INFILTRATION

techalive.mtu.edu/meec/module01/Infiltration.htm
INFILTRATION

• the passage of water

into the soil surface
• a key to successful
irrigation and water
conservation in
rainfed agriculture
• an important hydrologic process that must be considered
in drainage and flood control work
• replenishes soil moisture, recharges aquifers and
ultimately supports streamflows during dry periods
• generally has a high initial rate that diminishes with time
PERCOLATION – passage of water through the soil
 INFILTRATION

• infiltration may be considered as a 3-stage sequence of

(1) surface entry
(2) filling up of soil profile storage potential
(3) movement of water within the soil profile
• in a relatively dry soil, infiltration is governed by soil
surface conditions since there is available soil moisture
storage to receive water entering the soil
• the soil moisture storage potential is essentially the soil
porosity
• exhaustion of this storage potential constitutes a transition
from a surface entry type of flow control to the ultimate
saturated flow of water through the soil profile.
 INFILTRATION

FACTORS AFFECTING INFILTRATION

1. The Fluid (water)
• rate of application/rainfall -  flow rate,  infiltration
• viscosity -  viscosity,  infiltration
• turbidity -  turbidity,  infiltration
•  depth of standing water over the soil surface,
infiltration
2. The Medium (soil)
• porosity –  porosity,  moisture holding capacity,
 permeability
• structure – more stable the soil aggregates are, the
higher is the soil capability to store and transmit water
• mineralogy – determines the degree of swelling upon
wetting
 INFILTRATION

Lateritic soils – non-swelling and have  infiltration rate

Montmorillonitic clay soils – cracks upon drying and have 
initial infiltration rates; but they swell upon wetting, thus,
have  permeability
3. Vegetation and cultural practices
• Vegetal cover protects the soil against raindrop energy
and improves soil structure through production of
organic matter and root penetration
• Tillage practices loosens up the upper soil layer thereby
 rate of surface entry and  porosity of the plowed layer
• Compaction  porosity,  pore diameters and infiltration
4. Topography
• influences the characteristics of surface runoff and
interflow
• slope speeds up overland flow and, hence, the depth
and time distribution of direct runoff and infiltration
 INFILTRATION

MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION
1. Infiltrometers
a. Flooding type (Double ring infiltrometers)
• two open-ended cylinders embedded into the soil
• a constant head is maintained inside the inner ring
where measurement is made
• the same depth is maintained at the outer ring to
minimize errors due to lateral flow at the inner ring

inner ring water

supply tank metering
tube

outer
ring

inner
ring buffer

www.sdec-france.com
 INFILTRATION

a. Flooding type (Double ring

infiltrometers) cont.
• advantage: simplicity and ease of
measurement
• disadvantage: small area being
sampled; maintenance of constant head
which may not reflect actual field
conditions

www.usyd.edu.au/.../double%20ring%20final.htm
 INFILTRATION

MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION
1. Infiltrometers
b. Rainfall simulator type
• water is applied at a predetermined rate comparable
with natural rainfall and surface runoff is measured
• the amount of water that infiltrated
into the plot is computed as the
difference between the water
applied and the surface runoff

www.eijkelkamp.com/LinkClick.aspx?link=129 www.ars.usda.gov/Main/docs.htm?docid=8114
 INFILTRATION

b. Rainfall simulator type cont.

• advantage: simulates natural rainfall conditions
• disadvantage: small sample area for an expensive
experimental set-up; complexity of construction and
field installation

www.wrl.unsw.edu.au/.../rainfall-simulator/
 INFILTRATION

b. Rainfall simulator type cont.

 INFILTRATION

b. Rainfall simulator type cont.

 INFILTRATION

b. Rainfall simulator type cont.

 INFILTRATION

b. Rainfall simulator type cont.

