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Advanced electrical and electronics materials processes
and applications 1st Edition K. M. Gupta Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): K. M. Gupta, Nishu Gupta, Ashutosh Tiwari
ISBN(s): 9781118998359, 1118998359
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 7.49 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
Advanced Electrical and Electronics
Materials
 Scrivener Publishing
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Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Advanced Materials Series

The Advanced Materials Series provides recent advancements of the fascinating
field of advanced materials science and technology, particularly in the area of
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and applications. The volumes will cover theoretical and experimental approaches
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Series Editor: Dr. Ashutosh Tiwari

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Linköping University
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Sweden
E-mail: [email protected]

Publishers at Scrivener
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Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Advanced Electrical and
Electronics Materials
Processes and Applications

K.M. Gupta and Nishu Gupta

Copyright © 2015 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.

Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem,
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Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Cover design by Russell Richardson

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Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Dedicated to
my respected mother BELA,
father (Late) Ram Nath,
Godfather (Late) Lakhan Lal,
father-in-law (Late) Kishori Lal,
brother-in-law and sister: Jawahar and Savitri,
nephew (Late) Jayant (Babul)
and
all forefathers and foremothers
whose
blessings have always been a boon in my life
Contents

Preface xxxv
Acknowledgement xxxvii
About the Authors xxxix
Abbreviations xli

1 General Introduction to Electrical and Electronic Materials 1

1.1 Importance of Materials 1
1.2 Importance of Electrical and Electronic Materials 2
1.3 Classification of Electrical and Electronic Materials 3
1.3.1 Conductors 4
1.3.2 Semiconductors 4
1.3.3 Dielectrics 5
1.3.4 Superconductors 6
1.3.5 Magnetic Materials 7
1.3.6 Ferrites 7
1.3.7 Ferroelectrics 8
1.3.8 Piezoelectrics 8
1.3.9 Perovskites (Titanates, Zirconates, Hafnates) 8
1.3.10 Spinels, Garnets, and Magnetoplumbite 9
1.4 Scope of Electrical and Electronic Materials 9
1.5 Requirements of Engineering Materials 11
1.6 Operational Requirements of Electrical and
Electronic Materials 13
1.6.1 High and Low Temperature (Service) Materials 14
1.6.2 High Voltage (Service) Materials 14
1.7 Classification of Solids on the Basis of Energy Gap 15
1.7.1 Energy Gap for Different Solids 16

vii
viii Contents

1.7.2 Comparison among Conductors, Semiconductors

and Insulators 17
1.8 Glimpse of Some Electronic Products, Their
Working Principles and Choicest Materials 18
1.9 Different Types of Engineering Materials 19
1.9.1 Metals 19
1.9.2 Non-Ferrous Metals 19
1.9.3 Ceramics 19
1.9.4 Organic Polymers 20
1.9.5 Alloys 20
1.9.6 Composites 21
1.10 Different Levels of Materials Structure 21
1.10.1 Micro-Structure Levels 21
1.10.2 Dimensional Range and Examples 22
1.11 Spintronics (The Electronics of Tomorrow)
and Spintronic Materials 22
1.11.1 Major Fields of Spintronic Research 23
1.11.2 Operational Mechanisms of Spintronic Devices 23
1.11.3 Working Principle of Spintronic Devices 24
1.11.4 Emerging and Futuristic Spintronic Materials 24
1.12 Ferromagnetic Semiconductor 24
1.12.1 Emerging Wide Bandgap Semiconductors 25
1.13 Left-Handed (LH) Materials 26
1.14 Solved Examples 27
Review Questions 29
Objective Questions 30

2 Atomic Models, Bonding in Solids, Crystal Geometry, and

Miller Indices 33
2.1 Atomic Models 33
2.2 Bohr’s Quantum Atomic Model 33
2.2.1 Radii of Orbits, Velocity and Frequency of Electrons 35
2.2.2 Normal, Excited and Ionized Atoms 36
2.2.3 Kinetic and Potential Energy of Electron 36
2.3 Modern Concept of Atomic Model 37
2.3.1 De Broglie Wave 37
2.3.2 Wavelength of Electron Wave 37
2.3.3 Concept of Standing Wave 38
 Contents ix

