
cells, as well as other salts and proteins needed by the duration, the more nitrogen is absorbed. Absorption
body. Within the liquid are suspended the oxygen- occurs for most of the dive and it is not until we reduce
carrying red blood cells, mixed with the disease-fighting the ambient pressure and reach the final stages of the
white blood cells and the platelets used in clotting ascent that this process starts to reverse. In a properly
to prevent bleeding. The red blood cells are actually conducted dive this absorption and release of nitrogen
tinged blue by the haemoglobin, until it combines with by our body tissues occurs without us being aware
oxygen to form the red oxy-haemoglobin. This makes of the process. However, it is important to realise
the arterial blood pumped from the heart to the tissues that most of the dive is spent absorbing nitrogen and
its healthy red colour, while the venous blood returning that the final off-gassing ascent phase is relatively
to the heart and lungs with its reduced oxygen content short. Divers usually arrive back at the surface with
is much bluer in colour. Diseases affecting the blood, considerably higher than normal nitrogen loadings
particularly anaemia with its associated reduced-red cell in their tissues. Over a period of time this will reduce
count, can also reduce the supply of oxygen to the cells. back to a normal level. This process is referred to as
‘decompressing’ and we must understand that all
dives, whether using air or a nitrox mix, in which we
Hypoxia and anoxia are exposed to increased ambient pressure involve
A reduction in the oxygen supply to the cells can a compression phase followed by a decompression
produce hypoxic symptoms. Firstly, as all the available phase.
oxygen is removed by the cells from the blood, it will
become progressively bluer. This will cause the skin to

68 Deeper in knowledge
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Nitrogen

Precautionary safety stops at the end of a dive will help to dissipate nitrogen bubbles

oxygen and transportation to recompression facilities

Nitrogen and decompression illness where the casualty can be recompressed to reduce the
As long as the ascent phase is not too rapid for the size of the offending bubbles and receive appropriate
quantity of nitrogen we have absorbed, decompression medical treatment. The earlier the treatment, the greater
occurs without adverse effect. If the rate of change of the chance of its success, so any symptoms should
pressure is too great, decompression illness (DCI) can be evaluated seriously and reacted to appropriately.
result. Here, instead of being carried in solution back Fortunately there are relatively simple strategies
to the lungs where it can be expired, nitrogen bubbles that can be adopted to minimise the risk of DCI
form in the body tissues. These bubbles can damage the being a problem. As the main factors causing the
tissues they are in, as well as obstructing blood supplies nitrogen to be absorbed are depth and time, a close
and damaging surrounding tissues. Once formed, the watch can be kept on these parameters to ensure safe
bubbles can grow as further nitrogen is released, and limits are not exceeded. These limits are laid down in
such situations call for immediate medical treatment decompression tables that can be used as part of the
if permanent damage is to be avoided. Treatment will dive planning process (see appendix one). As a further
normally involve the administration of 100-per-cent safeguard, divers frequently carry a dive computer

Deeper in knowledge 69
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Nitrogen

Decompression illness – symptoms

s )TCHES AND RASHES s #HEST PAIN OR DISCOMFORT
s *OINT ACHES AND PAINS s #REPITATION
s .UMBNESS AND TINGLING GENERALLY BUBBLES UNDER
SENSATION THE SKIN AROUND THE UPPER
s $IZZINESS VISUAL CHEST OR NECK
DISTURBANCE s 6OICE CHANGE
s #ONFUSION NAUSEA s 'ENERAL FATIGUE
HEADACHES WEAKNESS OR PARALYSIS
s 3HORTNESS OF BREATH s 5NCONSCIOUSNESS
-ANY OF THESE SYMPTOMS CAN BE ASSOCIATED WITH EITHER TOO
RAPID RELEASE OF NITROGEN FROM THE BODY TISSUE OR BURST LUNG
PROBLEMS #ORRECT DIAGNOSIS IS UNIMPORTANT AT THE FIRST AID
STAGE AS TREATMENT IS IDENTICAL 4HE CASUALTY REQUIRES URGENT
EVACUATION TO A RECOMPRESSION FACILITY AND SKILLED MEDICAL
attention. During and while awaiting evacuation the
BREATHING OF  OXYGEN IS BENEFICIAL THOUGH MAY RESULT
IN A SHORT TERM APPARENT WORSENING OF SOME SYMPTOMS

(YPERBARIC CHAMBERS ARE USED IN THE TREATMENT OF DECOMPRESSION

SICKNESS

which constantly monitors the diver’s exposure to next dive is started. This means that higher nitrogen
pressure and the duration of that exposure. Clever loads will be achieved more quickly. In turn, this could
programming allows the device to inform the wearer result in a second dive that alone would not require
of their decompression status and appropriate ascent decompression stops in the water, but because of the
procedures. Early dives in your training will be nitrogen tissue loadings from the previous dive will
relatively shallow and will not last long, so the risk require decompression stops. Again, careful planning
of decompression problems is small, but it is a good with decompression tables and guidance from a dive
idea to get into the dive planning habit as soon as computer can avoid such situations. Bearing this in
possible. Longer and deeper dives may well create mind, if you are diving more than once on the same
nitrogen tissue loadings that require quite long and day it is good practice to do your deeper dives first.
slow ascents to allow the excess gas to be released at Even when a decompression table or dive computer
a safe rate. It is usually easiest to manage such ascents indicates it is unnecessary, many divers will still
by including a definite halt at a particular depth. These include a precautionary stop at 6m or 3m as part of
are referred to as ‘staged’ decompression stops and are their ascent procedure, especially following repetitive,
usually performed at 3m or 6m for times laid down long or deep dives. This usually lasts for between
in the decompression tables. Dives which require such one and three minutes and, as long as this is properly
stops need more advanced skills and are to be avoided planned as part of the dive, is good practice. Given the
until such knowledge and experience is attained. correct environmental circumstances it helps promote
You need also to be aware that as all dives involve slow ascent rates and good buoyancy control.
an off-gassing phase at the surface, all dives must be As it can take many hours for the body to wash out
considered as requiring decompression. This can have all the excess nitrogen, we need to be aware of other
an effect on subsequent dives, because if the surface circumstances where higher than normal tissue
interval between the dives is short, the body tissues saturations might be a problem. These will essentially
will carry a higher nitrogen load than normal when the be decompression situations, such as ascending to

70 Deeper in knowledge
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Cold and heat
lower than normal atmospheric pressures by ascending
hills or flying in an aircraft. Exposing your body to
lower ambient pressure while your tissues are still off-
3URVIVAL TIME
gassing from a dive can create the same conditions as naked body
ª
a too rapid ascent and so result in DCI.
Decompression tables and dive computers can

7ATER TEMPERATURE C
provide information on precisely how long a surface
ª
interval is required, but a safe guideline is to allow 24
hours between diving and subsequently flying.
Nitrox and decompression ª -INIMUM
SURVIVAL TIME
Nitrox mixes, because they contain a greater percentage MM SUIT
of oxygen than air, contain a correspondingly
ª
lower percentage of nitrogen. This helps to reduce -AXIMUM
nitrogen absorption. If you dive using nitrox whilst SURVIVAL TIME
staying within the depth and time limits of an air MM SUIT
decompression table or an air computer, you will have
    
a greater safety factor than if you had been breathing
air. Using nitrox this way is particularly beneficial on 3URVIVAL TIME HOURS
longer or deeper dives that are close to the no-stop
limits of the tables, where the risk of DCI is higher. It (UMAN SURVIVAL TIME WHEN EXPOSED TO WATER
is also a sensible practice if you plan to make a series
of dives over several days, such as when on a diving
holiday, when nitrogen could otherwise build up
Cold and heat
in the body leading to an increased risk of DCI. An Diving activities obviously involve water, generally
alternative application of nitrox is to use special nitrox either the sea or other stretches of open water such as
decompression tables and computers to obtain longer lakes or rivers. The temperature of those waters is of
dives. The reduced amount of nitrogen means more great importance for divers. Our bodies function most
dive time before stops are required, but like staged efficiently at a constant temperature of 37°C and our
decompression, more advanced skills are needed so circulatory system is used to keep our vital organs
using nitrox to increase dive time is to be avoided until at that temperature. We are accustomed to being
such knowledge and experience is attained. surrounded by air and we use clothing to help us cope
with changes in air temperature. Even so, some changes,
Nitrogen and narcosis especially extremes, of temperature invoke automatic
Another consequence of breathing nitrogen at responses from our bodies to maintain that vital inner
increased pressure is its strange narcotic effect. As core temperature at its ideal level. If we are too hot
with decompression this is an effect which should not we start to perspire and the blood flow to our skin
concern you during the early stages of your diving, increases, allowing it to be cooled by the evaporation
because it is depth-related. As the partial pressure of of the sweat. If we are too cold then blood flow to
the inhaled nitrogen increases with depth so does the the skin and eventually to the extremities such as
narcosis. The effects experienced seem very similar fingers and toes is reduced to minimise heat lost
to those produced by alcohol and generally become by the circulating bloodstream. Living as we do,
noticeable to the diver at depths greater than 30m. surrounded by the atmosphere, means that our bodies
In this zone divers experience slowed reactions often are adapted to the relatively poor heat-conducting
coupled with either euphoric or depressive feelings. properties of air. When immersed in water we are
The narcosis disappears immediately the ambient in an environment that conducts heat some 25 times
pressure is reduced, so any problems caused by faster than air, so heat loss is potentially a big problem.
nitrogen narcosis can easily be resolved by ascending We would rarely find water at temperatures higher
to shallower depths. than 35°C to dive in, temperatures between 4°C and

Deeper in knowledge 71
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Cold and heat
and eventually death.
If cooling happens very rapidly there have been
cases of successful reanimation even after prolonged
immersion in cold water, but this is rare.
Bodies without thermal protection in 4°C water
can suffer unconsciousness and death in a matter of
minutes, and even in 15°C water, usual survival times
are no more than five hours. Prevention is always
better than cure and diving equipment such as a
wetsuit or drysuit suitable for the conditions will avoid
hypothermic problems while diving. We should also
not forget that cooling also takes place out of the water.
Wind or airflow due to transportation in a speeding
boat also has a big cooling (wind-chill) effect, especially
on a damp body. Protection from such effects by means
of windproof clothing can be important, both before
and after a dive. Recognition of the early symptoms
of uncontrolled shivering and withdrawal into oneself
should also indicate that immediate steps should be
taken to prevent further heat loss. Treating advanced
!DVANCED SYMPTOMS OF HYPOTHERMIA REQUIRE A SLOW WARMING OF symptoms requires expert medical help and a slow
THE CASUALTY rewarming of the casualty. Sudden warming from a
hot drink can cause relaxation of the body’s surface
capillaries allowing blood from the core to be rapidly
cooled and thus worsening the condition. Additionally
32°C form the normal range met by divers, so all diving the sudden lowering of core blood volume, and
involves heat loss to some extent. In tropical waters therefore blood pressure can result in severe shock
fairly lengthy dives can be enjoyed with minimal and even death. Alcoholic drinks have similar effects
thermal protection, but temperate waters require and must not be given to people suffering serious
progressively more adequate protection as the heat loss.
temperature drops. One final cold-water problem is that of hydrocution.
If the core temperature drops below 35°C and the This condition is essentially a form of thermal shock
first defence of reducing surface blood flow does and can occur when someone, usually quite hot, is
not rectify the situation, the body starts involuntary suddenly immersed in cold water, typically diving
physical activity or shivering. This muscular activity into a cold lake on a hot day just to cool down. In these
increases metabolic rate, with a heating effect on the circumstances the thermal shock can be sufficient to
blood. The withdrawal of the blood from the surface stop the heart beating, with death from drowning
capillaries and the extremities means that the blood being an added danger.
volume in the inner core is increased. In turn, this will The opposite of hypothermia is excessive heating
increase blood pressure and trigger increased urine or hyperthermia. This can occur when the body
production. If this muscular activity is unsuccessful cannot achieve enough of a cooling effect through
and the core temperature falls to below 35°C, the perspiration and the core temperature rises too much.
casualty is said to be suffering from hypothermia. In While not normally a problem during diving, it is
this state the metabolic rate reduces, muscle stiffness something to guard against during related surface
appears, respiration and heartbeat slow down and activities, particularly on open boats. Make sure that
blood pressure starts to fall. Thought processes also there is an adequate supply of cool drinks and shade
slow down and confusion can set in. With even lower or skin cover.
core temperatures, between 30°C and 25°C, irregular
breathing and heartbeat occur with unconsciousness

72 Deeper in knowledge
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Medical conditions
Medical conditions and diving
We have seen that respiration and circulation are both
affected by diving, so it is important that divers have
no existing medical conditions which could have an
adverse effect on these life-sustaining systems. This
also means that drugs, particularly those which could
affect either the respiratory or circulatory systems,
should not be used while diving without prior expert
medical advice. Of course, diving under the influence
of any narcotic drug or alcohol is extremely unwise
and irresponsible, as it is potentially dangerous for
both the affected divers and their buddies.
Asthma sufferers should seek expert medical
opinion before participating in diving activities. As the
symptoms experienced by diabetics and the symptoms
associated with some diving problems can often be
confused, diabetes is another condition needing expert
opinion. Training agencies have slightly differing
policies on exactly what comprises a definite exclusion
from diving on medical grounds.
Of the more transitory medical conditions which &RESH AIR AND KEEPING YOUR VISION lXED ON THE HORIZON MAY
can affect would-be divers, seasickness must be high HELP TO ALLEVIATE SEASICKNESS
on the list. The best advice has to be avoidance by
traditional methods such as fresh air and keeping your
vision fixed as much as possible on stable objects such
as the horizon – along with a healthy lifestyle the night
before! Drugs to alleviate motion sickness should be
viewed with caution as they may cause drowsiness
or have other harmful side effects when underwater
– the brand Stugeron is generally accepted as having
minimal adverse side effects. Many divers find
mechanical treatments such as wrist pressure-point
bands helpful. Chewing root ginger may also relieve
symptoms. Sufferers are also often helped by diving
as soon as possible when the boat reaches the dive site
or, if conditions allow, having a short swim before
preparing to dive. If the diver is particularly unwell the
dive should not be undertaken. Vomiting underwater
is potentially dangerous, and training to cope with
such problems is difficult and probably unpopular to
conduct. Fortunately, much diving takes place from
boats that provide reasonably stable platforms and in
fairly calm conditions. o

Deeper in knowledge 73
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Chapter five
Equipment

Diving skills are, of course,

a necessary and important
part of your training,
but without the right
equipment, all the skills you
have learned are wasted.
Since the introduction
of the aqualung, diving
equipment has developed
in leaps and bounds.
Extremely sophisticated
equipment is now available
to the recreational diver
at competitive prices, and
there is a wide range of kit
on offer. Whether you are
buying the basic mask, fins
and snorkel or investing in
a regulator and drysuit, you
should make sure that the
equipment you purchase is
right for the type of diving
that you will be doing
and that you have a basic
understanding of how your
equipment works.

74
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 75
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Equipment
Instruments

Contents and depth gauge instruments

Depth gauges
The measurement of depth and time is crucial to the incorporation of decompression calculation and time
safety of every dive. Relying on instruments worn measurement adds so little to the cost of the device
by someone who is diving with you is not ideal, so that by the time you have added the cost of a dive
you need to decide fairly early on what equipment watch, the saving is insignificant.
you want to buy. In the past, there was only one
choice – you had to carry a waterproof diving watch
Watches
and a depth gauge to track time and maximum depth Dive watches come in two basic forms – the traditional
in order to calculate decompression requirements. analogue type with a calibrated bezel used to measure
Today this function is better resolved by the use of a the dive duration, and the digital type, which is
dive computer. Early mechanical depth gauges were essentially a sophisticated waterproof stopwatch
notoriously inaccurate, with readings often between performing the same function. There is no doubt that
3m and 4m adrift. Modern digital devices generally the heavy analogue diver’s watch is much more of an
have a high degree of accuracy and are temperature- eye-catcher in the local bar, but with the best will in the
compensated to give reliable depth recording. world it is not easy to read dive times from the bezel
It is possible to buy digital depth gauges, but the to anything like the accuracy of a digital watch or dive

76 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Watches
computer. Many divers have failed to accurately time their dives because
they have either forgotten to correctly align the bezel at the start of the
dive or have accidentally rotated it during the dive. Of course, forgetting to
start a digital instrument can also result in inaccurate time measuring, but
most modern dive computers are pressure-triggered and start
automatically at the beginning of the dive. Analogue watches often have
luminous faces, bezels and pointer markings to make them more readable
in poor visibility.
In order to be read easily, digital instruments often need back lighting,
and in the smaller models this can considerably shorten battery life.
Indeed, digital watches with small characters can be quite difficult to read
in poor underwater lighting. If budget is the prime consideration then
modern dive computers are the most accurate instruments available to
divers and, while seemingly the higher cost solution, are probably the A traditional analogue dive watch with
most sensible investment. If you do use an analogue dive watch, don’t calibrated bezel
forget to set it when your dive begins!

Computers
Dive computers come in many shapes and sizes, ranging from instruments
not much larger than traditional dive watches, to full featured devices that
even measure cylinder breathing gas pressure. Dive computers basically
consist of an accurate internal clock and a sensitive pressure transducer
which provide inputs to a microprocessor. This in turn uses a stored
program, or algorithm, to compute the pressure exposure of the wearer and
to calculate the resulting decompression requirements. A small screen is
used to display values such as elapsed dive time, current depth, maximum
depth, remaining time for a direct ascent to the surface, and times and
depths of decompression stops if required. Nitrox computers are capable
of being programmed for nitrox mixes, which enables suitably trained
divers to use nitrox to obtain longer dive times. Most models will also
provide audible and visual warnings should ascent rates become too rapid. A digital dive watch
There is often a choice of a wrist-mounted models or computers which are
mounted in a console, together with the contents gauge on the end of a
high-pressure hose from the regulator first stage.
The wrist-mounted type has the advantage of being easier to carry
and so can monitor all the changes of pressure, including atmospheric
pressure, that you experience which could have a bearing on your
decompression requirements. Some divers consider these computers to be
bulky encumbrances on the wrist. Others prefer the computer is located
so that it can be read even while the hand is being used for something
else, especially in ascent monitoring. The console-mounted model usually
requires a hand to hold it while it is being read and some consider it a
disadvantage that, attached to the regulator, it tends to travel in the diving
equipment bag rather than in personal hand baggage.
The smallest wrist-mounted models do overcome the problem of bulk,
but at the expense of display size. This can mean smaller display character
size, the need for information to be displayed sequentially, and often,
shorter battery life, as the batteries are also smaller.