 INFILTRATION

MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION
2. Basin method
• same as flooding method but a large area is ponded
• rate of drop in the water depth is measured with time
• not practical; it is very difficult to measure the initial
infiltration rates
3. Watershed Hydrograph Method
• characterize infiltration through the subtraction of runoff
rates from rainfall rates in watersheds areas
• involves hydrograph analyses to separate surface runoff
from total streamflow as well as making corrections for
evapotranspiration and detention storages
• adv: resulting infiltration data is representative of the
entire catchment area
• disadv: large amount of data to be collected and
analyzed
www.sdec-france.com
 INFILTRATION

MEASUREMENT OF INFILTRATION
4. Lysimeter measurements

5. Soil temperature methods

6. Electromagnetic methods

7. Stream gauging

8. Chemical tracers and isotopes

9. Chloride mass balance

10. Numerical models based on Richard’s equation

www.sdec-france.com
 INFILTRATION

WATER INFILTRATION IN UNSATURATED ZONE

fc
 INFILTRATION

WATER INFILTRATION IN UNSATURATED ZONE

• 5 zones of the infiltration process
1. Saturated zone: pore space is filled with water
• generally extend only to a depth of a few mm
2. Transition zone: characterized by a rapid decrease in
water content with depth; approximately a few cm deep
3. Transmission zone: small change in water content with
depth; generally, a lengthening unsaturated zone with a
uniform higher water content
• hydraulic gradient is driven by gravitational forces
4. Wetting zone: water content sharply decreases with depth
to near the initial water content of the soil
5. Wetting front: characterized by a steep hydraulic gradient
and forms a sharp boundary between the wet and dry soil
• hydraulic gradient is driven by matric potentials
 INFILTRATION

WATER INFILTRATION IN UNSATURATED ZONE


Saturation Zone

Transition Zone

Transmission
Zone

Wetting Zone

Wetting Front
fc
depth
 INFILTRATION

INFILTRATION EQUATIONS
• may be expressed in either instantaneous rate (f ) or
cumulative depth (i) form
• infiltration rate curve shows a high initial rate that
diminishes towards a constant value at very large time
• the curve is a decay type function which can be expressed
into an equation with two or three parameters depending
on the magnitude of the constant infiltration rate (fc)

Cumulative depth, i
Instantaneous rate, f

fc

t t
0 time 0 time
 INFILTRATION

INFILTRATION EQUATIONS
• quick and easy way to estimate infiltration rate for the
purposes of preliminary analysis and decision-making
• scientifically-based using soil-hydraulic and climatic
parameters representative of the site conditions
• can be divided into 3 broad categories:
1. Empirical models
• simple equations; parameters are derived by curve-
fitting the equation to actual measurements
• do not give water content distribution
• Lewis-Kostiakov, Horton, Holtan, SCS equation
2. Green-Ampt models
• Green and Ampt (1911) derived the first physically
based equation describing infiltration of water into a soil
• Green and Ampt (1911), Bouwer (1969)
3. Richards equation models – Philip (1957)
 INFILTRATION

Empirical Equations
1. Gardner and Windsoe Equation (1921)
• suggested an inverse exponential equation to fit derived
infiltration curves
• for one dimensional downward infiltration of a given film
of ponded water over the soil surface

𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑡 + 𝐶2 1 − 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡

𝐶2 𝛽
𝑓 = 𝐶1 + 𝛽𝑡
𝑒

where: i = cumulative infiltration depth at time t

f = infiltration rate
C1, C2 and b = constants or parameters
 INFILTRATION

2. Lewis (1937) – Kostiakov (1932) Equation

• an empirical equation which assumes that the intake
rate declines over time according to a power function
• the major limitation of this expression is its reliance on
the zero final intake rate
i  c ta
f  c a t a 1

where: c and a = constants with 0 < a < 1

Mezencev (1957) equation – modified L-K for large times

i  fct  c t a
f  fc  c a t a 1
 INFILTRATION

3. Horton Equation (1940)

• continuous infiltration and wetting of the soil will
decrease infiltration due to decrease in soil profile
storage potential, in-washing of fine soil particles into
soil voids and swelling of soil colloids and closing of soil
cracks – indicates exhaustion phenomenon
• rate of performing work is proportional to the remaining
work to be done  df
  f  fc 
dt
fc = final or constant infiltration rate
• replacing the proportionality sign with a proportionality
constant (k) and arranging the terms
 df
 kdt
 f  fc 
 INFILTRATION

3. Horton Equation (1940) cont.

• integrating and applying the boundary condition f = fo
when t = 0, yields
𝑓 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡

fo = initial infiltration rate

• in cumulative infiltration depth form

𝑓𝑜 − 𝑓𝑐
𝑖 = 𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
𝑘
 INFILTRATION