2.4 Electron Configuration 39

2.5 Meaning of Chemical (or Atomic) Bonding 40
2.6 Classification of Chemical Bonds 40
2.7 Ionic Bond 41
2.8 Covalent Bonds 42
2.8.1 Types of Covalent Bonds 42
2.8.2 Bond Angle 43
2.8.3 Directional and Non-Directional Bonds 44
2.8.4 Mixed bonds 44
2.9 Monocrystalline and Polycrystalline Crystal Structures 45
2.9.1 Construction of a solid 45
2.10 Space Lattice 46
2.11 Basis 46
2.12 Unit Cell and Crystal 47
2.13 Bravais Crystal System 48
2.14 Primitive and Non-Primitive Unit Cells 51
2.15 Coordination Number 52
2.16 Atomic Packing Fraction 52
2.17 Calculation of Density (or Bulk Density) 55
2.18 Miller Indices 55
2.18.1 Determining the Miller Indices
of a Given Plane 56
2.18.2 Drawing a Plane Whose Miller
Indices are Given 58
2.18.3 Drawing a Plane which is Parallel to an Axis 58
2.18.4 Planes with Negative Indices 59
2.18.5 Family of Planes 59
2.18.6 Miller Indices: Crystallographic Notation of
Atomic Crystal Directions 60
2.19 Interplaner Spacing 61
2.20 Linear Density 62
2.21 Planer Density 63
2.21.1 Planer Density in Face Centred Cube (FCC) on
(100) Plane 63
2.21.2 Planer Density in FCC on (110) Plane 63
2.21.3 Planer Density in FCC on (111) Plane 64
Quick Revision Summary 64
Review Questions 64
x Contents

Numerical Questions 66
Objective Questions 69

3 Solid Structures, Characterization of Materials, Crystal

Imperfections, and Mechanical Properties of Materials 71
3.1 Crystallography 71
3.2 Crystalline and Non-Crystalline Structures 72
3.3 Hexagonally Closed Packed Structure (HCP) 73
3.4 VOIDS 74
3.4.1 Tetrahedral Voids 74
3.4.2 Octahedral Void 74
3.5 Covalent Solids 75
3.5.1 Diamond Cubic (DC) Structure 75
3.6 Bragg’s Law of X-Rays Diffraction 76
3.6.1 Bragg’s Equation 77
3.6.2 Reflections from Various Sets 78
3.7 Structure Determination 78
3.8 Microscopy 79
3.8.1 Microscopic Principle 80
3.8.2 Ray Diagram and Principle of Magnification 81
3.8.3 Magnifying Power of Microscope 82
3.9 Different Types of Metallurgical Microscopes
and Their Features 82
3.10 Working Principle of Electron Microscope 84
3.10.1 Formation of Magnified Image 84
CRYSTAL IMPERFECTIONS 85
3.11 Ideal and Real Crystals, and Imperfections 85
3.11.1 Disadvantageous Effects of Imperfections 85
3.11.2 Advantageous Effect of Imperfection 86
3.12 Classification of Imperfections 86
3.13 Point Imperfections 87
3.13.1 Vacancy 87
3.13.2 Substitutional Impurity 87
3.13.3 Interstitial Impurity 88
3.13.4 Frenkel’s Defect 88
3.13.5 Schottky’s Defect 89
3.14 Effects of Point Imperfections 89
3.15 Line Imperfections 90
 Contents xi

3.16 Features of Edge Dislocation 90

3.17 Screw Dislocation 90
3.17.1 Stress-Strain Field in Screw Dislocation 90
3.18 Characteristics of Dislocations 92
3.18.1 Burgers Vectors of Dislocations
in Cubic Crystals 93
3.19 Sources of Dislocations, Their Effects and Remedies 93
3.19.1 Effects of Dislocations 94
3.19.2 Remedies to Minimize the Dislocations 94
3.20 Grain Boundary 95
3.20.1 Mechanism of grain boundary formation 95
3.21 Twin or Twinning 96
3.21.1 Annealing Twin and Deformation Twin 96
3.22 Mechanical Properties of Metals 97
3.22.1 Isotropic Anisotropic and Orthotropic Materials 97
3.22.2 Homogeneity and Heterogeneity 97
3.22.3 Strain Energy Absorbed by the Materials 98
3.22.4 Strength 99
3.22.5 Stiffness 100
3.22.6 Resilience, Proof Resilience and Toughness 100
3.22.7 Elasticity and Plasticity 101
3.22.8 Ductility and Brittleness 101
3.22.9 Malleability 103
3.22.10 Fatigue 103
3.22.11 Creep 103
3.22.12 Need of Different Properties for Different
Applications 104
3.22.13 Hardness 104
3.22.14 Impact 104
3.22.15 Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties 104
Review Questions 105
Numerical Problems 108