Equipment 77
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 Computers

A wrist-mounted computer A small watch-style computer A console-mounted computer

As well as these essential decompression and most computers incorporate water temperature
functions, many dive computers automatically measurement. It is worth noting that most countries
log parameters, such as depth and time, at use the metric system and use instruments calibrated
regular intervals so that a profile of the dive can be in metres, bar and °C. However, in the USA and areas
read back following the dive. A historic record of dives dominated by the USA, the imperial system is still
is stored and these figures can often be transferred to used, so instruments are calibrated in feet, pounds per
a personal computer for further record keeping and square inch (psi) and °F.
even graphical dive-profile display. Even factors such
as ascent speed violations can be recovered! The most
sophisticated models can monitor cylinder pressure
Knives
and therefore deduce breathing gas-consumption rates Traditionally, divers always carry a fearsome looking
and predict breathing gas duration, even predicting diver’s knife, and most experienced divers feel quite
whether or not you have sufficient breathing gas for exposed if they submerge without one. Contrary
the decompression needs it has computed. Top-of- to popular belief this item is not for defence against
the-range dive computers will also cater for breathing dangerous underwater creatures, but is to protect
gas mixtures other than air and nitrox, and can also against the dangers imposed by man-made pollution.
calculate decompression requirements when several Being snagged on abandoned or broken fishing lines
different mixes are used during a dive – but that’s and nets can be a potential problem, especially when
another story for technical divers. diving some shipwrecks. In these circumstances a
good knife with a serrated line-cutting blade can be a
vital piece of equipment. A similarly equipped buddy
Thermometers is equally vital. Blades are generally stainless steel to
One further instrument that many divers like to carry is survive the adverse underwater environment, but the
an underwater thermometer, and some digital watches best stainless steel is very difficult to keep sharp. This

78 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Regulators

A regulator second stage mouthpiece A regulator first stage

means that lower-grade steel is often preferable, so require. It would be simple just to reduce the pressure
make sure knives are well rinsed and dried following and have a continuous airflow at the ambient pressure,
the dive. Knives can be found in a variety of styles but your breathing gas supply would not last long
and sizes and are worn sheathed on the outside and it would not be very comfortable to breathe from.
or inside of the calf, thigh, upper or lower arm, or Early regulators accomplished these two tasks in
carried in a BC pouch or pocket. The choice of position a one-piece mechanical device that was mounted
should be based on accessibility when needed, risk of directly on the cylinder valve, inhaled breathing
entanglement and to ensure the knife is not likely to be gas being delivered to the diver’s mouthpiece,
lost while diving. and exhaled breathing gas taken back to the
regulator, via two corrugated flexible tubes.
Some of these twin-hose regulators accomplished
Regulators the pressure reduction in a single stage. Later, more
A key item of diving equipment, the regulator is sophisticated models employed two pressure-
something many divers prefer to own rather than rent. reduction stages for finer control.
Even when travelling by air, most divers manage to As regulator engineering evolved, a further type of
squeeze it into their baggage allowance, possibly at two-stage regulator was developed, which involved
the expense of non-diving partners. As a regulator physically separating these two pressure-reduction
is relatively expensive and because it plays such an stages. The first stage continued to be mounted on the
important role in your underwater experience, it is cylinder valve, while the second stage was incorporated
useful to know something about the way it functions with the mouthpiece. The first or high-pressure stage
and the features it can offer. Your regulator has two reduced the pressure to around 10 bar higher than
basic tasks: to reduce the high pressure of the breathing ambient pressure and this intermediate/medium-
gas in your cylinder to that of your surroundings pressure breathing gas was fed through a robust but
and to deliver only the quantity of breathing gas you slimmer, flexible hose to the second stage. As the diver’s

Equipment 79
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 A scuba unit with regulator attached

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

 Regulators
exhaled breathing gas could be exhausted directly from
the combined mouthpiece and second stage, this type of
regulator became known as a single-hose regulator, and
currently dominates the recreational diving market.
It is obviously very useful to have some idea of the amount
of breathing gas available from the dive cylinder at all
stages of the dive. For this reason, contents gauges have
been developed specifically for diving use. The contents
gauge needs to be visible to the diver during the dive
and so is connected via a flexible high- pressure hose of
suitable length to the high-pressure side of the regulator
first stage. By this means the diver can monitor his or her
breathing gas consumption as the dive progresses, and
ensure the ascent begins with an appropriate amount of
breathing gas (safety reserve) remaining. Most countries
use contents gauges that are calibrated in bar, but in the
USA contents gauges may be calibrated in psi.
Although the principal function of the regulator is
to provide breathing gas to the diver, other equipment
has evolved that can also make use of breathing gas
from the diver’s cylinder. It was long recognised that The second stage is the mouthpiece through which a diver
some form of emergency buoyancy to support the breathes. The yellow-coloured octopus is used as an
diver at the surface was highly desirable. Initially, life alternative breathing gas source
jackets of the type provided in aircraft were used, being
capable of oral or small CO2 cartridge inflation and
really only usable once at the surface. These devices
gradually evolved to become adjustable buoyancy life this reason, it is common for regulator first stages to
jackets (ABLJs) and then the sophisticated buoyancy be provided with at least four medium-pressure ports
compensators (BCs) so popular today. It was soon and at least one high-pressure port.
realised that oral inflation of a buoyancy device while
underwater was a complex and risky procedure, so both
ABLJs and BCs were provided with a system of inflation
taken directly from the regulator. Concurrently, divers
in cooler waters were adopting the modern version of
the drysuit, which also required an inflation system
to keep the insulating gas within the suit at a constant
volume as the diver descended. This gas could also
be most conveniently supplied from the regulator, so
regulators began to be produced with multiple outlets
or ports, incorporated in the first stage, supplying
medium-pressure breathing gas to the regulator second
stage, the BC and, if worn, the drysuit.
Another development in equipment was the adoption
of a further regulator second stage, called an octopus,
to provide an emergency or alternate supply (AS)
to the dive buddy, should problems arise with
their breathing system. The AS could also serve as
a breathing source for the provider in the unlikely
event of problems with their own second stage. For

Equipment 81
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Regulators

How does the regulator work?

Valve seat
The first stage of the regulator has to allow high-
High-pressure High-pressure pressure breathing gas to flow from the dive cylinder
breathing gas out to contents into the inter-stage or medium-pressure hose until the
in from gauge pressure in the hose is some eight to ten bar above
cylinder ambient pressure. It then has to close off the flow until
O-ring seal
breathing gas is drawn from the medium-pressure
hose. This can be achieved using a valve controlled by
Water chamber
Spring means of a diaphragm or piston that is exposed on one
side to the cylinder high pressure breathing gas and
Piston O-ring seal on the other side to the surrounding water pressure.
Medium- Medium- The valve is held open by an adjustable spring that is
pressure pressure arranged to add to the water pressure by an amount
port port equal to the desired inter-stage pressure. This means
that the valve will open whenever the diver inhales, or
when medium pressure breathing gas is drawn off to
inflate the BC or drysuit, or when the diver descends, so
increasing the surrounding water pressure. Breathing
gas will then flow from the cylinder until the medium
pressure level is re-established, so closing the valve
Balanced piston regulator first stage and shutting off the gas flow.
If breathing gas is taken from the medium-pressure chamber A further stage of pressure reduction is then required.
(by breathing in, BC inflation, etc), the pressure is lowered, This is to lower the inter-stage pressure breathing gas
allowing the spring and surrounding water pressure to push from approximately 10 bar above ambient down to
the piston away from the valve seat. This allows high-pressure the ambient pressure – allowing the diver to inhale
breathing gas from the cylinder to flow through the central normally. This is the work of the second stage, which
hole in the piston into the medium-pressure chamber. Once generally has a diaphragm sensing the ambient water
the medium pressure has risen sufficiently to balance the pressure on one side while the other side is exposed
spring and water pressure, the piston will again close onto the to the pressure of the gas in the diver’s open breathing
valve seat, cutting the breathing gas flow. passages. If this pressure is greater than ambient
pressure, ie when exhaling, the exhaust valve will
open and breathing gas will bubble out until a balance
is reached. On the other hand, when this pressure is
lower than ambient pressure, ie when inhaling, the
diaphragm will be deflected, opening the inlet valve
and so allowing medium pressure breathing gas to flow
until the pressure is equalised. It will also be possible
to manually depress the second stage diaphragm,
thus opening the valve and causing breathing gas to
flow into the mouthpiece. This is done by pushing the
purge button and can be used to clear water from the
mouthpiece as it is being replaced in the mouth, if it has
been flooded by removal underwater. A few models
also include a manual sensitivity control, usually a
knob that can be rotated to provide fine control of the
pressure that triggers the opening of the second stage
valve.

82 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Regulators
This is a fairly basic description of the operation of a
device that has evolved as a quite sophisticated piece Exhaust
of engineering. Using modern materials and clever Mouthpiece valve
mechanical design, regulators are able to supply the
Spring
diver with breathing gas at a flow rate which caters Spring
for periods of extreme exertion, irrespective of the
pressure level in the dive cylinder. This breathing gas Medium-pressure
will be supplied with a minimal increase in breathing gas in
effort so, to all intents and purposes, breathing from
the regulator underwater is hardly different to normal
surface breathing. Most regulators on the market today
can be used with breathing gases containing up to 40%
oxygen. Above this level - which only technical divers
with advanced training should use - regulators need to Flexible
be constructed with special materials to avoid fire and diaphragm
explosion risk, and must be certified and maintained Valve seat Purge
as ‘in oxygen service’. To maintain the regulator at its Water button
peak performance it will need regularly servicing, at
least annually. This should be performed by a trained Tilt lever
and competent technician who has access to any special
tools that may be required, as well as manufacturer-
approved replacement parts. Regulator piston second stage
If breathing gas is breathed through the mouthpiece, the
ambient water pressure will push the diaphragm inwards and
Alternate source of breathing gas the tilt lever will lift the piston from the valve seat, allowing
As the buddy diver is the prime source of assistance medium-pressure breathing gas into the chamber. Once
underwater, it is logical that techniques have developed breathing gas is no longer being breathed from the chamber,
which rely on the buddy as an alternate source of the pressure will balance and push the diaphragm outwards, so
breathing gas. Initially this involved the complex allowing the tilt lever to shut off the breathing gas flow. The
procedure of the two divers sharing one second stage purge button allows manual over-ride to force the valve open
between them. The advent of buoyancy devices such and allow breathing gas into the chamber. Exhaled breathing
as the ABLJ and BC saw techniques and equipment gas escapes through the exhaust valve. Because the piston
develop, enabling the oral-inflation hose to double as opens in the direction of breathing gas flow, the design of the
a rather primitive emergency breathing system. Some second stage is referred to as a ‘downstream-type’.
fairly sophisticated devices have been developed
which allow the oral-inflation device to serve the
dual purpose of additional second stage and BC
inflation/deflation control. A much more satisfactory
development has been the near universal adoption of
the ‘octopus’ rig, in its simplest form an additional
second stage connected to the regulator first stage.
Called an octopus because of the multiplicity of hoses
emanating from the first stage, this is the equipment
configuration understood by most divers to form an
alternate source (AS). Because the main purpose of
this extra second stage is to provide breathing gas
to a buddy, it usually has a longer medium-pressure
hose, and both hose and mouthpiece are often a bright
yellow colour for easy location.

Equipment 83
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 The dive cylinder

The purge button allows a diver to clear breathing gas from Regulators need regular servicing
the mouthpiece

The extra-long hose allows the buddy pair to position cylinder can provide is determined by two important
themselves more comfortably when sharing breathing characteristics – its working pressure and its capacity.
gas and completing the subsequent ascent. Some Capacity is the amount of breathing gas it will contain
thought has to be given to the positioning of the AS at normal atmospheric pressure, or the amount of
and its hose, make sure it is not in danger of snagging water you could pour into it. The working pressure
yet is immediately accessible. The hose can often be is the maximum pressure to which it should be filled,
tucked into special BC sheathing, and special ‘snatch’ typically in the 200 to 300 bar region. Measured in
clips have been developed to secure the mouthpiece. bar it can give you a simple mental image of how
It is very important that the main second stage and much breathing gas you have – a cylinder filled to
the AS are compatible types of regulator. Individuals 200 bar would be the equivalent of 200 cylinders at
involved in more advanced diving often, for the sake 1 bar. Cylinder capacities are normally 10 or 12 litres
of more security, carry a small ‘pony’ cylinder with its or 15 litres. Divers also use twin cylinders to provide
own totally independent regulator. This can then act additional capacity for more advanced diving.
as an emergency source of breathing gas for a buddy The capacity and working pressure can be checked
or provide a self-contained solution for the carrier. – this information is stamped around the neck of the
cylinder, along with the test pressure, the cylinder
weight and date of manufacture and last test. All
Dive cylinders high-pressure cylinders are made to very exacting
Also referred to as a ‘tank’ or ‘bottle’, the dive cylinder specifications and are required to undergo periodic
is a vital and highly specialised part of the diver’s tests to ensure they still meet that specification. If the
equipment. Made from either aluminium or steel, it is cylinder passes its test, the test date is stamped on the
designed to cope with the very high pressures needed cylinder. If it does not, the cylinder has to be rendered
to compress the volume of breathing gas required unusable. Compressor operators are not allowed to
during your dive. The amount of breathing gas a fill cylinders that do not have a valid test date stamp.

84 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 The dive cylinder

A selection of cylinders

Most test regimes demand a periodic hydraulic test, compatible materials are used in the construction
backed up by more frequent internal and external of nitrox cylinders, the cylinders must be cleaned to
visual check, both of which should be conducted by remove combustible contaminants, and they should be
a competent technician. A full or ‘charged’ cylinder certified annually as ‘in oxygen service’. It is important
is at around 100 times the pressure of a car tyre and that nitrox is only put into cylinders that are certified
could be extremely dangerous if the energy stored in for nitrox use.
this compressed gas were to be released explosively. Treat dive cylinders with care, avoiding surface
Dive cylinders must be marked to show the type damage that can promote corrosion and situations
of gas they contain - ‘breathing air’ or ‘nitrox’. Nitrox that could produce overheating or impacts that could
cylinders should also be marked, each time they are damage the cylinder valve.
filled, to show the percentage of oxygen they contain, Some cylinders have a working pressure of 207 bar.
and the MOD. Some methods of producing nitrox 10 and 12-litre cylinders filled to that pressure
expose diving cylinders to 100% oxygen, which would provide 2,070 or 2,484 litres respectively.
would create a serious risk of fire or explosion unless 232 bar is another common standard, giving
appropriate precautions were taken. Special oxygen- theoretical filled volumes of 2,320 and 2,784 litres.

Equipment 85
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Cylinder valves

When cylinders are filled, the action of compressing gas will raise the
temperature to above normal. As the breathing gas and cylinder
gradually cool down, or upon cooling by immersing the cylinder
in the sea, the internal pressure will fall a little, so you will often start
the dive with pressure readings of, say, 200 bar or 220 bar, depending on the
initial charged cylinder pressure and the degree of cooling. In these cases
the actual breathing gas available from a 12-litre cylinder will be 2,400 or
2,640 litres, a fall of some five per cent after cooling. It is good practice
to determine the amount of breathing gas available and, knowing
your typical breathing gas consumption, deduce whether or not
you have sufficient breathing gas for your dive, together with an
appropriate reserve.
DIN threaded fitting
Cylinder valves
The cylinder valve is screwed into the neck of the cylinder and provides
an attachment for the regulator, as well as allowing the breathing gas
supply to be turned on and off. The regulator is seated against the valve
outlet by means of either an A-clamp yoke fitting or a DIN threaded ring
fitting. A-clamp fittings are fairly simple to use and robust in service,
however they are not very streamlined and can be snagged on any lines or
nets encountered underwater. When assembling make sure the regulator
is squarely seated on the O-ring seal before tightening the yoke screw
into its locating recess. Care must be taken not to damage DIN fittings by
‘cross-threading’.
As scuba diving has evolved, in order to carry more and more breathing
gas, cylinders have been developed with ever higher working pressures.
300 bar cylinders are now widely available, although not all filling stations
are capable of delivering 300 bar fills. The cylinder valve fitted to a 300 bar
cylinder will only accept a DIN screw fitting, and will not accept A-clamps.
Many people believe that DIN screw fittings are more secure, and they
A-clamp fitting are popular with divers wishing to extend their range using twinned
cylinders and extra side-slung cylinders. Here, besides the high working
pressures, the advantages of the more streamlined form are appreciated
and outweigh the increased complexity involved in assembling the screw
fitting. DIN fittings are more difficult to clean and suffer a risk of thread
damage demanding greater care in the rough and tumble of the normal
diving environment. The seal between the valve and regulator is achieved
by means of an O-ring, and care should be taken when assembling the
scuba set to make sure that the cylinder valve seat, O-ring and regulator
are all free from dirt. This is particularly important in the case of DIN
fittings, where dust and sand can cause potentially dangerous wear of
the thread over time. Inspect the O-ring carefully for wear or damage and
if necessary replace it, under pressure leaking and bursting O-rings can
have dramatic effects. Earlier cylinder valves were difficult to operate and
tended to have slight leaks if opened completely, so a habit of fully opening
the valve, then turning it back half a turn was common practice. Modern
balanced valves are much improved and, provided excessive force is not
used, do not need this precaution. Indeed, there is much less chance of

86 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Compressors

A cylinder being filled with breathing gas

confusion if cylinder valves are always either fully and filtered. After leaving the final stage, the air is
open or fully closed, and equipment checking is much passed through a final filter to ensure it is sufficiently
simpler. The internal valve seals and parts subject to free of any lubricating oil mist or excess water vapour.
wear are normally inspected and, if necessary, changed It is important that the components of this filter and
at the same time as the cylinder is inspected. the compressor lubricating oil are changed in line with
manufacturers’ recommendations to maintain the
Compressors air purity. The quality of the compressed air should
Diving cylinders are not filled with oxygen (as some be regularly sampled and tested for purity. Besides
misinformed people believe), but usually contain filling directly from the compressor, some filling
compressed air or a nitrox mix. Air is taken from stations maintain a reservoir system of large storage
the atmosphere, filtered and then pumped at very cylinders known as a ‘bank’. This can enable a large
high pressure into the diving cylinder by a special number of diving cylinders to be filled fairly quickly
compressor. It is important that the air you are using is and the compressor used to support this process can
as free from pollutants as possible, because the action then be used to top up the bank afterwards. For nitrox
of compression means the subsequent partial pressure diving gas mixes, a blending process is needed to mix
of any contaminants will be significantly raised. Gas- the air with oxygen. The two most common methods
filling stations need to take care that traffic fumes and are adding compressed air to a measured amount of
boat engine exhausts do not pollute the air intake. If 100% oxygen, and connecting a ‘membrane separator’,
the compressor is powered by a combustion engine, which can remove up to about 15% of nitrogen from
that exhaust must be well separated from the air intake, air, to the compressor intake.
and wind direction must always be taken into account Working with high-pressure gases and the
during filling operations. To reach the very high associated compressors requires special training.
pressures required by divers, the compressor generally This is an activity best left to those with that training
has three or four stages, pumping to progressively and a proper understanding of the necessary safety
higher pressures. Between each stage the air is cooled procedures.