4. SCS Equation
• USDA Soil Conservation Service (1957) developed an
equation for rainfall-runoff relationship based on daily
rainfall data as input:

𝑃 − 0.2𝑆 2
𝑅=
𝑃 + 0.8𝑆

𝑖 =𝑃−𝑅

where: P = daily rainfall; R = runoff

S = max. potential difference b/n RF and RO (mm)
initial abstraction, Ia = 0.2S, consists of interception
losses, surface storage, and infiltrated water
 INFILTRATION

Green and Ampt Equation (1911)

• assumed a piston-type water content profile with a well-
defined wetting front
• assumes the soil is saturated at a volumetric water
content of s (except for entrapped air) down to the
wetting front, where the water
content drops abruptly to an
antecedent value of o (initial
water content)
• soil-water pressure at the
surface, hs , is assumed to be
equal to the depth of the
ponded water
 INFILTRATION

Green and Ampt Equation (1911)

Green and Ampt Equation (1911)

D = increase in moisture Ponded Water

Ground Surface
h0
content as wetting front
passes 
Wetted Zone
y = Suction head at “sharp”
wetting front L
Conductivity, K
L = Wetted depth
Wetting Front y
K = Conductivity in
wetted zone
i D
h0 = Depth of water ponding
on surface (small) n
z Dry Soil
Green and Ampt Soil Water Variables

 = moisture content (volume of

water/total volume of soil)
Ground Surface
i = initial moisture content 
of dry soil before Wetted Zone
infiltration happens
r e
D = increase in moisture content L
as wetting front passes
Wetting Front
r = residual water content
of very dry soil
i D
e = effective porosity

n = porosity n

n = ϴ𝑟 + ϴ𝑒 n = ϴ𝑖 + Dϴ z Dry Soil
Green and Ampt Soil Water Variables

se = effective saturation
= ratio of the available moisture
to the maximum possible Ground Surface

available moisture content 

𝜃 − 𝜃𝑟 Wetted Zone
𝑠𝑒 =
𝑛 − 𝜃𝑟  r
e
L
= 0 ≤ 𝑠𝑒 ≤ 1.0 ; 𝜃𝑟 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝑛
Wetting Front
∆𝜃 = 1 − 𝑠𝑒 𝜃𝑒
i D

z Dry Soil
 INFILTRATION

Green and Ampt Equation (1911)

• at any time, t, the penetration of the infiltrating wetting
front will be Z. Darcy's law can be stated as follows:
Ponded Water
h0
• 𝑖 = 𝐿∆𝜃 = 𝐿 𝑛 − 𝜃𝑖 Ground Surface

𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝐿 Wetted Zone
• 𝑓 = 𝑑𝑡 = ∆𝜃 𝑑𝑡
Conductivity, K L
𝜕ℎ
• 𝑞𝑧 − 𝐾 = −𝑓
𝜕𝑧
Wetting Front y
• ℎ =𝜓+𝑧
i D
𝜕𝜓
• 𝑓= 𝐾 +𝐾
𝜕𝑧
n
z Dry Soil
 Ground Surface
Green and Ampt Soil Water Variables 
• apply finite difference to the Wetted Zone L

derivative, between
Wetting Front
– at ground surface, 𝑧 = 0, 𝜓 = 0
– wetting front 𝑧 = 𝐿, 𝜓 = 𝜓 i D

∆𝜓 𝜓−0 
𝑓=𝐾 +𝐾 =𝐾 +𝐾 z
∆𝑧 𝐿−0 Dry Soil

𝑖 
𝑖 = 𝐿∆𝜃; 𝐿 = f K K
∆𝜃 z

𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓=𝐾 +1
𝑖
Green and Ampt Soil Water Variables
f, i i
𝜓∆𝜃
𝑓=𝐾 +1
𝑖