4 Conductive Materials: Electron Theories, Properties and

Behaviour 109
4.1 Electrons and Their Role in Conductivity 109
4.1.1 Valence and Free Electrons 109
4.2 Electron Theories of Solids 110
xii Contents

4.3 Free Electron Theory 110

4.3.1 Kinetic Energy in Terms of Wave Number 111
4.3.2 Kinetic Energy in Terms of Length of the Solid 112
4.3.3 Energy Equation for 3-Dimensional Solid 113
4.3.4 Mechanism of Conduction by Free Electrons 114
4.3.5 Drift Velocity and Collision Time 115
4.3.6 Mean Free Path (or Mean Free Length) 117
4.3.7 Effect of Temperature on Mean Free Path 117
4.4 Energy Band Theory 118
4.4.1 Critical Conditions 119
4.4.2 Magnitude of Energy Gap 120
4.5 Brillouin Zone Theory 120
4.5.1 Meaning of Different Brillouin Zones 121
4.5.2 First and Second Brillouin Zones 122
4.5.3 Brillouin Zones for Simple Cubic Lattice 123
4.5.4 Brillouin Zones for BCC, FCC and HCP Lattices 124
4.6 Conductors 125
4.6.1 Characteristics of a Good Conductor 126
4.7 Factors Affecting Conductivity
(and Resistivity) of Metals 126
4.7.1 Temperature Effect on Conductivity 127
4.7.2 Nordheim Equation for Impurity and
Alloying Effects on Resistivity 129
4.7.3 Effect of Plastic Deformation and Cold Working 129
4.7.4 Matthilseen Rule of Total Resistivity 129
4.8 Thermal Conductivity 130
4.8.1 Salient Features of Different Materials Regarding
Thermal Conductivity 131
4.9 Heating Effect of Current 132
4.9.1 Joule’s Law of Electrical Heating 132
4.9.2 Applications of Heating Effect 133
4.10 Thermoelectric Effect (or Thermoelectricity) 133
4.11 Seebeck Effect 134
4.11.1 Seebeck Series 134
4.11.2 Seebeck e.m.f. 135
4.11.3 Applications of Thermoelectric Effect 136
4.12 Peltier Effect 136
4.12.1 Peltier Coefficient 136
 Contents xiii

4.13 Thomson Effect 137

4.13.1 Types of Materials on the Basis of
Thomson Effect 138
4.13.2 Materials for Thermocouples and Thermopiles 138
4.14 Wiedemann-Franz Law and Lorentz Relation 138
4.14.1 Determining the Thermal Conductivity 139
4.14.2 Consideration of Electron Collision 140
4.14.3 Consideration of Fermi Energy 141
4.14.4 Lorentz Number 142
4.15 Solved Examples 143
Quick Revision Summary 146
Review Questions 147
Numerical Problems 149
Objective Questions 151
True and False Type Questions 151
Fill in the Blank Type Questions 152
Multiple Choice Type Questions 152

5 Conductive Materials: Types and Applications 153

5.1 Mechanically Processed Forms of Electrical Materials 153
5.1.1 Cladded Metals 153
5.1.2 Bimetals 153
5.1.3 Sintered Materials 154
5.1.4 Hot Rolled and Cold Rolled Metals 154
5.1.5 Hard Drawn and Soft Drawn Metals 154
5.1.6 Annealed Metals 155
5.2 Types of Conducting Materials 155
5.3 Low Resistivity Materials 156
5.3.1 Characteristics of Low Resistivity Materials 156
5.3.2 Copper and its Types 157
5.3.3 Types of Aluminium and their Applications 158
5.3.4 Comparison among Different Low
Resistivity Conducting Materials 160
5.3.5 Copper Alloys (Brass and Bronze) 160
5.4 High Resistivity Materials 161
5.4.1 Characteristics of High Resistivity Materials 163
5.4.2 Nickel 163
xiv Contents