Equipment 87
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 A modern buoyancy compensator

88 Deeper in knowledge
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Oxygen analysers
Oxygen analysers
In order to dive safely you need to know the
composition of the gas you will be breathing, so
that you can plan the depth and duration of your
dive to avoid oxygen poisoning and DCI. Although
breathing gas suppliers take rigorous precautions
when supplying breathing gas mixtures, experience
shows that mistakes can happen at all stages between
filling a cylinder to assembling the scuba unit. For
this reason, the oxygen content of all breathing gas
mixtures should be checked on receipt and re-checked
immediately prior to assembling the scuba unit. There
are several brands of portable battery-operated oxygen
analyser available on the market, and they all follow
the same generic principle of operation - although it
is important to follow the manufacturer’s instructions
for the particular model being used. They work by
passing the gas being analysed over a small fuel cell
which generates an electric current proportional to
the amount of oxygen present. After switching the A portable oxygen analyser
analyser on, it has to be calibrated. This is done by
exposing the unit to the surrounding air and adjusting
the reading displayed until it shows the correct
percentage for oxygen in air. Then the valve of the
cylinder containing the gas to be analysed is opened
slowly until the gas is heard gently hissing out. The
analyser is then presented to the cylinder valve outlet
and held firmly to prevent gas escaping. Once the
reading on the analyser has settled, it is recorded. The
procedure is then repeated to get a second reading,
which should be consistent with the first.
Buoyancy compensators
The first real buoyancy compensation device was in
the style of a horse collar and could be inflated by using
a small high-pressure air cylinder or an oral inflation
tube. This emergency cylinder, of between 0.4 and 0.6
litres, had to be charged from the dive cylinder before
each dive. Initially it was conceived as a surface life
jacket and a kind of underwater parachute. However,
being filled directly from a high-pressure source and
having fairly crude dump valves made buoyancy
control during an ascent rather problematic. In the
early days many people thought the device could be An old-fashioned horse collar-style buoyancy compensation
used as an emergency breathing system, but breathing device
from the jacket demanded considerable skill and was
not a viable option in a real emergency. It wasn’t
until the adoption of the medium-pressure direct-
feed inflation system (power inflator) that a practical

Equipment 89
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Buoyancy compensators

Oral inflation hoses often include dump valves The inflator hose allows breathing gas to be introduced
into the BC

adjustable buoyancy life jacket (ABLJ) system was The functions of surface support and buoyancy
born. Along with this development there also evolved adjustment are necessarily interlinked, and some
the inflatable waistcoat-style of buoyancy device, compromise has to be made where their ideals conflict.
commonly referred to as a stab (stabiliser) jacket. Buoyancy compensation devices do not work exactly
The stab jacket had two main advantages over the like a life jacket because such a device demands
ABLJ – it was more comfortable to wear and it provided permanent buoyancy, and that would make it difficult
a simpler method of attaching the dive cylinder to the for the wearer to swim underwater. Ideally a life jacket
diver. Against that, it suffered the disadvantage that will always bring an unconscious wearer into a face-up
it was no longer practical for the user to remove the position and support the head as high as possible
cylinder without also removing their buoyancy aid. above the surface. Unfortunately, buoyancy arranged
There were also concerns that an unconscious wearer in this manner does not allow the diver to adopt a
could be left in a face-down position when floating at comfortable position when underwater. Fortunately,
the surface, but incident analysis has shown that this is arranging the buoyancy to suit divers does not appear
not a problem. History has shown that the advantages to have any adverse effect on the safety of the diver on
outweigh the disadvantages. Subsequently there have the surface.
been many developments to the early waistcoat design, To achieve buoyancy changes, methods are needed
many concerned by adding extra functionality such as to increase and decrease the overall volume of water
pockets and clips. Others have been more basic, such displaced by the diver and his equipment. Assuming
as the ‘wings’-style that shifts the main buoyancy to that the volume of the diver and the rest of the
the rear of the diver to give a face-down underwater equipment remain constant, this can be achieved by
swimming position. simply changing the volume of the BC.
There are several key functions that the majority of Its volume can be increased by inflating it, and
divers demand from their buoyancy compensators: this is best performed by a direct-feed hose from a
surface flotation, buoyancy adjustment and equipment medium-pressure port on the regulator first stage. The
support. hose incorporates a quick connect/release coupling

90 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Buoyancy compensators
attaching it to the mouthpiece end of the BC oral-
Back plate
inflation tube. This is where a push-button controlled
valve is placed, allowing the user to control when and Dump
how much breathing gas is admitted to the BC. Should valve control
the inflator hose become detached from the BC the
coupling is automatically shut off so that there is no loss
Clip
of breathing gas from the diver’s cylinder. However,
this means there is no obvious sign this has happened, Inflator
so take care to include a pre-dive check on the security Waistcoat jacket
hose
of the coupling. Once under pressure, it is very
unlikely that the inflator hose will become accidentally
disconnected. Normal increases in buoyancy are made
by briefly depressing the inflation button, allowing
controlled amounts of breathing gas into the BC. More
rarely, BCs have an additional, small, high-pressure
cylinder as an alternative inflation system.
A second push-button that operates a vent valve is
also placed at the mouthpiece end of the oral inflation
D-ring Cummerbund
tube. In order to completely vent gas from the BC, the
tube is held above the shoulder while this button is
operated. The vent valve is not very large, so venting the A buoyancy compensator
BC is relatively slow and consequent buoyancy changes
are easy to control. Most BCs are also fitted with one or
more ‘dump’ valves. These are larger sized valves that,
when opened, allow a large volume of breathing gas that you can carry less weight on your weightbelt or
to rapidly exhaust from the BC. This will produce the perhaps dispense with it entirely.
rapid loss of buoyancy that may be appropriate should The BC will have two attachment systems, one
too much buoyancy be leading to an out-of-control to fasten the dive cylinder to the jacket and one to
ascent. Some dump valves are fitted at the upper fasten the jacket to the diver. The cylinder is usually
shoulder on the opposite side to the oral inflation tube held in place by a strap with a cam-action buckle that
attachment. A second dump valve may be fitted to the can be adjusted to cope with cylinders of different
lower back section to be used when in a head-down diameters. There may be a second cylinder strap
attitude. Most dump valves are operated by pulling a for added security, but take great care to ensure the
toggle on a short lanyard attached directly to the valve, cylinder is tightly secured and check that it cannot
although sometimes the lanyard is routed through slide out of the harness. In positioning the cylinder, be
a guide to a more accessible position. Some models careful not to place it too high in the harness to avoid
have a dump valve incorporated in the oral inflation hitting your head on the regulator or cylinder valve,
tube. As it is corrugated, it can be extended by pulling, especially when leaning back for mask clearing! Once
and this stretching is used to operate a dump valve the cylinder and BC are assembled, fit the regulator
built in to the tube shoulder attachment. Should your and connect the BC inflation hose. The scuba unit can
equipment require this method of operation, it should then be pressurised and tested.
be carefully explained to dive buddies who might be The scuba unit can either be placed on a conveniently
more familiar with other inflation/deflation systems. raised surface or lifted to the right height by your
Most BCs will have one or two storage pouches or buddy to help you slip into the BC. There are a wide
pockets and possibly a number of D-ring attachment variety of methods of fitting the BC to the diver. The
points to enable various items of ancillary equipment – arm openings may have two adjustable straps with
such as torches – to be carried. Some BCs are equipped quick-release snap buckles. If the BC does have these
to carry ‘integrated’ weights in special pouches, some adjustable shoulder straps, it is common to set them
of which can be ditched in emergency, which means to maximum length for ease in putting on the scuba

Equipment 91
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Buoyancy compensators

The cylinder is attached to the back of the BC and with the aid of a buddy can easily be slipped on

unit. The ends of the shoulder straps can then be usually on the opposite side to that of your regulator
pulled down tight, assuring a comfortable but snug second stage, and carefully shrug off the BC. Following
fit. There will probably be a broad, cummerbund- this procedure when taking off kit in the water means
style waistband that has Velcro fastening, again to removing the regulator from your mouth can be the
ensure a snug and comfortable fit. This is often backed final manoeuvre.
up by a webbing strap with an adjustable snap-fit Many divers like to record their end-of-dive cylinder
buckle, and possibly another similar strap higher up pressure to provide breathing gas-consumption data.
across the chest. Ensure that these straps are fully Close the cylinder valve and completely depressurise
tight only when the BC is fully inflated. Once it is in the system by depressing the purge button of either
place, complete your buddy checks and make sure your main second stage or AS. Check depressurisation
your AS, contents gauge and hoses are all tidy and is complete by observing the contents gauge before
secured in place ready to commence the dive. detaching the regulator from the BC and cylinder.
Taking off the scuba unit is simply a reverse of Fit the regulator dust cap to prevent dirt and water
putting it on. First, detach any chest and waist straps, entering the regulator first stage.
followed by the cummerbund. Release or free one arm, Note that most BCs can be obtained in a range of

92 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Wetsuits

Full-length wetsuits A shortie wetsuit and ‘Farmer John’

sizes, and your diving will be much more enjoyable in can be quite tiring.
equipment that fits you securely. In choosing the most To make dressing easier and wearing them more
suitable model, test its fit – both deflated and fully comfortable, the inside surface of the neoprene is often
inflated – and bear in mind the rest of the equipment lined with a layer of nylon stretch fabric.
you will be using with it. If you dive with a drysuit, The exterior surface is also often finished in a similar
check that suit inflation and deflation points are freely manner to increase the durability of the suit, and for
accessible. the same reason protective pads are placed over the
knee sections. Early suits were cut to simple patterns
Protective clothing: wetsuits and the pieces were simply glued together. Today’s
Water conducts heat some 25 times faster than air, double-lined suits are both glued and stitched, often
so we need to prevent the layer of water warmed by employing a special stitching that does not pierce the
our bodies from washing away and being replaced neoprene, so avoiding water-flow through the seams.
by cooler water. The wetsuit achieves this by being One effect of wearing a suit containing bubbles of gas
tailored from a stretchy, flexible material that can thus is the inherent buoyancy it provides and this must be
be close-fitting and trap just a thin layer of water in compensated for by an equivalent increase in weight
contact with the body. This water soon warms and if the diver is to submerge. Once underwater there is
provides us with a comfortable diving environment. the disadvantage that with the increase in depth and
To help the water stay warm, the suit is made from therefore pressure, so the volume of the gas bubbles
neoprene foam, a synthetic rubber made to be a poor in the neoprene decreases. In turn, this has the double
heat conductor by being filled with small gas bubbles. effect of lowering the effectiveness of the thermal
Manufacturers use neoprene of various thickness, from insulation as the water gets colder, and decreasing the
2mm to 9mm, to make wetsuits for use in various water buoyancy of the suit. The decrease in buoyancy can
temperatures. Bear in mind that, although flexible, be corrected by putting breathing gas into the BC, but
considerable effort is required to move in thicker suits there is no way of making up for the insulation loss.
and swimming in a 9mm suit for any length of time

Equipment 93
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Drysuits

Neoprene Neoprene Neoprene

Body Body Body Water

Water Water Thin membrane
Warm Warm Warm air
Warm
Foam neoprene Foam neoprene
water
wetsuit water
drysuit water
Thermal
undersuit
Warm water Warm air Warm air
Body Body Body

Cross-section of a neoprene wetsuit Cross-section of a neoprene drysuit Cross-section of a membrane drysuit

Drysuits
Bearing in mind that water is so much better at In order to maintain the effectiveness of this
conducting heat than air, it is logical to avoid direct insulating layer as pressure is increased, further
contact with the water and to try to maintain a ‘bubble’ breathing gas needs to be introduced into the suit. This
of air round as much of the body as possible. The semi- is achieved by means of a flexible hose connecting a
drysuit attempts to do this by having either latex or push-button control valve on the chest of the suit
soft, unlined neoprene seals around the wrists, neck to a medium-pressure port on the regulator. As
and ankles. The ankle seals are sometimes replaced the descent is made the diver can inject breathing
with built-in waterproof boots. In this way water is gas into the suit to preserve a constant volume, so
kept away from most of the body. The small volume maintaining insulation and avoiding potential areas
of air trapped within the suit will compress with of squeeze. The problems of buoyancy change due to
increasing depth but, provided the fit is fairly close compression of the foam neoprene remain unchanged
and there are no significant creases, this should not but may be compensated for by feeding a little extra
prove too uncomfortable. As they are semi-dry, a small breathing gas into the suit. As the diver has only one
amount of water will enter these suits, but because of gas volume to control, dive management is made
the seals around the wrist, neck and ankles, there will much simpler and therefore safer.
be much less of a ‘flushing’ effect than experienced As the diver ascends, the gas in a drysuit will
with a wetsuit, hence better heat retention. expand. To maintain constant volume and neutral
The next stage, in terms of thermal protection, was buoyancy, some gas will need to be let out of the suit.
to make a foam neoprene suit that was as waterproof An ‘automatic’ dump valve is fitted, generally on the
as possible and relatively loose fitting so that a layer upper arm, allowing gas to escape automatically should
of insulating underclothing could be worn. This a preset pressure be exceeded. Depressing the valve
underclothing insulates by trapping a layer of air allows the diver to dump gas manually, should this be
between the body surface and the suit material. required and by screwing the valve control in or out

94 Equipment
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Drysuits

Left, a neoprene drysuit; right, a membrane drysuit

the preset pressure may be varied. As an alternative, drysuit was developed. This employs a strong
some suits are fitted with a cuff dump allowing the waterproof fabric for its main construction, but is
suit to be vented simply by raising your arm. Entry otherwise very similar to the neoprene drysuit in
to these suits is normally made via a waterproof its fittings. As the suit material has little thermal
shoulder zip, waterproof boots are incorporated, and insulation value compared to foam neoprene, the
the wrist and neck seals are made by neoprene or latex undergarments play the principal role in the retention
rubber seals. Seals are usually left flat against the skin of body heat. Because the material is not compressible,
surface, but neoprene neck seals are normally folded as depth increases there is no inherent buoyancy loss
back inside the suit. This can produce a firmer seal, (nor corresponding gain on ascent). This means that
with the gas inside the suit pressing the seal onto the as depth increases there is only the compression and
skin. However, when the seals are arranged like this expansion of the insulating gas within the suit to be
over-pressurised gas cannot escape by forcing the seal controlled. Membrane suits are much easier to flex and
from the skin. so less tiring to wear, but also tend to be of loose fit.
To avoid changes in buoyancy and to provide better The loose fit can allow gas to migrate around the suit
waterproofing and tear resistance, the membrane depending upon the diver’s attitude in the water, this

Equipment 95
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 A compass is a useful navigation tool

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106

 Equipment maintenance

Lights
gas can lead to forces which turn the diver oddly. In To view dark crevices, see the hidden colours of
extreme cases this can lead to gas collecting around the deeper objects and animals, or to enjoy diving at
legs and feet, creating a head-down position that can be night the diver needs to be equipped with some form
difficult to recover from without practise, particularly of underwater lighting. This can range from the tiny
if there is stretching of the boots that causes fins to pencil torches, through the hand-lantern size and on
pop off! Avoidance being better than cure, choose a up to massive surface-supplied floodlights for filming.
suit that fits the body as closely as possible and ensure Light source technology has advanced from tungsten
the gas volume contained in the suit is the minimum torch bulbs through halogen lamps and HID lights to
consistent with comfort and insulation needs. This has the high power LEDs which are now becoming widely
the further advantage that less lead needs to be carried available, each development offering a longer burn
on the weight belt. Test for vertical fit by checking that time for the same brightness. Some underwater lights
you can comfortably crouch down in the suit. can now provide a powerful beam for several hours
While a few drysuits have attached dry hoods, most on a single set of batteries. Most divers prefer to fit
rely on a foam, neoprene hood such as those used with new batteries well before the old ones are finished, to
a wetsuit. Likewise there are dry gloves available, minimise the risk of running out of light at a critical
but most divers use thin, foam neoprene or standard moment. Alternatively, some lights can be equipped
work gloves, or no gloves at all should sensitivity to with rechargeable cells and obviously they should be
cold permit. To assist putting on non-lined wetsuits recharged before each dive, if charging facilities are
and the tight fitting seals of drysuits, French chalk available. Carrying one of the small, pencil torches
(talcum powder) is normally sprinkled on the latex on every dive is a common practice and carrying two
or neoprene as a lubricant. Liquid soap is sometimes lights on a night dive is considered prudent.
used, but for comfort reasons should be avoided if
there is any sand nearby!
Waterproof zips should be kept clean and lubricated
Equipment maintenance
if they are to be effective. Treat wrist and neck seals Salt water and chlorinated swimming pool water are
with particular care, especially when dressing and both highly corrosive and all equipment should be
undressing, and avoid tearing them with sharp rinsed thoroughly as soon as possible following such
jewellery or fingernails. dives, and then allowed to dry, especially if it is going to
Don’t forget that a watch or computer is not very be stored for any length of time. Items such as regulators
usable if it is inside your drysuit, so remember to and cylinders should be serviced regularly in line with
remove it before putting on the suit and then re-fit it the manufacturer’s recommendations. Cylinders must
on the outside of the arm. Make sure the strap is long also be inspected and certified in accordance with local
enough and can remain secure during expansion and regulations. As well as rinsing and drying BCs, regular
contraction of the suit, and that winding mechanisms flushing out of the bladder with fresh water and a mild
will not puncture delicate wrist seals. disinfectant is recommended by many manufacturers.
Non-chromed or painted metal surfaces such as knife
blades, and threaded surfaces such as torch battery
Compasses housings, usually benefit from a light coating of
Many divers carry a compass specially adapted for silicone grease after rinsing and drying. Most diving
underwater use. The compass may be wrist-mounted, equipment will have a longer life if stored in cool, dry
included in the contents gauge console or attached to and dark conditions. Once dry, neoprene and other
the BC, sometimes on a small navigation board. Note, rubber products should be given a light coat of talcum
there is little point in carrying this instrument as a powder before storage. o
kind of travel good luck charm – you need to study and
practise navigation skills if it is to be of practical use.