𝑖
𝑖 = 𝐾𝑡 + 𝜓∆𝜃𝑙𝑛 1 + f
𝜓∆𝜃

t
Nonlinear equation, requiring iterative solution
Green and Ampt – Ponding Time

• Elapsed time between the time rainfall begins and the

time water begins to pond on the soil surface (tp)
Green and Ampt – Ponding Time

Infiltration rate, f
• Up to the time of ponding, all Potential
Infiltration
rainfall has infiltrated (r =
rainfall rate) i Rainfall

f r i  r *t p Actual Infiltration

 yD  Time
f  K  1 Accumulated

Infiltration, F
Rainfall

Cumulative
 i  Infiltration

 yD 
rK   1
 r *t  Fp  i * t p
 p 

KyD
tp
r (r  K ) tp Time
 INFILTRATION

Richard’s Equation (1931)

• based on Darcy’s Law and Conservation of mass
• describe relationships between soil properties on which
infiltration depends:
a. hydraulic conductivity (K),
b. diffusivity – rate of change in water content with soil water
𝑑ℎ
pressure; 𝐷 𝜃 = 𝐾(ℎ) 𝑑𝜃
c. water holding capacity – slope of the soil-water retention
𝑑𝜃
curve: 𝐶 ℎ = 𝑑ℎ
𝑑ℎ
• as → ∞; 𝑑𝜃 → 0
𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝜃
• at saturation 𝐶 ℎ = =0
𝑑ℎ
 INFILTRATION

Richard’s Equation (1931)

𝜕𝐻
• from Darcy’s Law 𝑞 = −𝐾 𝜕𝑧 where H = h + z

• by Conservation of mass, change in water content wrt

time is equal to the change in specific flow rate
𝜕𝜃 −𝜕𝑞
• = assuming in the vertical z-direction only
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜃 𝜕 𝜕𝐻 𝜕 𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝐾(ℎ) 𝜕𝑧
• 𝜕𝑡
= 𝜕𝑧
𝐾(ℎ) 𝜕𝑧 = 𝜕𝑧
𝐾(ℎ) 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 ; H=h+z

• using chain rule

𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝜃 𝜕ℎ 𝑑𝜃
• = since 𝐶 ℎ =
𝜕𝑡 𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝑡 𝑑ℎ

𝜕ℎ 𝜕 𝜕ℎ 𝜕𝐾(ℎ)
𝐶 ℎ = 𝐾(ℎ) +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
• h-based Richard’s eq’n for saturated/unsaturated conditions
 INFILTRATION

Richard’s Equation (1931)

𝑑ℎ
• since 𝐷 𝜃 = 𝐾 ℎ 𝑑𝜃
𝜕𝜃 𝜕 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝐾(𝜃)
= 𝐷(𝜃) 𝜕𝑧 + 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧

• -based Richard’s equation for unsaturated conditions

• cannot be used for soils at or near saturation
𝑑𝜃 → 0; 𝐷(𝜃) → ∞

• Numerical solutions to Richard’s equation requires

numerous measurements
 INFILTRATION

4. Philip Equation (1957)

• analyzed infiltration as a general phenomenon of water
movement in a porous medium where the total potential
comprises of the gravitational and capillary pressures as
a function of soil moisture content

𝜕𝜃 𝜕 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝐾
= 𝐷 −
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

where: k = unsaturated hydraulic conductivity; k = k(y)

 = volumetric moisture content
y = y () = capillary potential or soil moisture potential
D = diffusivity
z = vertical coordinate
 INFILTRATION

Philip Equation (1957) cont.

• using numerical integration technique, arrived at the ff.
solution which is a power series expansion
1 3
i  St 2  At  B t 2  ...
where: S, A and B are constants
S = Sorptivity, property of the soil which is a measure of
the capillary uptake and has some resemblance to
hydraulic conductivity
A = index of the gravitational term
 INFILTRATION

Philip Equation (1957) cont.

• this equation is a rapidly converging series which can be
truncated after the first two terms without much loss in
accuracy. Thus,

1ൗ
𝑖 = 𝑆𝑡 2 + 𝐴𝑡

−1ൗ
𝑆𝑡 2
𝑓= +𝐴
2
 INFILTRATION

EVALUATION OF CONSTANT PARAMETERS

1. Lewis – Kostiakov Equation
i  c ta ; f  c a ta 1
where c and a are constants with 0 < a < 1
• implies that as t  , f  0
• possible if the soil is underlain by an impermeable layer or
for small time values in soils with pervious layers
• the cumulative form of the equation will plot as a straight
line on log-log paper, that is:

log i = log c + a log t (y = mx + b)