5.4.3 Tantalum 164

5.4.4 High Resistivity Alloys 164
5.4.5 Salient Applications of High Resistivity Materials 164
5.5 Contact Materials 165
5.5.1 Requirements of a Good Contact Material 166
5.5.2 Types of Contact Materials 166
5.5.3 Common Contact Metals 168
5.5.4 Salient Applications of Contact Materials 169
5.6 Fusible (or Fuse) Materials 170
5.6.1 Requirements of Fuse Materials 170
5.6.2 Fusible Metals and Alloys 171
5.7 Filament Materials 172
5.7.1 Requirements of a Good Filament Material 172
5.7.2 Tungsten Filament 172
5.8 Carbon As Filamentary and Brush Material 173
5.8.1 Carbon Graphite 174
5.8.2 Main Applications of Carbon Materials 174
5.9 Conductors, Cables, and Wires: Types and Materials 175
5.9.1 Stranded Conductors 176
5.9.2 Types of Stranded Conductors 176
5.9.3 Specifications of Stranded Conductors 177
5.9.4 Core Cable 177
5.9.5 Reinforced Conductor 178
5.10 Solder Materials for Joining Wires and Joints
in Power Apparatuses 178
5.10.1 Soft Solder 178
5.10.2 Hard Solder 178
5.11 Sheathing Materials 179
5.12 Sealing Materials 180
5.13 Solved Examples 180
Review Questions 181
Objective Questions 183

6 Semiconducting Materials: Properties and Behaviour 185

6.1 Introduction to Semiconductors 185
6.1.1 Properties of Semiconductors 186
6.2 Different Types of Semiconducting Materials 186
6.2.1 Merits of Semiconducting Materials 186
6.2.2 Characteristics of Semiconducting Materials 187
 Contents xv

6.3 Determining the Percentage Ionic Character of

Compound Semiconductor 188
6.4 Fermi Energy Level 189
6.4.1 Fermi-Dirac Probability Function and
Temperature Effect 189
6.5 Intrinsic Semiconductors 191
6.5.1 Energy Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor 192
6.5.2 Holes, Mobility and Conductivity 193
6.6 Extrinsic Semiconductors 194
6.6.1 n-Type Semiconductors and their
Energy Diagram 194
6.6.2 Law of Mass Action 195
6.6.3 p-Type Semiconductors and their
Energy Diagram 195
6.7 Effective Mass 199
6.8 Density of State 200
6.9 Temperature Dependency of Carrier Concentrations 202
6.9.1 Temperature Dependency of ni 204
6.10 Effects of Temperature on Mobility of Carriers 205
6.10.1 Effects of Doping on Mobility 206
6.11 Direct and Indirect Energy Band Semiconductors 206
6.11.1 Differences between Direct and Indirect
Semiconductors 208
6.12 Variation of Eg with Alloy Composition 208
6.12.1 Effect of Alloying on GaAs1-xPx 209
6.12.2 Applications 210
6.13 Degenerate Semiconductors 210
6.13.1 Effect of Heavy Doping 211
6.13.2 Degenerate Types 211
6.14 Hall Effect 212
6.14.1 Explanation of the Phenomenon 213
6.14.2 Hall Voltage 213
6.14.3 Significance of Hall Effect, Hall Coefficient etc. 214
6.15 Analysis of Drift and Diffusion Currents 216
6.15.1 Einstein Relation 217
6.16 Continuity Equation 218
6.17 Solved Examples 219
Quick Revision Summary 223
Review Questions 224
xvi Contents