Equipment 97
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Chapter six
More
diving
skills
As your dive training
progresses, your experience
and confidence in your
diving ability will grow.
Each new skill learned, will
extend your capacity to
become self-reliant in the
water and will allow you to
accept responsibility for
both yourself and others
while diving. Buddy diving
will increase your enjoyment
of the underwater world,
offering you the chance
to share your experiences
with another diver. It also
provides each buddy with
immediate assistance, if
required, adding to your
safety in the water.

98
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Seamanship
Tides and tidal streams

Seamanship 4
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 More diving skills
Buddy diving

Buddies provide each other with companionship and safety

In the early days of diving, when ‘hard hats’ and problematic. To create a safer approach to recreational
surface-pumped air supplies were used, much of a diving a buddy support system has developed.
diver’s activities were controlled directly from the Effectively, the fully equipped standby diver is still
surface, to which he or she was tethered. The surface there, but nowadays he is swimming at your side,
team also played a large part in the diver’s security, ready to assist and help resolve any problems that
with a fully equipped and prepared standby diver might arise. In temperate waters, often with more
ready to enter the water to resolve any problems or limited visibility, it is customary to dive as a pair of
rescue the diver. Today’s scuba gear gives us a large divers, each diver acting as buddy to the other. In
degree of freedom and independence from the surface waters with greater visibility, diving in larger groups
support, and this very independence means a standby is often practised. In this case there will be a group
diver at the surface could offer little support in the leader, possibly assisted by a ‘sheepdog’ diver to help
event of any difficulty. Locating a free-swimming keep the group together. However, with the many
diver, unattached to the surface, would be very underwater distractions coupled with the narrower

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 Buddy check

Pre-dive checklist
Personal Buddy
s #HECK ALL KIT IS IN A SUITABLE s "RIEF
position s #ONlRM PLAN AND SIGNALS
Assembly s !SSIST EACH OTHER IN
s #HECK THE CONDITION OF THE kitting up
cylinder and valve Mutual equipment check
s #HECK THE CONDITION OF THE s "UOYANCY n HOSES "# AND
regulator, then fit it drysuit inflation/deflation
s #HECK THAT THE "# s "REATHING GAS n BREATHING
is connected quantity, AS
s #HECK THERE IS SUFlCIENT s 2ELEASES n WEIGHT BELT
breathing gas BC, other (drysuit etc)
s #HECK REGULATOR Dive management
s #HECK BREATHING s !GREE DIVE PLAN WITH DIVE
s #HECK FOR LEAKS manager
s )NFORM DIVE MANAGER
before entering water

A diver familiarises himself with his buddy’s equipment Pre-dive buddy checklist

angle of vision provided by a dive mask, observing It is important to understand the position, fastening
the whole group all the time is not simple. This means and releasing of all equipment straps, buckles or other
that within groups even in good visibility the buddy fastenings and this is particularly so with regard to
system should still be practised – by pairing off the the method of removing your buddy’s weights in an
divers – as it provides a much higher level of security. emergency. Do not forget the connection and release
To be a competent buddy, you should conduct a pre- of items such as drysuit hoses and the operation of
dive buddy check, which has two functions – to check drysuit inflation and deflation controls when these are
the correct working state of each diver’s equipment worn. Simple things, such as the position of contents
and to learn how to operate your buddy’s equipment. gauges, depth, time and decompression instruments
Should the circumstance arise, it could be crucial should be noted, as well as a check that you understand
for each of you to know exactly where each other’s how to read these instruments.
AS is positioned and released. Not all equipment While paired with a particular buddy, you may
is identical and there is considerable variety in the well be diving as part of a larger group, or encounter
style and operation of BC inflation systems. Make other divers while underwater. In these circumstances
sure you each understand how to inflate and deflate it is always a good idea to be able to easily recognise
each other’s equipment. Likewise, this understanding your buddy. With everyone fully dressed in diving
should extend to include the positioning and operation equipment and with the possibility of reduced
of dump valves and oral-inflation mechanisms. A visibility, having some key identification feature can
number of BC systems use oral-inflation hoses that be very useful to avoid possible separation. A careful
incorporate a dump-valve mechanism. When these are note of distinguishing features such as mask or fin style
used for controlled deflation via the mouthpiece, be or colour can help, but do remember colours become
careful not to pull on the hose and activate the dump much harder to distinguish underwater, especially at
mechanism, as this could result in an uncontrolled loss increased depths.
of buoyancy!

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 SUB HEADER HERE

Buddies should be familiar with the

operation of one another’s equipment
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 Buddy diving
A good buddy check should provide you with a
complete familiarisation of your buddy’s equipment.
While you are in the early stages of gaining this habit
there is a good exercise to reinforce such learning. Once
you have both carried out the pre-dive buddy check,
turn to face away from each other. From memory,
describe to each other the position and operation of
key items of equipment, which your buddy can then
confirm or correct. If you dive regularly with the same
buddy it is all too easy for these checks to become
rather casual. Always think ‘safety’ and take buddy
checks seriously.

Underwater
If you are to act as a team you must also ensure that
you and your buddy can communicate effectively.
While you have learned the basic international signal
code for diving, inevitably local ‘dialects’ creep in.
Check that you really can communicate effectively
before entering the water together. Once in the water, A diver signals to his buddy that his breathing gas
you and your buddy are somewhat like aircraft flying supply is low
in formation and need to keep in contact with one
another. Obviously you need to always be within
visual contact, but you should also be within a distance
where you can render physical assistance should it be with your buddy, mutual assistance in either getting
needed. Distances are deceptive underwater so avoid ashore or removal of kit and passing diving gear from
straying more than a few fin strokes apart. Think about the water into a small boat makes diving much simpler.
the limited angle of vision set by a dive mask and try A big advantage of buddy diving is that, having
to maintain a position where each of you can easily shared the underwater experience, you can reinforce
glance at the other. Avoid constantly changing your the memories by discussing the dive afterwards. For
relative position – the idea is to enjoy the underwater the sake of safety, avoid doing this when you surface.
scene, not to be constantly searching for a buddy Keep your mask and regulator in place and wait until
who is shooting all over the place! Monitor your own you are out of the water, you have checked in with
instruments and from time to time check readings the dive manager or surface cover, the equipment is all
with your buddy. tidied away and the dive is really complete.
While awareness of your buddy should be constant,
there are key times when extra vigilance is appropriate.
Make sure you keep in close contact during the descent
– separation is possible should one of you be slow in
ear clearing, for example. This is also the case during
the dive, whenever depth or direction changes occur.
Breathing gas quantities are regularly checked, but key
stages in the dive, such as when cylinders reach two-
thirds pressure and half pressure, are usually verified
with buddies. With experience, buddy awareness
should become second nature. Always remember your
buddy is your safety diver and likewise you act as
safety diver for your buddy. Once at the surface, stay

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 Boat diving

Purpose-built dive boats with diving platforms make entering On board, equipment is carefully stored, with fins near to the
the water extremely easy entry point and cylinders placed in racks

Boat diving
A diver’s swimming range in and under the water is small, fast, rigid-hulled inflatable craft through to
fairly limited, since he or she is only propelled by fin the large, day-trip dive platforms and on up to the
power. This means that the number and choice of dive luxury liveaboard cruisers more usually found in the
sites available from shore access is also limited, so to tropics. In the Caribbean there are even luxury liners
reach more distant dive sites we need to use boats. which have been specifically converted to cater for
Historically, divers first extended their range by using cruising and diving for a clientele numbering several
small craft, and the inflatable boat powered by an hundred!
outboard engine became, and remains, very popular. Such boat diving can be extremely enjoyable. In
It was relatively easy to transport on land to many addition to the wide variety of dive sites, it is possible
different coastal venues and not too difficult to launch. to kit up and enter the water exactly where we want to,
As diving grew in popularity it became commercially and with the same exit advantages. Diving equipment
viable for small fishing vessels to be made available for is not light, so carrying it by boat can usually greatly
hire – the owners were also in possession of valuable minimise the distance you have to hand carry it. A
knowledge of local tidal conditions and potentially week’s cruising on a well-appointed liveaboard with
interesting dive spots. To reach more inaccessible an entertaining group of diving companions can
diving areas and to cater for extended diving provide an unsurpassable diving holiday.
expeditions, larger fishing vessels that could provide To make the most of boat diving there are a few
both accommodation and diving gas refilling facilities sensible habits it is well worth observing. Firstly,
became available. A number of retired fishing trawlers space is usually at a premium, so keep your personal
were converted specifically to cater for this new and diving needs as simple as possible. Make sure
liveaboard diving market. As the demand for boat everything you need is tidily and compactly carried in
diving has expanded, a whole spectrum of specialist a manner that things are easily available as and when
purpose-built boats has also evolved, ranging from needed and that fragile objects are suitably protected.

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 Boat diving has become a popular way of
diving and there are now many liveaboard
operators

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 Boat diving

Equipment should be secured in a safe manner Buddies perform a check prior to a boat dive

This is especially so when diving from small boats. up as possible before leaving the shore.
Inflatables and rigid-hulled inflatables have massive Kitting up should follow the same buddy principles
buoyancy reserves, but this is at the expense of internal as learned earlier, with entry being controlled by a
space for passengers and equipment. Add to this the dive manager. Divers and propellers do not mix well
need to carefully place divers and gear so that their so it is imperative that the engine be at least in neutral,
combined weight creates the correct trim for the boat if not stopped, before divers enter the water. Buddy
and you will understand the need for efficient packing pairs will frequently enter the water by backward rolls
of your equipment. Experienced divers pack their dive on opposite sides of the boat, in order to maintain
bags so that items such as fins that are put on last are stability within the boat.
at the bottom of the bag. If the dive boat is free you will probably be dropped
BCs and regulators are stowed at the top of dive close to a buoyed shot-line that will act as a guide down
bags, so that the diver is ready to assemble the scuba to the dive site. In this case, it is best to clear the boat as
set as the first task. Dive cylinders are stowed either quickly as possible and rendezvous with your buddy
flat on the decking or vertically in purpose-built central at the shot-line buoy. This allows the boat to regain
racking, with bags placed towards the bow. its manoeuvrability in the shortest possible time, as it
The driver (or coxswain) will either have a centrally cannot safely re-engage the propeller drive while there
mounted steering console with motorcycle-style are divers free-swimming in the water close by.
seating, or will sit on one of the side tubes if the boat Should the boat be anchored, it is usual for the divers
is steered by an engine-mounted tiller control. Other to rendezvous at the bow before descending together,
passengers will usually be seated on the side tubes, often following the descent-line down.
with looped lanyards available to hold themselves in If you are correctly weighted and therefore neutrally
place. This lack of space also means kitting up has to buoyant you should not need to pull on the descent-
be quite disciplined, often only one buddy pair kitting line – simply loop a finger and thumb around it and
up at a time. Indeed, if the journey is fairly short, it is use it as a guide.
sometimes advantageous to do as much of your kitting

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 Boat diving

Before divers enter the water the boat engine should be Divers hold on to a line at the surface
in neutral

Coming back to the boat at the end of the dive is more comfortable, but there is much more opportunity
more or less a reverse of the entry technique. If you for disorganised divers to scatter their gear around.
have ascended a shot-line and have a mobile cover You will soon become unpopular if you are ready to
boat on the surface, be careful to remain at the shot- enter the water at one end of the boat with your fins
line buoy while making contact with the boat-cover at the other and your dive mask somewhere else.
party. The boat should then approach, putting the Entering the water is achieved by a variety of means,
engine in neutral before closing up on the divers. Wait often depending on the size of the boat and its original
until signalled that it is safe to swim to the boat and design purpose.
carry out the exit from the water described above. Fishing vessels are generally not designed to provide
If anchored, simply ascend via the anchor-line then easy access to and from the water for their occupants.
assist your buddy to remove weights and scuba set Smaller vessels are usually exited using a backward
– which are passed into the boat – and allow your roll from a seated position on the gunwale. With
buddy to help you in the same way. Then, in turn, larger vessels a stride entry from a standing position
each of you fully immerses beside the boat before on the gunwale or through a port in the gunwale is
finning vigorously upwards and pulling yourselves most common. In these cases you will need to hold
over the side tube into the boat. Sometimes it is better on to something, such as part of the boat rigging, to
to position yourselves on either side of the boat for this steady yourself. Purpose-built larger dive boats may
stage to assist the boat’s stability. also provide similar entry points for standing divers,
Using larger boats as diving platforms generally though many also use the rear water-level diver
does provide more room for equipment stowage recovery platforms as entry points.
and kitting up, as well as providing more stability at Recovery methods into fishing vessels vary.
sea. This, however, does not remove the need to be Increasing numbers of boats are fitted with a diver lift.
reasonably disciplined with placement of gear bags, as You simply swim over a submerged platform which
space will still be limited – often a larger boat equates then lifts you in a standing position to the deck, where
to a larger complement of divers. Kitting up is usually you step off, and then the platform is lowered into the

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 A centre-spine ladder makes exiting the
water a relatively easy procedure

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 Boat diving

Some larger boats have purpose-built dive platforms and centre-spine ladders

water for the next diver. Recovery via a ladder can and roll with the waves, so make sure you stay clear
be quite strenuous if the vessel has a high freeboard. until it is time for you to board and then carefully
Simplest to use are angled, centre-spine ladders and judge your approach to avoid being hit by the hull
it is often preferable to climb these fully kitted, with or caught underneath the platform. As with smaller
someone on the deck to assist at the top of the ladder. vessels it is vital that the propeller is not engaged, so
Conventional ladders are best ascended after taking make sure you are given the signal that it is safe to
off your fins, and if the climb is high and vertical, approach the boat.
removal of your weights and even your scuba set In all cases, remember to clear the exit point as
may be advisable, as long as these can be recovered quickly as possible to leave it free for other divers.
by someone on board. Those dive boats with rear Remove your kit with your buddy and collect and
sea-level platforms are easy to use, especially if they stow away all diving gear, as it is dangerous to leave it
have a centre-spine ladder extending under the water. scattered around, obstructing the deck, not to mention
You simply swim onto the ladder and climb onto the the risk of it being lost overboard. Fresh water is a
platform, where fins are normally removed before precious commodity on boats, but if there is sufficient
climbing up onto the deck. Larger vessels can pitch supply it is a good idea to rinse your dive computer

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 Snorkelling

All sorts of animal life, including sharks, can be seen while snorkelling

and photographic equipment before the salt has a and snorkel. For efficient propulsion, fins are usually
chance to dry and encrust. This is particularly relevant included to give us what most divers refer to as ‘basic
during boat expeditions of several days or more. equipment’. As previously explained, your natural
floating position is face-down, with the back of the
Snorkel swimming head just breaking the surface. In this position you
Light is the principal energy source for life in the can hang almost effortlessly, breathing gently through
oceans and because this energy is progressively your snorkel and observing the underwater world
absorbed as depth increases, it is not surprising that through your mask. Here, you also have the enormous
the shallower waters reveal the greatest abundance advantage of an unlimited supply of air.
of marine life. Here, too, we can most easily observe Of course, snorkelling does not end there, you will
the full spectrum of colours of these undersea plants want to dive beneath the surface to get a closer look
and creatures. What this means is that some of the and swim among the underwater inhabitants. Here,
most interesting underwater sites are available with some basic physics comes into play. You inhale air
the most basic of diving equipment, a dive mask into your lungs by tightening the diaphragm at the