• cumulative infiltration depths (i) are plotted against

infiltration time on a log-log paper
 INFILTRATION

Cumulative infiltration curve (Lewis-Kostiakov equation)

 INFILTRATION

1. Lewis – Kostiakov Equation (cont.)

• the best fitting straight line is drawn and the goodness of fit
is evaluated through eyeball estimate or with the use of
statistical tests such as Chi-square test
• log c and a are the intercept and slope, respectively
e.g. at t = 1, log i = log c because log 1 = 0; thus, c = i

log  i1 
a  i2 
log  t1 
 t2 
 INFILTRATION

2. Horton Equation

f  fc   fo  fc e -kt
i  fc t
k
 fo  fc 
1  e-kt 
• contains three parameters (fc, fo and k) that have to be
evaluated experimentally
• k tends to vary with time, thus, requiring two or more
equations each representing a given time interval
• steps in evaluating the parameters
a. Plot infiltration rate with time on arithmetic scale paper
and draw a free hand curve connecting most points.
b. Determine fc directly from the curve (or the table).
c. From the curve, select two points with the pair of values
(t1, f1) and (t2, f2)
 INFILTRATION

Infiltration rate curve (Horton and Philip equation)

 INFILTRATION

2. Horton Equation (cont.)

• steps in evaluating the parameters
d. Set two equations with the pair of coordinates,
f1  f c   f o  f c  e  k t1
f 2  fc   fo  fc e k t2
Transposin g
f o  f c   f1  f c  e k t1   f 2  f c  e k t 2

e. Solve for k and fo using the equations:

ln
 f1  f c 
k
 f 2  fc  f o  f c   f1  f c  e k t1  f c   f 2  f c  e k t 2
t2  t1 
 INFILTRATION

2. Horton Equation (cont.)

• in many instances, Horton equation will not fit exactly the
infiltration test data, implying that k is not really constant
but varies with time.
• two options may be performed:

a. Estimate fo from the infiltration rate curve (f vs. t). The k

value that gives a computed fo closest to the estimated fo
should be chosen.

b. Use a certain k value for a given time interval. This

implies one equation for each time interval.
 INFILTRATION

3. Philip Equation
 12
1 St
i  S t  At
2 f  A
2
• has the strongest theoretical background and has been
found to be very accurate especially for large values of t
• S and A are not empirical factors (they can be determined
from soil moisture data)
• steps in evaluating the parameters:
 12
a. Select two pair of points, S t1
f1  A
(t1, f1) and (t2, f2) 2
b. Set the two equations  12
S t2
corresponding to these points f2  A
2
c. Solve for S and substitute S   12  12 
this value into either of the f1  f 2   t1  t2 
2 
two equations to determine A
 INFILTRATION

Plot of infiltration rate, f vs time t

600.0

500.0

LK H P2

400.0
f, mm/hr

300.0

200.0

100.0

0.0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
time, hrs
Green and Ampt Example

1. Use the Table to determine appropriate parametersfor a

given soil type (or use field measured parameters)
2. Given K, t, y and D, determine the value of i by
iteration (a good trial value is i = Kt).
3. The final value of cumulative infiltration i is substituted
into the equation for instantaneous infiltration rate f.
4. Do this for each desired time increments.
Green and Ampt Parameters

Residual Effective Suction Conductivity

Texture Porosity n
Porosity ϴr Porosity ϴe Head ψ (cm) K (cm/hr)
Sand 0.437 0.020 0.417 4.95 11.78
Loamy Sand 0.437 0.036 0.401 6.13 2.99
Sandy Loam 0.453 0.041 0.412 11.01 1.09
Loam 0.463 0.029 0.434 8.89 0.34
Silt Loam 0.501 0.015 0.486 16.68 0.65
Sandy Clay
Loam 0.398 0.068 0.330 21.85 0.15
Clay Loam 0.464 0.155 0.309 20.88 0.10
Silty Clay Loam 0.471 0.039 0.432 27.30 0.10
Sandy Clay 0.430 0.109 0.321 23.90 0.06
Silty Clay 0.470 0.047 0.423 29.22 0.05
Clay 0.475 0.090 0.385 31.63 0.03