Numerical Problems 225

Objective Type Questions 226

7 Semiconducting Materials: Types and Applications 229

7.1 Element Form Semiconducting Materials 229
7.1.1 Silicon 229
7.1.2 Germanium 230
7.1.3 Selenium (Se) 231
7.1.4 Antimony (Sb) 231
7.1.5 Other Elements 231
7.1.6 Comparison between Silicon and Germanium 232
7.2 Formulated (Compound and Alloyed) Semiconducting
Materials 232
7.2.1 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) 232
7.2.2 Indium Antimonide (InSb) 234
7.2.3 Oxides, Sulphides, Halides,
Tellurides and Sellurides 234
7.2.4 Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) 234
7.2.5 Silicon Carbide (SiC) 235
7.2.6 Lead Sulphide (PbS) 235
7.3 Lattice Structures of Some Compound Semiconductors 235
7.3.1 Structure of Zinc Sulphide 237
7.4 Solar Cells 237
7.4.1 Working Principle 238
7.4.2 Construction and Working 238
7.4.3 Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Solar Cells 239
7.4.4 Solar Cell Fabrication and Materials 240
7.4.5 Advantages and Limitations of Solar Cells 241
7.4.6 Applications of Solar Cells 242
7.5 Semiconductor Lasers 242
7.5.1 Merits of Semiconductor Lasers 243
7.5.2 Characteristics and Working 243
7.5.3 Laser Applications 243
7.5.4 Materials for Semiconductor Lasers 245
7.6 Optical Materials in Light Emitting Diodes 247
7.6.1 Construction and Working of LED 247
7.6.2 Advantages, Applications and Specifications
of LEDs 247
 Contents xvii

7.6.3 Applications and Specifications of LEDs 248

7.6.4 Light Emitting Materials 248
7.7 Materials for Optical Fibres 249
7.7.1 Construction 250
7.7.2 Types of Optical Fibres 250
7.7.3 Suitable Materials and their Requirements 251
7.7.4 Advantages and Applications 252
7.7.5 Applications of Optical Fibres 252
7.8 Choicest Materials for Different Semiconductor Devices 253
7.9 Solved Examples 254
Quick Revision Summary 257
Review Questions 258
Objective Questions 259

8 Semiconducting Materials: Processing and Devices 263

8.1 Production of Element Form Of Silicon (Si) 263
8.2 Semiconductor Crystal Growth 264
8.2.1 Bridgman Method 264
8.2.2 Czochralski Method 265
8.3 Processing of Semiconducting Materials 266
8.4 Zone Refining 266
8.4.1 Zone Refining Apparatus 268
8.5 Manufacturing of Wafers 268
8.5.1 Photolithography 269
8.6 Semiconductors Fabrication Technology 269
8.6.1 Microelectronic Circuit Construction 270
8.6.2 Thin Film Circuit Fabrication 270
8.7 Fabrication of a Semiconductor P-N Junction 271
8.8 Transistor Manufacturing Processes 271
8.9 Semiconducting Devices and Their Operating Principle 271
8.10 Important Applications of Semiconductor Devices 274
8.11 Brief Description of Some Semiconductor Devices 275
8.12 P-N Junction Diode 276
8.12.1 Applications of P-N Diode 277
8.12.2 Biasing 277
8.13 Working of P-N Diode When not Connected
to a Battery 279
8.13.1 Diffusion of Holes and Electrons in P-N Diode 279
xviii Contents

8.13.2 Set-up of Barrier in P-N Diode 279

8.13.3 Formation of Depletion (or Space Charge)
Region in P-N Diode 279
8.13.4 Flow of Drift and Diffusion
Current in P-N Diode 280
8.14 Different Types of P-N Junction Diodes 280
8.14.1 The Gunn Diode Materials and Fabrication 281
8.15 Junction Transistors 281
8.15.1 Different Categories of Transistors 282
8.16 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) 282
8.16.1 Construction of BJT 282
8.17 Field-Effect Transistor (FET) 285
8.17.1 Advantages of FETs over BJTs 285
8.17.2 Differences between FETs and BJTs 285
8.17.3 Applications of FETs 285
8.18 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistors (MESFET) 286
8.18.1 Basic Construction of MESFETs 286
8.18.2 Basic Types of MESFETs 287
8.19 Insulated Gate Field Effect Transistor (IGFET) or
Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MISFET) 288
8.19.1 Construction of IGFET 289
8.20 Charge Coupled Devices 289
8.20.1 Salient Uses 290
8.21 Solved Examples 290
Quick Revision Summary 294
Review Questions 296
Objective Questions 298