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 Snorkelling

When snorkelling, adopt a face-down position with the back Using a ‘duck dive’ method of descending allows you to
of your head just breaking the surface conserve more energy

bottom of lungs downwards, and allowing your ribs prolong your snorkel dives and will also make you
to move outwards. These movements expand the a better scuba diver. Taking a lung full of air will
chest cavity and so lower the air pressure in your increase your buoyancy and this means you will have
lungs, allowing atmospheric pressure to push fresh air to swim downwards in order to stay underwater.
into your lungs through either your nose or mouth. In order to leave the surface it is possible, if you are
Immersed in water, these muscular actions have to already finning forwards, to take a breath, angle the
contend with the pressure of the water around your body down and then propel yourself under the surface
body. This is not a problem very close to the surface. by finning downwards. This is very difficult to do
Humans, however, having evolved to work at normal without a lot of splashing of fins on the surface, and
atmospheric pressures, the water pressure at even consequent waste of effort. A better technique is to use
shallow depths is just too much to allow you to inhale. a ‘duck dive’. From a stationary position at the surface,
Breathing when your chest is submerged more than a take a breath then pivot to make a right-angle at the
third of a metre is very difficult and, if going deeper, hips so your head is aimed straight down. Swing your
breathing surface-pressure air through a snorkel legs up vertically out of the water so that their weight
becomes impossible. provides an impetus to drive you downwards. Once
So, underwater swimming with a snorkel means your fins are submerged you start the long, slow fin
holding your breath and, of course, this limits the strokes that are the mark of a good snorkel diver.
length of your dive. Taking a deeper breath will allow An alternative way of submerging is to position
you to extend that time, but not by much. A better way your body head-up vertically, hands by your sides, in
to increase your underwater duration is to improve the water. Fin strongly upwards while taking a breath,
the efficiency of your submersion and swimming then stop finning and allow your weight to drive you
techniques. The slower you burn energy, the longer back down and below the surface. Once submerged,
your air will last. Submerging with the minimum of simply bend yourself downwards and commence
effort and finning efficiently when submerged will underwater finning. With practice both of these

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 A snorkeller at the surface

methods can be performed very efficiently with the one big ‘no-no’ associated with snorkel diving. Before
minimum of splashing and so are less likely to frighten taking that breath which is going to last the length of
the underwater creatures you are diving to observe. your underwater excursion, it is very tempting to take
The duck dive has the advantage of allowing you to a number of deep practice breaths, a process termed
continue to observe what is happening underwater ‘hyperventilation’. This can be very dangerous, as it has
throughout the submersion process. Always make the effect of flushing out your lungs and so lowering
sure there is a sufficient depth of water below you to your carbon dioxide levels to leave them unnaturally
perform these manoeuvres – piling into the bottom is low. In turn, this means that when you make your
neither good for you, nor the environment. dive it is possible for your body to reach oxygen levels
While swimming underwater, your body processes low enough to cause unconsciousness before carbon
are consuming the oxygen content of the breath dioxide levels stimulate need-to-breathe signals. So do
you took and at some stage it will all be consumed. not hyperventilate when diving!
When the oxygen levels fall low, your body will Once underwater, snorkellers are affected by the same
progressively start to shut down. At an early stage pressure changes as scuba divers. As you descend, you
you will become unconscious, in a manner similar to will need to balance the increasing external pressure of
fainting. Underwater this is obviously very dangerous the water on your eardrum. As the air in your lungs
and likely to quickly lead to death by drowning. will automatically be subjected to the external water
Interestingly, your desire to breathe is triggered not pressure, it will be at a similar pressure to the water
by a lack of oxygen, but by the build-up of the carbon pressing on your eardrum. Hence, following the same
dioxide that is produced by your metabolic process. ‘ear clearing’ process of swallowing or nose pinching
This trigger level is normally reached well before and pressurising will allow balancing of the pressures.
the oxygen content of your breath is all consumed. Also, do not forget to breathe out a little air from your
As long as you heed this need-to-breathe signal by nose into your dive mask to prevent mask squeeze.
returning to the surface to breathe, you can enjoy a While you are underwater, the air in your snorkel
long and happy snorkelling life. However, there is tube will bubble out. Don’t worry, you won’t fill up

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 Begin to exhale before you reach the By the time you break the surface the You can now begin breathing as
surface water will have been expelled normal

with water. Because you are holding your breath, it will and even at the surface you are very difficult to spot.
not even enter your mouth – unless you consciously You should listen and look for dangers as you surface,
suck in the water. However, when you get to the but the speed of modern leisure power craft and the
surface you will need to get rid of this water. Simply silence of sailing craft can make this difficult.
copy the whale, by using the air in your lungs to make A better solution is to place a distinctive buoy on the
an explosive exhalation, creating an impressive water surface, which marks your diving zone, together with
spout and so clearing your snorkel for breathing. It a buddy who remains at the surface while you dive.
is always wise when breathing through a snorkel to Your buddy can actively warn off surface craft and, if a
breathe in gently, just in case a few water drops are fellow snorkeller, can take turns with you to dive. Use
left in it or a passing wave takes the opportunity to a ‘one up, one down’ procedure.
splash some water in. A useful technique is to curl Following these few sensible rules gives safe
your tongue to prevent such water droplets hitting the and enjoyable access to some of our most colourful
back of your throat, to guard against the coughing and and interesting waters. Snorkelling can be the key
spluttering such occasions can cause. to learning to swim for all ages, because it instils
An alternative technique for clearing water from the water confidence. As snorkelling skills are directly
snorkel commences during the ascent just below the transferable, snorkelling is often the catalyst that leads
surface. Looking upward to angle your head back, start people to learn to scuba dive. Surprisingly, at its most
breathing out gently. This will displace the water from basic level, tourist scuba diving is probably simpler to
the snorkel. As the surface is reached rotate your head perform, as breathing from a snorkel requires more
forward, still breathing out gently, to lift the snorkel, skill than breathing from a regulator. If you start with
now clear of water, above the surface. This technique scuba, transferring your skills to snorkelling should
requires less effort but timing is critical. not be too difficult, while moving from snorkelling
Probably the greatest risk posed to snorkel divers to scuba should prove a very simple step, as many
is the risk of being run down by other water users in snorkel-trained children have proved.
surface craft. Submerged, you are invisible to them,

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 A diver breathes from his buddy’s alternative source (AS)

Problem solving – alternative source and begin breathing from it. Such a situation calls
It is a small step from removing and replacing your for immediate termination of the dive, and the need
primary regulator underwater to learning how to to ascend should be communicated to your buddy or
breathe from an AS. This will allow you to cope, in dive leader and the rest of the dive aborted. Take care
the unlikely event that the second stage of your own that the abandoned primary second stage does not
regulator fails. Should you decide to progress to more catch on any obstruction, particularly any ascent or
advanced diving techniques at a later stage, you may decompression lines you may encounter.
well have back-up breathing gas supplies delivered Should you, through bad planning, bad dive control
through a second regulator from a second diving or some other unfortunate circumstance, find you have
cylinder. In this case, too, the ability to competently consumed all your breathing gas during a dive, you will
swap regulators underwater is essential. The procedure need a different alternative source of breathing gas. The
is simply to remove the AS mouthpiece from its nearest should be the AS of your buddy and using this
stowage point, or otherwise locate it, place it in your is only slightly more complex than using your own. The
mouth, either purging it or blowing it clear of water keys to success with this technique are positioning

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 Self rescue
and contact. You need to be positioned so that the
AS regulator is correctly, comfortably and securely
fitted in your mouth, and ideally so that you have
eye contact with each other. As you are now using a
breathing source fitted to your buddy’s equipment,
there must be a secure form of contact between the
pair of you. Fortunately, diving equipment normally
provides a number of secure hand-grip possibilities
and you will be taught to use one which is appropriate
to the equipment you are using. As such an event
must signal the termination of the dive, that contact
must not interfere with the necessarily close ascent
you will both then have to make. It should also leave
each of you with one hand free, which you will need
to control buoyancy during the ascent. Remember that
as buddies you each act as safety diver for the other.
You need to master this skill in order to be proficient
in both roles: that of receiving breathing gas from a
buddy’s AS and providing your buddy with breathing
gas from your own AS.
In a self rescue, it may be necessary
to remove your weight belt
Self-rescue
It has long been understood that people who live near
water should know how to swim and, ideally, should you to inadvertently run out of breathing gas while
have at least some basic skills in rescue and resuscitation. you are a long distance from your buddy. The cure is
As people who deliberately enter the water to pursue simple – better diving practice.
our activity, this must also apply to divers, and to an Safe return to the surface is a key factor of the
even higher degree. The best principle is always to rescue, and so buoyancy and buoyancy control are
avoid trouble and hopefully your training will provide going to be crucial. Changes to buoyancy can be made
you with the knowledge and skills to apply prevention in two ways, either by removing sources of negative
rather than cure. But it is also wise to be prepared for buoyancy or by the creation of positive buoyancy.
problems, because this forethought could be just the Introducing further breathing gas into a BC or drysuit
thing to allow you to catch the problem at an early will create more positive buoyancy and, if sufficient,
stage when it is easier to prevent or solve. To this end, will precipitate an ascent. Finning upwards will also
thinking through various scenarios in advance and assist with ascent. Most fully equipped divers also
working out self-rescue solutions can provide you with have to carry weights in order to achieve neutral
the tools to resolve difficult situations. Hopefully your buoyancy. It therefore follows that jettisoning these
buddy will be able to play a role in these solutions, weights will also contribute towards achieving
but in some circumstances a self-contained answer positive buoyancy. Most diver-training agencies
may be preferable or even inevitable. Use of your recommend ditching the weights in such emergencies
own AS is of course an example of self-rescue and an and include this procedure in their training
extreme, though rare, solution would involve making programmes. Maybe because it is an irreversible action
an emergency ascent to the surface without assistance or maybe through a natural reluctance to abandon
from your buddy. equipment, weight ditching rarely seems to occur in
While the most likely cause would be lack of breathing anger.
gas, even this situation has a number of variations, For your personal safety, it is good practice to
depending on the cause and associated circumstances. plan and train for this eventuality, ensuring that
Failure to check breathing gas consumption may cause you can always reach and operate your weights quick-

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 Buddy rescue
action on your part. Naval personnel practising
submarine escape ascents are trained to make a ‘kissing’
shape with open lips and blow steadily to exhaust the
expanding air in their lungs. A similar exhalation,
while retaining the mouthpiece in place, would seem
the best advice to divers making a comparable rapid
ascent. Once the surface is reached the first priority is
to make sure you stay there. If it has not already been
abandoned, this may be a good moment to get rid of
any removable weights. BC inflation may be possible
from your scuba set – if not, use mouth inflation to
ensure you have plenty of positive buoyancy. Once
this has been accomplished, use all means possible –
visual and sound signals – to attract the assistance of
your surface support party.

Buddy rescue
Much of the above advice applies to buddy rescue.
Here we have to consider two main situations, the
A diver adds breathing gas to his buddy’s BC to begin a rescue of a conscious or unconscious buddy. Most
controlled buoyant lift (CBL) rescues of a conscious buddy would result from
breathing gas supply shortages and therefore follow
the AS procedure described earlier. Remember to take
release and then jettison them so they will fall clear great care over positioning, maintaining secure contact
without snagging other equipment. If the prime cause and control of ascent rate through buoyancy. In your
of this self-rescue is a lack of breathing gas, it could well consideration of this scenario, think it through and
mean that there is a corresponding lack of buoyancy practise it by playing both roles, casualty and rescuer.
inflation, making ditching weights or finning the only More serious is the rescue of an unconscious diver.
options. When a dive cylinder is breathed down to In this situation speed is obviously a priority with
‘empty’, it is of course not completely empty of gas. the twin aim of both you and your buddy arriving
You cannot ‘suck’ all the breathing gas out of such a safely at the surface. A casualty who is unconscious
rigid container. When you reduce the gas pressure in underwater is going to remain there and inevitably
the cylinder to bring it close to that of the surrounding become a fatality unless removed from the water, so
water, the regulator no longer has a pressure differential that must be the first priority. To help ensure this will
with which to operate, so no more breathing gas is be the case, it is primarily the casualty’s buoyancy
delivered. Should this occur at a depth of say 20m, then that needs to become positive, so adjusting that from
by ascending to 10m you would again create a small the outset is the most logical step to take. Positive
pressure differential (1 bar). This means that during casualty buoyancy can be created by either controlled
the ascent, as the ambient pressure reduces, you may BC inflation or by weight ditching. If there is inflation
be able to extract a little more breathing gas from the gas available, this would be the preferred method, as
cylinder, either for breathing or buoyancy. you are then already in control of the main buoyancy
Whether positive buoyancy is achieved by ditching adjustment system. No big change of grip will be
your weights or by inflating your BC or drysuit, it is needed to vent excess buoyancy in order to keep
important to try to keep control of your ascent rate. The ascent speed within reasonable bounds. While this
greatest danger is from the breathing gas expanding buoyancy control occupies one of your hands, your
in your lungs, so you should exhale continuously other hand will need to be used to keep a positive grip
while ascending. Your lungs are not equipped with on the casualty. You may also need it to vent your own
overpressure sensors, so this needs to be a conscious BC, both when commencing the rescue and as you

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 Buddy rescue

A buddy signals the surface team for assistance

approach the surface. If the casualty’s mouthpiece has

been dislodged there may be some merit in reinserting
it, but this should not be allowed to interfere with the
main objectives of secure contact and as rapid an ascent
as is prudent. Once the surface is reached ensure that
the casualty cannot sink – it is possible that you will
need to orally inflate their BC – and then use all means
to attract urgent assistance from your surface support
party. At this stage you will need to assess whether
or not you need to start towing the casualty towards
further assistance on the shore or in the cover boat.
Full consideration of such an unfortunate eventuality
should encourage you to regularly check the cylinder
breathing gas pressures of both yourself and your
buddy and may also persuade you to obtain a specialist
diver rescue qualification. o

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 Chapter seven
A different
world

Living in gaseous
surroundings and glued
by gravity to a fairly solid
platform, we are accustomed
to the way things happen in
such an environment. Our
sensory system is tuned to
this setting, to the way light
is perceived and sounds
are heard and to the way
we and objects around us
are affected by the force of
gravity. One of the major
attractions of scuba diving
is the exposure to totally
new sensations. Light, sound
and gravity all provide very
different experiences to
those we know above the
surface. Understanding
some of the reasons for
these diversities increases
your understanding and
enjoyment of the world
below the waves.

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 Seamanship
Tides and tidal streams

Seamanship 4
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 A different world
Light

Near the surface there is less loss of colour

One of the major attractions of diving is the amazing Underwater, the natural light has to pass through
variety of life forms underwater and the vast range of more and more water as depth increases. As the
colours in which they come. What is strange is that it light passes through this water, different colours are
is only in relatively shallow waters we can see the full gradually and progressively absorbed. If a colour is
range of colour of this exotic life. Above the surface not present in the light source, an object of that colour
we are accustomed to the objects we view being will appear dark. Indeed, if the object is purely that
illuminated by natural light or sunlight. colour it will appear black. Natural sunlight consists of
The colour we perceive an object to be is the result a wide spectrum of colours that we observe distinctly
of the light of that colour being reflected into our eyes. from time to time as a rainbow. Underwater, these
We notice that colours seen under artificial light look colours fade away with increasing depth – starting
somewhat different, subtly or dramatically altered by with the loss of colour from the red end of the colour
the nature of the light source, such as in the home, spectrum. This means that even at a depth of 10m, any
shop or nightclub. objects coloured red appear dark, and by the time we

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 Light
Seeing underwater without a mask Seeing underwater with a mask
Glass

Air Lens Water Air

The eye, evolved for use in air, forms images of the objects we Seen through a glass faceplate the image is clear, but the brain
look at on the retina. does not allow for refraction and sees the object at the same
distance but larger than it really is.

Water Lens

Water has different refractive qualities to air, so when in contact If the object is interpreted as being the correct size, it is seen
with water the eye forms a focused image behind retina, causing as being much closer to you than it really is.
blurred vision.

Your vision underwater is affected by water and – because of your dive mask – a change in refraction. It is interesting to note
that the image on the retina is always inverted, so your brain ‘sees’ the world upside down and automatically adjusts to provide
you with a right-way-up perception of your surroundings.

are at 30m we are in a very blue-grey world.

What is amazing is that if we illuminate this deeper world using artificial
light, such as that from a torch, we often find that the plants and animals
living here have as wide a range of colouring as those near the surface. For
this very reason many divers include a waterproof torch in their kit for all
dives, not only for those undertaken at night.
In addition to absorbing colours, water has another major effect on
the way light travels through it. This affects us whenever the light enters
or leaves water at any angle other than perpendicular (90°). Whenever
this transition occurs the angle of the light ray is slightly altered – the
technical term is ‘refracted’. It is most obvious if we simply submerge
and open our eyes. No matter how clear the water, everything appears
blurred. This is because the light reflected from an object no longer enters
our eyes at an angle we can properly bring to focus on the retina. Our
eyes have evolved to function properly in air, so wearing a diving face
mask solves a major part of this problem. It does not completely solve The loss of colour as we go deeper
it, because a certain amount of refraction occurs as the light passes from starts with red and continues through
water to glass and then to air. With normal eyesight, focusing is not a orange, yellow, green, blue and grey
problem, but the refraction causes us to underestimate our distance from
the object. Reach for something underwater and you will find your arm
appears to be shorter! Another way our brain interprets this phenomenon
is to believe an object is larger than it really is – hence divers’ tales of
enormous lobsters!

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 Although often described
as ‘the silent world’, you
will hear lots of things
underwater

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 Sound underwater

Sound
Travelling through water also affects the behaviour of
sound waves and thus our sense of hearing. Essentially,
sound travels much faster through the denser medium
of water, approximately four times as fast as through
air. When our brain interprets the sounds we hear
normally, it calculates the direction from where the
sounds come. This calculation is based on the speed at
which the sound travels and the precise timing of the
sound signalled by each of our ears. With the sound
travelling so much faster underwater, this highly
accurate time measurement is upset and our ability to
assign a direction to the sound is greatly reduced. This
means sound signalling by your dive buddy or noise
from a boat engine can be heard, but it is difficult to
allocate a direction to the sound.
As has been said, sound waves travel so much faster
because the water is much denser than air. However,
this same density means the energy of the sound
waves in our normal hearing range is more quickly The sounds of marine animals can be heard by divers
absorbed, so the range of sounds is smaller. To some,
this means underwater can be described as ‘the silent
world’. Once you are accustomed to it you will find it
is far from silent.
The sound of your own bubbles and those of your
buddy can be clearly heard. So too the sound of passing
boats with high-pitched outboard engines, or big ships
with rumbling diesel engines. While fish are not too
talkative, the snapping noises of various crustaceans
and molluscs can often be clearly heard.
While on the subject of sound, our normal vocal
communication system is not very effective underwater.
Firstly, it is very difficult to articulate speech with a
regulator in your mouth. Even if you remove your
regulator, speaking into the water does not produce
the same effect as speaking into air. The sounds are
very distorted and tend to be further obscured by the
noise of the bubbles you produce in trying to speak.
Even then the effects of pressure have another
trick to play on us. As we go deeper and breathe air
under greater pressure, the density of our breathing
gas becomes greater. As our vocal chords are used to
operating with one atmosphere air, the sounds they
produce become higher pitched. Gradually, as depth
increases, this effect also degrades our speech-making
ability until we are making noises more appropriate to
Donald Duck.

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 Buoyancy

Gravity
One of the most enjoyable aspects of being in the water
is the apparent escape from gravity. Of course, we are
not free of gravity, but the overall density of a human
being is very close to that of water. This means that if
we are naked and fully immersed in water, depending
on the amount of air in our lungs, we will either float
or just sink. Most people when relaxed will float with
their lungs filled at normal capacity. Unfortunately,
our natural floating position is face-down, with the
top and back of the head just awash. As we breathe
through the front of our head, this relaxed position
does not assist in normal breathing. This is where the
simple addition of a snorkel to transfer our breathing
point to somewhere near the back of our head is a real
life-saver. A few people think that they are negatively
buoyant, but in the vast majority of cases this is
because they experience difficulty in keeping a very
Being neutrally buoyant feels as though heavy part of their body, the head, above the surface.
you are free from gravity Even with the lungs fully inflated this is often difficult
as it requires considerable positive buoyancy.
Wearing heavy clothing or equipment will, of course,
tend to make us sink more rapidly.
Although diving equipment is heavy out of the
water, once immersed the overall effect of all the
equipment on us is to make us float, so weights have
to be worn in order to dive comfortably. Ideally, the
combination of protective clothing, SCUBA and other
equipment will be made neutral by the addition of the
weights. The BC or drysuit can then be used for fine
trimming, adjusting for things such as the increased
weight of breathing gas in the cylinder at the start of
Avoid diving in a head-up position, except when deliberately the dive, or the loss of suit buoyancy which comes
ascending with increased pressure.
A further consideration is the distribution of weight
and buoyancy around the diver. Typically, buoyancy
tends to be grouped around the upper body and the
weights low around the waist, making the diver adopt
a head-up position. While this is fine at the surface,
a horizontal attitude is usually a more comfortable
position when diving. Also, constantly being in a
head-up position means that you have to carry extra
weight to compensate for the fact that some of the
effort from your finning is propelling you upwards.
A horizontal position is usually the most comfortable This is another reason to achieve neutral buoyancy
with as little weight as possible. If it is very difficult
to arrive at a comfortable underwater attitude, check
the problem is not caused by bad positioning of the

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 Inland dive sites

cylinder. Conversely, if you find you have too much

buoyancy in the legs, possibly from air or breathing
gas migration in a drysuit, consider wearing ankle
weights.
The water itself – salt and fresh
While most divers prefer diving in the seas and oceans
of our planet, there is much to be seen in fresh water
too. A lot of diving takes place at inland freshwater
sites such as lakes and flooded quarries, mainly for
reasons of access. These can provide ideal sheltered-
water conditions for diver training and are frequently
less affected by adverse weather than more exposed
coastal waters. Freshwater sites can also have a charm
of their own, whether it be the different underwater
plant and animal life or the often dramatic topography
of underwater cliffs and rock formations.
Like the sea, freshwater visibility is usually affected
by the recent weather. Recent rains can cause feeder
streams and rivers to discharge great volumes of silt- Inland dive sites are often used for training purposes
laden water, thus creating poor visibility conditions
until the silt settles. This same silt can then be
disturbed by carelessly finning divers, recreating that
same poor visibility. River outlet areas of the sea are
most susceptible to this effect, but these muddy waters sudden temperature changes when moving between
are also moved by tidal streams, so coastal waters may these two bodies of water. The boundary is referred
see visibility changes with varying states of the tide. to as a ‘thermocline’ and can often be seen as an oily-
Some inland waters, especially in cave and cavern looking shimmering layer in the water.
systems, can have absolutely stunning clarity of water
making them an underwater photographer’s dream.
Beware, though, cave diving is a speciality of its own
and requires very particular training usually with
specific cave-diving equipment. Generally speaking,
it is considered easier to train a caver to dive than a
diver to cave.
Water is at its densest at a temperature of around
4°C, which means water at this temperature will sink
to the bottom, while – normally – the warmer, less
dense water will be at the surface. If water becomes
cooler than 4°C, its density decreases and it will rise to
the surface where with further cooling it will become
even less dense and float as ice. Diving under ice also
requires special training and techniques, and should
not be undertaken lightly.
Usually there will be a gradual reduction in water
temperature as a diver descends, but sometimes a
body of warmer water will move independently from
the colder water beneath. This can then give rise to

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 Wave action at the surface can have
an effect on entry to and exit from
a dive site

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 The interaction of two worlds

The way the water moves

Most inland dive sites are relatively small and the
waters in them fairly static. Obvious exceptions are
rivers, which can be interesting dive sites if proper
respect is given to the possible currents. A fully
equipped diver will find it hard work to swim at even
0.5 knots (0.9km per hour) so quite small currents can
cause problems for divers. This also applies to sea
diving, where tidal flows can easily exceed the diver’s
swimming capability. Provided suitable precautions
are taken regarding surface cover and exit facilities,
diving with the flow of the current (drift diving) can
be interesting and exhilarating – again, remember that
this is a skill requiring appropriate training.
Tidal currents are caused by interactions between
the gravitational forces of the Sun, Moon and
Earth, coupled with the rotation of the earth. As the
Earth rotates, most sea areas experience two high
tides and two low tides each day. As the interval
between high and low water is about 6 hours The principal cause of surface movement is the wind
15 minutes, the actual time changes each day.
Current is generally strongest halfway between high
and low water, but there can be significant variations
caused by the impact of coastal or sea bed topography.
Additionally, there is an overlying 28-day lunar up and moving to the exit point on a rolling boat is not
cycle, with alternating maximum or spring tides and easy, nor is passing up heavy equipment and climbing
minimum or neap tides occurring some seven days a ladder in such conditions. This means it is important
apart. Some sea areas such as the Mediterranean have that those organising dives have some understanding
very small tidal variations which can be cancelled of weather forecasting and weather influence over the
out by wind or even temperature-driven water sites that they are planning to dive. o
movements.

The interaction of two worlds

Other types of water movement can also have a
considerable effect on our diving activities. The vertical
movement of the surface can greatly affect how we
enter the water from the shore, our travel, pre-dive
and post-dive boating activities and the dive itself. The
principal cause of surface movement is the wind, but
beware – a particular sea state may have been caused
by a wind a considerable distance away and even some
days before. Once underwater, the action of the waves
at the surface diminishes as depth increases, though
big storms can have a significant effect even as deep
as 30m. Our main concerns are wave action affecting
entry and exit, surface swimming or when diving in
fairly shallow water near rocks or a shipwreck. Kitting

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 Chapter eight
What next?

Diving is a very new human

activity and you should
by now realise that the
knowledge and skills covered
so far are just the basics
of what will be an ongoing
education. As a diver you
have the chance to be a
genuine explorer of truly
unknown regions of our
planet, yet, need only a
relatively modest support
infrastructure which is easily
available. So, what are you
going to do now that the
door to our underwater world
is opened to you?

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 What next?
Marine life

Bloody Henry starfish Daisy anemones Tubeworms

Great pleasure can be had simply by diving under ‘ordinary’ divers acting as a team can work as the eyes
the waves and looking around. You can observe the of marine scientists, visiting particular sites at various
amazing variety of life forms and their environmental intervals and conducting environmental observations
adaptation or study the multiplicity of plant and animal and surveys. Now that you have taken the important
life, which varies in scale from microscopic plants to first steps and entered the underwater world, why
the world’s largest mammals. All levels of interest can not learn some more about that world? Marine life
be satisfied – you can simply look, you can ‘train spot’, identification courses are available to divers of all levels
ticking off the creatures you observe and recognise and can make an excellent entry point leading to more
from brightly coloured underwater guide slates. Or, by specialised and advanced studies in marine biology.
studying marine biology, you can let this interest lead Whatever your level of interest, always remember
you down a never-ending path. Courses are available that your goal should be to protect and preserve the
at all levels, from those for absolute beginners to underwater habitat and its occupants, interfering with
specialists focusing on specific branches of marine life. the delicate balance of nature as little as possible.
A large portion of the new knowledge of the undersea
environment has come, and is still coming, from
new and enthusiastic ‘amateur’ biologists. Groups of

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 Marine life

Common octopus Nudibranch Compass jellyfish

Sponge Devonshire cup coral Gorgonian fan coral

Marine worm Blue-spotted ray Blue shark

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 Underwater photography is comprised
of four elements: the visibility, the
equipment, the technical competence
of the photographer and the artistic
capability of the photographer

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 Photography

A compact digital camera and its housing Underwater photographs serve as an ocean-friendly reminder
of your dives

Photography
As a diver, you will want to communicate your The third ingredient, technical competence, is not too
observations and experiences to others, especially difficult to acquire – there are many specialist books
those who have yet to follow in your fin strokes. available as well as training courses run by experts.
Taking pictures and shooting stills or video are Depending on your existing ability, even books and
obvious ways of sharing what you have seen. A word training covering dry-land photography might be an
of warning: if your ordinary photograph album is full advisable first step. Early underwater photographers
of shots of your thumb, relatives with missing heads used land equipment secured in waterproof housings
and fuzzy landscapes, your underwater pictures are with transparent windows. Problems of sealing
likely to have similar results. There are four main mechanisms used to operate the controls and of
ingredients in recording underwater images – the pressurising the housing had to be solved, together
visibility, the equipment, the technical competence with those of providing and synchronising additional
of the photographer and the artistic capability of the lighting. Today, digital processing has replaced
photographer. The first is largely a matter of what film for all but the most specialised applications,
kind of underwater experiences you wish to record. and underwater housings are available for most
If it involves diving around coral reefs, finding good cameras – compact, SLR and video – together with a
visibility is not too difficult, but if it is in the North range of waterproof flash and movie lighting units,
Atlantic, obtaining the best visibility can be time and there are a few cameras that are waterproof
consuming and mastering successful photography in in themselves, requiring no additional housing.
difficult conditions requires even more experimentation Technical competence in diving is also important for
and patience. The equipment you select is going to be underwater photographers. Good buoyancy control
affected by your available budget, but quality and is essential, and unless basic skills such as monitoring
choice are constantly improving and as the market your instruments and following a dive plan are second
expands so costs are falling. nature, you are unlikely to be able to cope with the

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 Photography

Shipwrecks make good photographic subjects

added task loading of photography safely. this problem in mind when considering cameras with
Special wide-angle and macro lenses, adapted built-in flashes, as they are only really suitable for use
for underwater use, are available and many digital in very good visibility or at very short range.
cameras have built-in features to deal with the Artistic success is difficult to achieve, but bear
colour balances encountered underwater. Powerful in mind that it is extremely rare to find a successful
computer programs such as Photoshop are now artist who has not undergone some form of training,
available for making post-dive adjustments to formal or otherwise. If you can look at the work
underwater photographs and video, but it is still of other photographers and decide what it is that
worth remembering that the best results are obtained pleases or displeases you, you have already made
when starting with good photographs! some artistic judgements and can use these as a base
Extra lighting can be particularly difficult in less to guide your own work. Your abilities can be further
than perfect visibility. Any suspended matter between developed by reading books, attending courses and
the camera lens and the object you are trying to discussing your pictures with other photographers
capture will block light from the object, much like and divers. You will find that even the most successful
trying to see through a mist. Even worse, if you try to photographers have many more failures than
illuminate the object from a light source close to the successes. In shooting stills and video professionally,
lens, not only will the suspended matter reduce light with a well-scripted story and an organised set, a
reaching the object, it will reflect light back into the 7 to 1 rejection ratio is regarded as quite normal, so
lens. This is rather like trying to see through fog with take plenty of shots of each subject. Most artists
the main beams of a car’s headlights – the reflected become their own most severe critics, so do not
light blinds, and obscures what you are trying to see. despair if instant success is not yours – perseverance
Matters are improved if the light source is removed as is required. One aspect of underwater photography
far as practicable from the camera and is used in order is the need for an understanding dive buddy who is
to illuminate the scene from an angle. You should bear sympathetic to a photographer’s needs.

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 Photography

Underwater video systems are increasingly sophisticated and offer high performance

There is a danger that the photographer can become absolute measurements of the image, as can well be
rather single-minded on the photographic task and an observed by freeze-framing a video. Quality that
understanding buddy will compensate for this. This would be regarded as unacceptable in a still picture
same buddy, besides often serving as photographic is rendered quite presentable in a movie format. It
model, may also serve as an artistic critic. must also be remembered that the best pictures are
As a rule of thumb, the most difficult images to those that tell a story or at least make an interesting
produce successfully are black and white ones. Here, statement. Photographic still shots, of course, tell short
the critical viewer has no distraction of colour or stories, but for films to be really successful there must
movement and it is the technical and artistic qualities be an identifiable story linking the sequences together.
of the image that bear the full brunt of conveying Time spent in developing a storyboard and planning
your message. With colour pictures, the observer has film sequences and camera angles will always be
an extra visual channel and the tones, shades and time well spent. Do not forget the limitations placed
composition of the colours can compensate for other on underwater filming by mundane factors such
possible weaknesses in the work. Once movement as breathing gas consumption, decompression
is added, the viewer is even more distracted from requirements, thermal tolerances or even tide times.

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 Many wrecks are large mazes of
tangled metal, and should not be
penetrated without proper training

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 Wrecks

Corals and other marine creatures slowly colonise wrecks Shipwrecks make for atmospheric dives

Diving into history

Many scuba divers find diving submerged wrecks a disappear fairly quickly, followed by the steel plates
fascinating activity. A flooded ship can provide an as rust takes its toll in the highly oxygenated surface
ideal habitat for a great many forms of aquatic life, waters. More durable are the thicker metallic masses
making it an absorbing dive for fish-watchers and such as engines, condensers and boilers, steel girders
even the most serious marine biologist. This same and frames, propellers and propeller shafts and the
underwater life, coupled with the often atmospheric many parts made from brass or bronze.
environments created by the ship itself, can also make These tangled mazes can create confusing
such sites a paradise for photographers. Some divers navigational problems, the more so as your dive
are irresistibly drawn to diving shipwrecks. These compass is often made useless by the surrounding iron
are divers who find great satisfaction in locating lost and steel. If visibility is poor, sometimes these location
wrecks, in positively identifying them, in studying problems can be solved by reeling out a distance line
their condition and researching their history. Some to help find the way back to the descent/ascent line
wrecks demand exploration, others evoke feelings of or shot-line. But these are techniques awaiting you
awe and respect because of the drama of their sinking, in more advanced training, together with techniques
or the loss of life involved. for exploring the more intact wrecks that are usually
Diving shipwrecks can be very different to the dives found in deeper waters.
you undertake during your initial diver training. Most Not all wrecks are of shipping. Aircraft, amphibious
wrecks in shallow waters tend to be quickly broken military vehicles, even railway trains and road
up and dispersed by the enormous power of surface vehicles have all found their way to the bottom of
waves. When diving such sites it can be difficult to the sea. Mankind, throughout its history has used
comprehend how the broken and twisted masses of water as a medium for transport, but has also lived
metal, usually encrusted with rust, weed and molluscs, over the water. In many parts of the world, houses
ever went together to form a ship. Wooden parts and settlements have been constructed on pilings

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 Archaeology

Underwater archaeology is an exacting task, which requires the Responsible divers will consider themselves guardians of
diver to take accurate records underwater treasures

rising above the water’s surface. Long since destroyed wreck divers sought souvenirs of the wrecks they
and lost to land-bound exploration, these sites now visited. This has been replaced by an understanding
provide archaeologically trained divers with numerous of our responsibility as guardians of these underwater
opportunities to study the ways in which some of our treasures. Every wreck is a story, a page from history,
ancestors lived. While most of this research involves and many of these chronicles have yet to be unravelled
archaeologists who have become divers, much is also and properly understood. Careless intervention can
conducted by divers who, having made underwater make this task difficult or impossible and shipwrecks
discoveries, have been sufficiently motivated to obtain are not a renewable resource. Fortunately, the brass-
the necessary archaeological training. One of the most happy pirate image whose success was measured by
famous shipwrecks of British naval history, King the weight of scrap metal recovered has been replaced
Henry VIII’s battleship the Mary Rose, was successfully by a serious and responsible attitude to the protection
charted, archaeologically excavated and prepared for of our underwater heritage. Photographs replace
recovery to its Portsmouth museum by a small team souvenirs taken from the oceans, and if you really
of professional diving archaeologists who worked for do want to show your friends, children, partners or
several years guiding hundreds of amateur divers. parents these underwater treasures, well, take them
Recreational diving is rather young to have diving with you. Diver training is open to all.
developed traditions and fortunately has shown fairly Opportunities for underwater historical research are
rapid evolution, not only in equipment, but also in not limited to sites of watery catastrophes. Today’s
customs. Many of the first divers used their new-found massive pollution of the oceans by our industrial
underwater abilities to hunt the sea life they found, and commercial irresponsibility has a long history;
and not always too discriminately. Those same divers it is only the scale and potential for damage that
are now ardent conservationists, having witnessed the has changed. As long as mankind has used water
damage such activities could wreak. Similarly, early for travel, items (rubbish) have been lost or thrown

138 What next?

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 Underwater sport

Measurements and illustrations need to be made when relics Underwater hockey or ‘octopush’ is now an international sport
are brought to the surface

Underwater sport
overboard. Some of these items have proved very On the whole, diving is a very non-competitive
durable and have become interesting relics that also activity, but a desire to keep fit and improve basic skills
help to fill in the patchwork of history. While many in the early days of diving led to the development of
discoveries of this type are accidental, there are places the game of ‘octopush’. This game consists of two
where these activities were concentrated, such as close opposing teams of players each equipped with mask,
to ancient moorings. Many of these sites are still busy fins, snorkel and small, hand-carried ‘pusher’, trying to
with shipping today, so pay attention to the dangers move a lead-weighted ‘squid’ or puck into the other’s
posed by surface craft if you intend to dive these sites. goal to score a ‘gull’. This game, which is claimed to
Make sure you follow all local guidelines – there are have originated within the Southsea branch of the
usually rules and regulations governing activities British Sub-Aqua Club, is now played internationally,
in busy shipping lanes, harbours and designated with national leagues, and is more commonly referred
sites. Abandoning or losing objects in the water also to as underwater hockey. According to the rules,
occurs from the shore. The waters around bridges body contact is not allowed, and maybe through
and riverside pubs are classic examples, but ancient misinterpretation or dissatisfaction with this rule, a
springs and wells have also been explored. separate sport of underwater rugby has also developed.
Some countries also include fringe activities such as
equipment-assisted swimming racing.

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 Technical diving demands more equipment
and further training

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 Personal development

Becoming a diving instructor can be very rewarding Training in first aid and rescue diving will improve your confidence

Personal development Now you need to extend your diving capabilities and,
Becoming a diver is for many a life-changing surprise, surprise, the formula is very similar to that you
experience, a step in self-definition. It is not unusual, have followed so far. Firstly, you can always improve
once those first underwater fin strokes have been made, and polish the skills you already have by increasing
for people’s lives to be totally transformed. Many are your diving experience. Performing more dives in the
drawn to sharing their own passion by teaching others, waters you are familiar with is a start. Broadening that
and this in itself can provide a new career. For others, experience by diving in similar conditions in other
the communications skills gained through instructing locations will help your development. Be aware that
has given them advantages in their normal careers. some adaptation may be necessary with changed
Even the simple achievement of becoming a diver, and conditions, especially where significant changes in
the self-confidence gained with it, has had a positive visibility, water temperature or dive organisation
impact on the lives of many divers. However, that was are encountered. Seek assistance in coping with any
not your prime motivation in taking the plunge. This such changes and, if needed, obtain formal training
book has been designed to help you through the early to provide the knowledge and experience you lack. If
stages of diving. Your entry-level training should see you wish to dive deeper, in a safe manner, you need
you competent in the basic use of your equipment. It further knowledge and skills. Always try to broaden
should provide you with enough knowledge and skill your diving experience in progressive steps that are
to enable you to safely dive as a member of a buddy small enough to be easily and safely managed. For
pair, in waters and depths similar to those where your example, when changing to new equipment make sure
training took place. This is unlikely to be the limit of you first master its use in controlled, non-challenging
your underwater ambition and nor should it be: with environments, before trying it in situations that also
some 70 per cent of our planet immersed in water demand lots of attention for other tasks.
there is always more for you to see that will be new Diver-training agencies recognise that learning to
and exciting. dive is a progressive activity, involving a continuous

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 A continuing adventure
increase in knowledge paralleled by an expansion of
skills and experience. For convenience’s sake, various
stages in this process are evaluated and awarded titles
or diver grades. Along with these grades is a summary
of recommended limits of the depths and activities
appropriate to that level of training, in some places
these limits having the weight of law behind them.
These guidelines are only there for your protection
and if you find them in any way limiting, the solution
is quite simple. Study, train and gain the necessary
experience to move to the next grade and the expanded
horizons so offered. A parallel system of progressive
grading is also applied to diving instructors.
Besides progression in simple diving grades there is
a wealth of specialist diving activities to be explored.
Some are activity oriented, such as those mentioned
earlier, including underwater science, photography
and archaeology. Some concentrate on rescue
capability, ranging from basic life-saving techniques,
Boat handling is a useful skill for divers to learn first aid and therapeutic oxygen administration, to
rescue management. Knowledge and skill in dive
management, compressor operation, seamanship,
surface navigation, chartwork and position-fixing
are seen as valuable to divers organising their own
dive trips. For those wanting to push at the technical
frontiers courses are available on extended range
diving, trimix, a breathing gas mixture containing
helium, rebreather diving and other associated topics.

The door is open – now you can learn more about your
underwater world, plan new places to visit and new things
to do when you get there. It is often said that the day you
stop having new experiences and learning from your diving
is the day to stop diving. Hopefully, that is a situation you
will never experience, your diving will be a continuing
adventure! o

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 A continuing adventure

Now that your initial training is complete, you can continue your underwater adventure
by learning new skills and using more advanced equipment

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 Appendix one – Decompression tables

conduct slate to assist dive planning and control. A

key feature of the BSAC ’88 Decompression Tables is
their simplicity of use, as they avoid the conventional
need for residual nitrogen calculation. Another major
difference is the use of ‘dive time’ (time to 6m), a
procedure much more in tune with recreational
diving, rather than the military/commercial style of
‘bottom time’ (time to leaving maximum depth). With
the introduction of these tables, BSAC was a leader in
variable ascent speeds, recommending a maximum
ascent speed (rather than an obligatory target speed)
to 6m and then a slower final ascent to the surface.

Using the BSAC ’88 Decompression Tables

1 Select a Table to suit the surface air pressure and
your tissue nitrogen saturation state (Current
Tissue Code). For a first dive this is usually Table A
Examples of BSAC decompression materials, available from the (see example opposite).
BSAC mailshop, website: www.bsac.com 2 Choose the maximum depth that you plan to reach
during the dive – in this case 12m.
3 Move along that row to the right and select the time
Decompression tables you expect to reach 6m on the final ascent to the
BSAC is the only diver-training agency which uses surface, always choosing a greater time if your exact
decompression tables specifically designed for its time is not shown. In this case the planned time is
members to use in recreational diving. These tables, 30 minutes, so the 37-minute column is chosen.
researched by Dr Tom Hennessy and released in 1988, 4 Move vertically down that column to read your
depart completely from the common usage of tables Surfacing Code, for this example it is C.
designed for military or commercial diving. Based on 5 Note these figures on your dive conduct slate and
micro-bubble resolution rather than tissue simulation, repeat the procedure using the next time column
Dr Hennessy’s methodology has subsequently been and the next deeper depth row to create two fall
adopted by astronauts engaged in the construction of - back solutions should you inadvertently exceed
the International Space Station. BSAC publishes the these dive parameters.
’88 Decompression Tables in two formats: 6 Follow your plan during the dive, observing
maximum depth and time.
UÊÊA booklet containing four sets of the tables
7 When you reach 6m during the final ascent, check
enabling diving to be conducted in a range of
that you have followed the plan and, if necessary,
different atmospheric pressure bands, essential for
move to a fall-back plan.
altitude diving, together with complete instructions
8 Note your Surfacing Code and the time you exit the
for use and worked examples.
water.
UÊÊA booklet containing four sets of the tables
enabling diving to be conducted with a range of BSAC ’88 Tables require a maximum ascent speed of
different nitrox mixtures, with a simple procedure 15m per minute up to 6m and then you should take at
for changing gas mixture on subsequent dives. least one minute to ascend the final 6m to the surface.
All three formats are printed on waterproof
material and include instructions for use and a dive

144 Appendices
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 Decompression tables

Repeat diving plus should be limited to four days, after which a

1 From the previous example use your Surfacing 24-hour break should be taken.
Code C and move across that row to the right until 3 It is advisable to limit any diving within a 24-hour
you are under your planned surface interval time. period to dives requiring a total of 20 minutes of
2 Read the Current Tissue Code letter from that table in-water stops.
cell to discover which Table to use for the next dive. 4 Always be in control of your buoyancy, especially
3 In the adjacent example Code C is retained until during the ascent, and observe the maximum
a surface interval of two hours has passed, when recommended speeds of 15m per minute to 6m and
Table B can be used. Table A cannot be used until then one minute to the surface.
12 hours has elapsed. 5 You can conduct slower descents and ascents, while
remaining within the table limits for your dive but
multiple ‘saw-tooth’ ascents and descents should be
Safer diving avoided.
Because of the wide variations in human physiology 6 Be aware that smoking, alcohol or drug
and the large number of factors that can affect your consumption, tiredness, dehydration, age,
susceptibility to decompression illness, no table can increased body fat and any medical condition
guarantee to protect you against all risk. Whenever affecting the circulatory or respiratory systems are
diving please take the following into account. thought to increase your risk of decompression
1 The maximum recommended depth for sport diving illness. So, too, can excessive physical exertion
using air is 50m and when carrying out two or more during or immediately after a dive.
dives in one day perform the deepest dive first. 7 Leave an appropriate Surface Interval before flying
2 It is recommended that no more than three dives or ascending to altitude following diving - BSAC
be performed in any 24-hour period and any dive recommends at least 16 hours.
series involving consecutive days diving to 30m -

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 Appendix two – Conversions and calculations
4000
140

25 130

500 3500
120

50
110
3000
1000
cylinder size
75 100
litres

- 30
90
2500
100 - 24
Pressure

Volume
1500
- 22
- 20 80
- 18
125 70 2000
- 15

2000
- 12 60
150
- 10 1500
-9 50
-8
2500 -7
175 40
-6
1000
-5
30
200
3000
Use the two scales either side to convert between metric and imperial 20
units. Join your dive cylinder pressure (contents gauge) reading 500
(left scale) by a straight line (at any angle) passing through the
225 dive cylinder volume (centre scale) to read off your breathing
10
gas contents (right scale).
bar psi
cubic litres
feet
146 Appendices © 2002 Ellerby Dive Planner

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 Conversions and calculations
4000
140

130

3500
0 0
120 air duration
time minutes

110 o 80
120o
3000
100o60
10
100 90o-
80o 50
o

-
70oo
90 40 50
2500
60-o
Volume

Distance
80 50oo30 20

-
2000 40-o-
70 -
--
o20
-
30o-
60 -
- 30 100
25 o15
1500 -
50 -
20 -
surface breathing rate -o
--
15 litres/min -
3
0.53 ft /min - o10
40 15 -
o
- 40
1000 --
-- surface breathing rate
-
30 25 litres/min
10o- 3
0.88 ft /min
o 5 150

20 Use the two scales on either side to convert between metric and
500 imperial units (volume/linear). Join your planned depth reading 50
(right scale) by a straight line passing through the breathing
gas duration time (centre scale) to read off your breathing gas metres feet
10 requirements for that time at that depth (left scale). Use the right
hand breathing gas duration times for a surface breathing rate of
cubic 25 litres per minute and the left hand times for 15 litres per minute.
litres
feet
© 2002 Ellerby Dive Planner
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 Appendix three – First aid

The recovery position The recovery position for an unstable environment such as a
boat, note that one arm is arranged behind the body

First aid Drowning

The aim of administering first aid in any diving In order to ensure a viable airway, the casualty’s mouth
incident must be to preserve the life of the casualty – and nose must be clear of the water, hence the need
and all involved – with the minimum of intervention, for divers to know how to lift non-breathing casualties
in order to limit the effects of the incident and to to the surface. Ideally this should be followed by
promote recovery. Avoid compounding the situation immediate removal of the casualty from the water. If
by taking foolhardy risks to recover the casualty. With this is not possible, stabilise the casualty at the surface
water-centred incidents, the correct actions in order of and if he or she is still not breathing, commence rescue
priority are: breaths (RB). In-water RB can be administered either
• Reach for the casualty. mouth-to-nose or mouth-to-mouth, with mouth-
• Throw flotation aids. to-nose generally preferred. The ability of a single
• Wade out to the casualty or use surface transport or rescuer is fairly limited, so efforts should be made to
flotation to reach the casualty. summon assistance and to move to a situation where
• Swim to the casualty. However, swimming alone exit from the water is possible. A balance has to be
should be considered a poorer, final option. struck between maintaining an effective rate of RB and
The sequence of action can be summarised as moving the casualty towards a water exit.
‘assessment, diagnosis and treatment’. Action priorities RB on its own will not be enough if circulation has
in order of importance are ‘airway, breathing and stopped. In these circumstances chest compressions
circulation’ (ABC), followed by incidents involving (CC) will be needed, requiring that the casualty is
major bleeding and other conditions. Should there supported on a firm surface such as a boat or on land.
be more than one casualty, you should prioritise by To give effective basic life support (BLS) you should
treating the non-breathing casualty first, followed by obtain appropriate training – courses are offered by
the breathing but unconscious casualty and then any most diver training agencies.
casualties suffering from major bleeding.

148 Appendices
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 First aid

Barotrauma/DCI
The most serious pressure-related injuries (known Treatment:
as barotrauma) result from incorrect dive profiles • Treat as for shock
as well as rapid ascents resulting in decompression • Urgent evacuation
illness (DCI), which may include burst lung or lungs. • Check and record breathing and pulse and level
Symptoms can appear from within seconds to many of response every ten minutes
hours after surfacing from a dive. It is common for • Put in recovery position if unconscious
casualties to deny that anything is wrong.
Symptoms are
Fractures
• Weakness, paralysis, numbness, tingling Symptoms are:
• Vision problems, balance problems, confusion, • Sound at initial break, visible bone ends/
convulsions, unconciousness deformity/loss of power
• Large-joint pain • Pain, tenderness, swelling/bruising
• Skin itchiness or rash • Shock
Treatment Treatment
• Arrange immediate evacuation to recompression • Keep immobilised where the casualty is lying
facilities • Keep steady until splinted/gentle traction
• Lay casualty flat, administer 100-per-cent oxygen • Support in the most comfortable position
• If no other injuries or nausea, give isotonic fluids or • Dress open fractures before splinting
water • Don’t miss other less obvious conditions
• DO NOT attempt in-water treatment • Treat for shock
Shock Burns
In most accidents casualties will be suffering shock. Symptoms are:
Symptoms are • Severe pain at the site of injury, numbness
• Weakness, faintness, giddiness, anxiousness, if a deep burn
restlessness • Sometimes blistering, grey, charred, peeling skin
• Nausea, vomiting, thirst, cold clammy skin, profuse • Shock
sweating Treatment
• Shallow rapid breathing, rapid weak pulse • Reassure casualty and cool affected area
Treatment • Remove constrictions and protect affected area
• Treat prime cause, keep quiet, reassure, keep warm • DO NOT break blisters or apply lotions or adhesive
and comfortable dressings
• Lay down with legs raised (not if DCI involved), • Treat for shock
administer 100-per-cent oxygen
• Monitor condition, evacuate to medical attention
Dislocations
Symptoms are
External bleeding • Pain, limited or no articulation of joint
Look for signs of visible blood loss. • Deformity or abnormal appearance, swelling and
Treatment bruising
• Direct pressure or indirect pressure to pressure points Treatment
• Support and keep limb steady in most comfortable
Internal bleeding position.
Symptoms are • DO NOT attempt to reset o
• Signs of shock without obvious blood loss
• Pain out of all proportion to visible damage
• Pattern bruising, coughing/spitting blood, blood in
urine/faeces

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 Appendix four – BSAC history

The British Sub-Aqua Club – a brief history

The British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) was founded BSAC International, was created and a contract signed
in London in 1953 by a small number of pioneers of with a major Japanese trading company to create
diving in the UK. Their declared aim was ‘to promote BSAC Japan. The ensuing income has allowed BSAC
underwater exploration, science and safety’. Within to survive and continue to grow, as BSAC Japan has
a year this group numbered more than 100 and was developed into a major and respected player in the
officially recognised as the governing body for the more commercial Japanese diving market. It has also
then new sport of underwater swimming. By January served as a model for other international operations
1955 BSAC had more than 1,100 members and had including the development of BSAC Korea.
established its enduring branch system, forming After many years of co-habitation with the British
branches around the United Kingdom and overseas. Sports Council at various London addresses, BSAC
Already international in nature, in 1959 BSAC relocated its headquarters in 1990 to its own new
was a founding member of the World Underwater waterside office complex in Ellesmere Port, Cheshire.
Federation, CMAS. In 1959 the first BSAC Diving At its 40th Anniversary celebration banquet in the
Manual was published, the forerunner of what was historic London Guildhall, HRH The Prince of Wales,
destined to become a bestselling and highly respected BSAC President, presented the club with its own coat
range of diver training books and support materials. of arms. During the 1990s BSAC continued to develop
With its membership approaching 7,000, in 1965 BSAC and modernise its training programme, introducing
started recording and analysing all UK recreational the Ocean Diver entry-level course and a wide range
diving incidents, publicly reporting its findings in order of student and instructor support materials. In the
to improve diving safety. This continues today with 21st century BSAC has continued to embrace new
the annual publication of the much acclaimed BSAC technology, developing new courses on rebreathers
Incidents Report, covering all UK sport diving incidents. and mixed gases, and in 2007 became one of the first
The UK’s adoption of the metric system in 1972 was also agencies to include nitrox use in its entry-level diver
marked by the publication of a metric version of the training programme. To maintain and develop its
Royal Navy decompression tables, specially designed overseas branches, centres and franchises without
for BSAC. This table was the forerunner of the BSAC ’88 encumbrance, BSAC separated from CMAS and
Decompression Tables, which in turn were the first to strengthened its ties with the European Underwater
be totally designed for recreational diving. They cover Federation (EUF). Joining the Internet revolution
sea level and altitude diving, and have been expanded BSAC launched its own website in 1996 at www.bsac.
to cover nitrox diving. com – a project which now offers online information,
Responding to the expansion of the recreational product sales and course bookings and has seen more
diving market, in 1976 BSAC launched its schools than 10,000,000 hits annually.
system. BSAC-recognised schools are independent In keeping with its long history of protecting British
businesses using BSAC-certified instructors to deliver divers’ interests in the development of European
the BSAC diver-training programme and award BSAC Standards for diving equipment, BSAC has also
qualifications. BSAC celebrated its 25th Anniversary played a leading role in the development of European
with a banquet at the Mansion House in London together Standards for diving services, covering diver training
with its new President, HRH the Prince of Wales. instructors and dive centres.
As the club continued to grow, reaching more With around 30,000 members registered through
than 30,000 members in 1979, it was re-organised as the UK HQ, BSAC is the world’s largest diving club
a company limited by guarantee. The removal of besides being the oldest and one of the most respected
administrative financial support following changes international diver training agencies. Its policy of
in government policy meant BSAC had to seek continuous development and improvement ensures it
additional income streams. The range of manuals was is at the forefront of safe yet adventurous diving and
increased and other opportunities to realise the value diver training.
of the BSAC’s unique experience and knowledge were Those interested in joining BSAC can obtain details
explored. In 1987 a wholly owned subsidiary company, at www.bsac.com

150 Appendices
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 Appendix five - BSAC organisation

BSAC organisation
In most countries around the world, the national
recreational-diving federations are comprised of
numerous independent diving clubs, creating a
hierarchical structure where control is vested in club
presidents rather than individual divers. BSAC has
a unique ‘flat’ structure where individual divers are
full members of the club, either as direct members
or through membership of a BSAC branch. All full
members possess equal voting rights and have equal
rights of election to the BSAC Council, with the
exception of two positions, those of the Honorary
Treasurer and the National Diving Officer, which
require additional technical qualification.
Branches reflect this structure, being largely
autonomous organisations made up of BSAC members
following model constitutions approved by the parent
club and are run by an elected committee. In order to
train divers, branches must use instructors who hold
BSAC-issued qualifications and follow the current
BSAC training programme.
Initially, diving in Britain developed through the trips are arranged as family activities, making diving
ability of branches to provide the infrastructure more accessible both socially and economically for those
needed by divers – access to swimming pools for with families, and enabling partners and even children
training, compressors for cylinder filling, boats for to participate. Note that BSAC have a minimum age
dive site access – coupled with the knowledge and of 12 years for scuba use, though some branches set a
expertise required to learn and develop diving skills. In higher limit or require immediate parental supervision.
addition to this, most branches also offer an enjoyable Some special branches draw members from limited
social aspect to diving and the attraction that because social groups such as universities, companies or the
the instructors, though fully qualified, are unpaid military, and these branches may not be able to accept
volunteers training is inexpensive. the general public as members.
Today, entry-level diver training can also be The wide range of branch diving makes it the ideal
obtained through a number of commercial diving way to broaden and develop diving experience, and
centres, many of which use BSAC-qualified instructors the full range of services offered by BSAC is available to
to deliver BSAC training. These centres can more members. On offer is a wide range of skill development
easily offer training tailored to suit a busy customer’s courses (SDCs), some of these branch-run and some
requirements when time is at a premium. Of course, organised at regional level by the BSAC Coaching
centres are independent commercial entities and have Scheme. Because of the extensive range of advanced
to charge commercial rates in order to survive. To training events offered by BSAC, and the unique
enhance their service, some centres also offer more opportunities for gaining experience in its branches,
advanced training, often including diving in more many divers and instructors trained by other agencies
exotic waters as part of the package. join the club to develop their diving. Such divers are
Most branches, as well as offering training, have a welcomed by branches or can join BSAC directly
comprehensive diving programme organised by the with full recognition of their previous training and
branch committee, using either branch-owned boats experience. Many SDCs are also open to non-members
or hired vessels. Some of these activities are week-long through BSAC Centres and Regional Coaching.
expeditions, possibly using chartered liveaboards, or
organised trips to overseas dive locations. Many such

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 Appendix six – Qualifications

Diver grade progression

First
Ocean Sports Dive Advanced
Class
Diver Diver Leader Diver
Diver

Theory
Instructor
Assistant Open
Advanced National
Diving Water
Instructor Instructor
Instructor Instructor
Practical
Instructor
Instructor
Trainer

Instructor grade progression

The coloured blocks indicate the minimum diver level required in order to take the instructor qualification

BSAC diver qualifications BSAC Dive Leader

To reach this level divers will require considerable dive
BSAC Ocean Diver management and rescue management skills and be
This grade allows divers to dive autonomously with competent in organising and leading diving groups.
others of the same or higher grades. Divers are trained Their dive planning, conduct and navigational abilities
to elementary buddy rescue level. Dives are limited will qualify them to act as dive guides. This grade has EUF
to a depth of 20m operating in waters similar to those accreditation to EN-14153-3 ‘Dive Leader’ standard.
they have trained in. Ocean Divers are not trained to
conduct dives requiring in-water decompression stops
BSAC Advanced Diver
or to dive without more experienced surface support. This grade requires that divers have considerable
This grade has European Underwater Federation diving experience and have developed their skills to
(EUF) accreditation to EN 14153-2 ‘Autonomous a level that enables them to competently organise and
Diver’ standard. lead diving expeditions. They will have additional
experience in managing diving in a wide range
BSAC Sports Diver of conditions and circumstances.
At this level, divers may dive autonomously to a depth
of 35m in waters that match their previous training
BSAC First Class Diver
and experience. They can also conduct dives requiring This grade demands a higher than average level
in-water decompression and are trained in more of theoretical knowledge and organisational and
comprehensive rescue skills, including basic surface personal diving skills. First Class Divers have a
resuscitation. broad range of practical experience and are capable
This grade has EUF accreditation to ISO 11107 ‘Nitrox of planning, organising and leading advanced level
Diver’ standard for students completing the post 2007 diving expeditions. This grade is awarded following a
qualification or completing the Nitrox Workshop. nationally conducted assessment.
152 Appendices
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 Qualifications

BSAC instructor qualifications Buoyancy standards

BSAC has defined four levels of buoyancy control
BSAC Assistant Diving Instructor and Qualification Cards are allocated to match the
A BSAC Sports Diver or above who has received performance. The standards are based upon the diver
training in instructional techniques which allows him being able to hold a stop, for two minutes, at a depth
or her to teach lessons under supervision. of six metres or less.
±2m Bronze
BSAC Theory Instructor ±1m Silver
A BSAC instructor who has received training in ±0.5m Gold (BSAC recommended level for maintaining
instructional techniques and theory assessment which decompression stops)
allows him or her to provide instruction in diving ±0.3m Black
theory subjects.
BSAC Practical Instructor
A BSAC instructor who has received training in practical
instructional techniques and limited assessment which +3m
allows him or her to provide instruction in practical
diving skills. Unacceptable
BSAC Open Water Instructor +2m
A BSAC instructor who is qualified to teach both
theoretical and practical diving in classrooms, and in Beginner
both sheltered and open-water environments. This
+1m
grade has EUF accreditation to EN-14413-2 ‘Instructor
Level 2’ standard.
BSAC Advanced Instructor
+0.5m
A BSAC Open Water Instructor with considerable
diving and instructional experience who has received 0m
further training and assessment. Advanced Instructors
are qualified to teach a wide range of skills and to -0.5m
supervise the work of other instructors.
BSAC Instructor Trainer
A BSAC Advanced Instructor who has received further -1m
instruction and assessment enabling him or her to
participate in the BSAC Instructor Training Scheme as Beginner
a trainer of other instructors. -2m
BSAC National Instructor
Unacceptable
To gain this qualification, the highest BSAC instructor
grade, the candidate must have previously qualified -3m
as a BSAC First Class Diver. National Instructors are
used in the training and assessment of other instructors
and as team leaders in the BSAC Instructor Training
Scheme.
Note: All BSAC instructors are trained and assessed through
the nationally organised BSAC Instructor Training Scheme.

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 Appendix seven – Code of Conduct

Divers’ Code of Conduct

The BSAC Divers’ Code of Conduct is designed to • Avoid diving in fairways or areas of heavy surface
encourage good behaviour at dive sites and when traffic and observe the International Regulations
diving, and to ensure that divers do not come into for Preventing Collisions at Sea. Commercial traffic
conflict with other water users. usually has restricted manoeuvring capability.
• Always fly the diving flag when conducting diving
Dive planning operations, but not when the boat is in transit.
Contact the nearest BSAC branch or centre local Do not leave boats unattended.
to the dive site for advice on local conditions and • Do not come in to bathing beaches under power, do
regulations. use any special approach lanes and avoid creating
unnecessary wash in restricted waterways or
At the dive site moorings.
• Obtain permission before diving in restricted areas, • Use surface marker buoys where appropriate.
such as harbours, estuaries or private waters. • Respect local bylaws, regulations and customs.
• Thank all the relevant parties before you leave and
ensure any dues are paid. On conservation
• Avoid overcrowding sites and show consideration • Do not use a spear-gun when scuba diving.
to other users. • Collecting marine creatures of any kind is
• Park sensibly, avoiding obstruction and damage to damaging to the environment and often subject
verges. Use proper car parks and pay parking fees. to legal control. Take photographs and notes, not
• Keep launching ramps and slipways clear and be specimens.
economical with use of space.
• Keep the peace, do not operate compressors or boat On wrecks
and car engines unsociably. • Do not dive on a designated, protected wreck site
• Do not litter. Close gates. Be careful about fires. without specific authority. These are generally
Avoid any damage to land or crops. indicated on charts and marked by buoys or
• Obey special instructions such as National Trust warning notices on the shore nearby.
rules, local bylaws and regulations about camping • Do not disturb anything that appears to be of
and caravanning. historical importance.
• Remember, our equipment makes divers • If you discover a wreck, do not disturb anything
conspicuous and bad behaviour can result in future and report its position and any other details to the
restrictions. relevant authorities.
• Be aware that many wrecks involved loss of life
In and on the water and as such can be sensitive areas and deserve
• Make your boats identifiable, this can help rescue respect.
agencies and shows you have nothing to hide. • Follow BSAC wreck policy – look, don’t touch:
• Seek advice about, and permission for, launching more detailed advice on wreck diving is published
and follow it. on BSAC website: www.bsac.com
• Inform the coastguard or a responsible person of
your operational plan and report when your diving Diving freedoms stem from responsible diving, it is up
is complete. to us as divers to behave sensibly and sociably – and
• Avoid diving near buoys, pots and pot markers. keep to the Divers’ Code. o
• Ask local fishermen where it is advisable not to
dive.
• Avoid disturbing local wildlife such as sea bird
or seal colonies.

154 Appendices
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Notes

Appendices 155
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Index
neutral 21, 38, 42, 43, 50
A
positive 38
A-clamp 37, 86 snorkelling 111
alternative breathing gas 113 standards 153
alternate source (AS) 45, 81-83, 92, surface 38, 41, 115, 124
101, 114-116
archaeology 138
C
asthma 73
carbon dioxide 62, 63, 112
centre-spine ladders 50, 108, 109
B
circulatory system 67
backward roll 42, 106, 107 code of conduct 154
barotrauma 149 cold and heat 72
BC 25, 29, 37, 81, 83, 89-91 blood flow 72
blood 149 hydrocution 72
boat diving 104 hyperthermia 72
backward roll 42, 106, 107 hypothermia 72
centre-spine ladders 50, 108, 109 wind-chill 72
diver lift 107 compasses 97
diving platforms 107 compressors 87
equipment stowage 107 computers 77
propellers 50, 106, 109, 137 algorithm 77
rigid inflatable boats (RIB) 51, 106 ascent speed violations 78
shot-line 106, 107 microprocessor 77
stride entry 41, 107 transducer 77
bootees 28 contents gauge 37, 67
breathing 44, 45 conversions and calculations 146
exhalation 63
gas consumption 64, 86
D
inhalation 63
mechanism 62 decompression illness (DCI) 69, 71,
underwater 25 149
British Sub-Aqua Club (BSAC) 150 decompression stops 70
buoyancy standards 153 decompression tables 144
diver qualifications 152 hyperbaric chambers 70
history 150 symptoms 149
instructor qualifications 153 depth gauges 76
organisation 151 descending 42
bronchi 62 DIN 37, 86
buddy diving 100 dive cylinder certification 85
buddy checklist 101 dive cylinders 84
buddy rescue 116 dive manager 39, 51, 103, 106
buoyancy 48, 49, 115, 124 dive planning 69, 70, 154
compensator 25, 29, 37, 81, 83, 89-91 diver certification 19, 142, 152
effect of diving suit 44, 49, 93-95 diver lift 107
emergency 81, 115 drowning 148

156 Index
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Index
I am on reserve 35 metric and imperial 146
E
I am out of breath 35 mouthpiece 25, 44, 83
ears 26 I have no more breathing gas 35
equalising 26 something is wrong 35
N
emergency ascent 115 stop 34
entering the water 41 hearing 123 nasal passages 27
backward roll 42, 106, 107 heart 62 neoprene 94
diving platforms 107 hyperventilation 112 neutral buoyancy 21, 38, 42, 43, 50
forward roll 42 hypoxia 68 nitrogen 62
shore dive 40 absorption 68
stride entry 41, 107 bubbles 69
I
entry-level training 19 compression 68
diver certification 19, 142, 152 inland dive sites 125 decompression 68
integrated weights 91 decompression illness 69, 70, 149
narcosis 71
F
off-gassing 68
K
finning 43, 44, 124 tissues 68
fins 28 kitting up 38 nitrogen loads 70
first aid 148 A-clamp 37 nitrox 63, 65, 71, 85, 87
administering oxygen 149 buoyancy compensator 29 computers 77
barotrauma/DCI 149 checklist 37 decompression tables 144
basic life support 148 cylinder valves 86 maximum operating depth 66, 85
burns 149 DIN 37 no clear surface 59
chest compressions 148 O-ring 37
dislocations 149 regulators 79
O
external bleeding 149 knives 78
fractures 149 octopush 139
internal bleeding 149 oxygen 62, 66
L
rescue breaths 148 analyser 89
shock 149 leaving the water 50 deprivation 66
food chain 54, 56 ladder 109 excess 66
rigid inflatable boats 51 exposure 66
light 54 maximum operating depth 66
G
lights 97 oxygen administration 142
gas consumption 64, 86 logbook 51
gravity 124 lunar cycle 127
P
lungs 24, 62
photography 133
H
plant and animal life 57
M
hand signals 35 pressure
ascend 35 marine life 59, 130 ambient pressure 64
descend 35 mask 28 body cavities 24
okay at surface 35 mask clearing 46 partial pressures 65
distress at surface 35 maximum operating depth (MOD) 66, pressure changes 44
I am in distress 35 85 sea level 24
I am okay 34 medical conditions 73 squeeze 44

Index 157
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Index
propellers 50, 106, 109, 138 sinuses 27 checks 38
propulsion 28 smoking 68 correct weighting 42
protective clothing 31, 93 snorkelling 110 integrated 91
drysuits 94 duck dive 111 weight belt 38
Lycra 31 pressure 24 jettisoning 101, 115
neoprene 31 sound 123 wetsuits 31, 93
wetsuits 31, 93 stride entry 41, 107 windpipe 62
surface interval 70 wings 90
surface movement 127 wrecks 137, 154
R
swimming 18
recovery position 148
refraction 121
T
regulators
alternate source (AS) 45, 81-83, 92, 101, temperature 72
114-116 thermocline 125
alternative breathing gas 83 thermometers 78
balanced piston regulator first stage 82 tidal flows 127
checks 38 torches 97
mouthpiece 25, 44, 83
piston second stage 83
U
purge button 45
removal 45 underwater hockey 139
second stage 79 underwater rugby 139
regulator second stage 81
rescue 115
V
alternative source (AS) 114
controlled buoyant lift 116 valves 86
towing 117 A-clamp 37, 86
respiration 62 DIN 37, 86
rigid inflatable boats (RIB) 51, 106 O-ring 86
rivers 125 video 133
visibility 54, 125
marine organisms 54
S
plankton 56
safety stop 50 vision 27, 121
scuba unit 25, 29, 37, 39, 80 contact lenses 27
buoyancy compensators 89 lenses 27
diving cylinders 84 mask 27
regulators 79 saliva 27
seasickness 73 spectacles 27
seaweeds 57
self-rescue 115
W
buoyancy 124
weightbelt 91 watches 76
shot line 106, 107 wave action 127
signals 34 weight

158 Index
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Index 159
Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106
 Photographs
Bob Brading:
pages 17, top left, bottom right; 18; 19; 20; 21; 30; 36; 37; 38, left; 39; 40;
41; 42; 43; 48, right; 50; 51; 54, left; 57, right; 59; 66; 68; 69; 72; 84, right; 85;
87; 96; 100; 103; 104; 105; 106; 107; 108; 109; 114; 115; 116; 117; 124; 126;
127; 131, worm, nudibranch and ray; 133, right; 134, right; 138; 139, left;
140; 141; 142; 143. Thanks to Sophie Rennie for modelling and assisting
with photographs

Julian Calverley:
chapter breaks, pages 14; 22; 32; 52; 60; 74; 98; 118; 128; 156; 159.

DIVE magazine:
pages 31, right; 45; 70; 77; 78; 79; 81; 125; left.

Charles Hood:
pages 17, except top left and bottom right; 25; 27; 29; 31, right 38, left;
44; 47; 48, left; 54, right; 55; 56, left; 57, left; 58; 67; 80; 84, left; 88; 89; 90;
92; 93; 95; 101; 102; 112; 120; 122; 123; 130; 131, except nudibranch, worm
and ray; 132; 135; 136; 137; 139, right.

Peter Rowands:
page 133.

Gavin Newman:
page 135.

Simon Rogerson:
pages 73; 110.

Douglas David Seifert:

page 56, right.

Suunto:
page 76.

British Sub-Aqua Club gratefully acknowledges the assistance

provided by numerous members, schools, and friends in the diving
trade in the development of this book.

Cover photograph by Charles Hood

Photographs 161
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 The Diving
Manual
by Deric Ellerby
The British Sub-Aqua Club is the largest recreational diving club
in the world and the governing body of scuba diving in the UK.
Established for 50 years, the club has been responsible for the
training of hundreds of thousands of scuba divers all over the
world and is at the forefront of diver training.

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BSAC has distilled a vast amount of information into user-friendly
bite-size chunks. Authoritatively written chapters include coverage
of basic skills, techniques and the underwater environment.
The Diving Manual is an essential text for the new diver and will
provide useful information throughout diver training and beyond.

Cover photograph by Charles Hood

UK £25

Purchased by Anish Kulwal, [email protected] #19107106