9 Dielectric Materials: Properties and Behaviour 301

9.1 Introduction to Dielectric Materials 301
9.2 Classification of Dielectric (or Insulating) Materials 302
9.3 Main Properties 304
9.4 Dielectric Constant 304
9.4.1 Factors Affecting Dielectric Constant 304
9.5 Dielectric Strength 305
9.5.1 Types of Dielectric Breakdown 305
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Be sho’ you do— some pray-in’— be-fo’ you goes-a to sleep.
——
To fight is wrong,—— it’s wrong to fight,——
An’ no two wrongs-a kaint make-a one right,
So try an’ be right unto de en;—
Dat’s right, all right! A-men! A-men!
Dat’s right, all right! A-men! A - A - A - A - A - A - men!——
Scamps of Romance
by
William Rose Benét
 I

E’RE off across the hills to-day with merriment

agog,
With pipe and timbrel ribboned gay, with fiddle-
scrape and clog.
Then, Nolly Goldsmith, here’s to thee!
Send Villon’s soul no ill!
But all hail that Prince of Vagabonds, Sir John Maundeville!

Oh, Sir John Maundeville, Sir John Maundeville,

Saw more Golcondas in the west than e’er another will!
Brave Marco Polo pales to naught,
Aladdin’s boast is still,
Before the gallant glory of Sir John Maundeville!

So we march—tramp! tramp!—and the ringing of our tread

Hales forth the highway swaggerers of lusty times long dead.
When so the glad world’s purple clad, it’s hail the romance
scamp,
With the zesting of our jesting, and our march—tramp! tramp!
 II

THERE’S Spindleshanks and Bonfire-head and trolling

Heneree,
And each as mad a braggart bred as any age may see.
There’s castles in each wind-piled cloud and Spain just o’er
the hill;
And, for best of all romancers, there’s Sir John Maundeville!

Oh, Sir John Maundeville, Sir John Maundeville!

Æneas Sylvius, go up, and, Hakluyt, rest you still;
Cathay, Damascus, Lamary, and Persia shall fulfil
The magic of the legends of Sir John Maundeville!
 III

COME, hydra of the Lernean slough! Promethean vulture,

come!
The charms that we have learned for you shall strike your
terrors dumb.
The ghost of Raleigh gapes askance; he takes our mirth so ill.
And Pliny louts his bonnet to Sir John Maundeville!

Oh, Sir John Maundeville, Sir John Maundeville!

Of Noah’s Ark and Hills o’ Gold he’ll spin you yarns until
The Chan of rich Cathay’s your slave, and Caffolos is shrill
Singing the lofty praises of Sir John Maundeville!
 IV

WE know the wild chimæric herds—Aspis, Leviathan,

And all the fabled beasts and birds were since the world
began.
The Solan Geese flop from their trees; yon crawls the
Cuckodrill—
And all because we read about Sir John Maundeville!

Oh, Sir John Maundeville, Sir John Maundeville,

From Malabar to Tartary they marvel at you still.
Old Aldrovandus drops a tear in envy fit to kill
Because we sing the praises of Sir John Maundeville.

WE’RE off across the hills to-day with merriment agog,

With pipe and timbrel ribboned gay, with fiddle-scrape and
clog.
And in our pack we’ll bring you back
(I’ faith, we swear we will!)
Mad tales and lays your ghost shall praise
Sir John Maundeville.

Oh, Sir John Maundeville, Sir John Maundeville,

The world that gaped at romance then shall gape at
romance still.
 There’s portents in each autumn leaf,—Vale Parlous o’er
the hill,—
And our jolly dreamland captain is Sir John Maundeville!

So we march—tramp! tramp! Do you wonder that our tread

Stamps up the ghosts of gallant knights from dust of days
long dead?
When so the glad world’s romance-clad, it’s hail the romance
scamp,
With old glories on our stories, and our march—tramp! tramp!
 Drawn by Oliver Herford

A CLEAN SHAVE
BY GRACE MAC GOWAN COOKE
Author of “Mistress Joy,” “The Machinations of Ocoee Gallantine,” etc., etc.

WITH AN ILLUSTRATION BY F. E. SCHOONOVER

T HERE was a storm brewing. The sun had gone down in splendor
over Big Bald; heat lightnings laced the primrose of its afterglow.
Now the air trembled to a presage of thunder; the world panted
for its outburst of elemental rage.
 The camp-meeting was in a brush arbor; the dry leaves on the
boughs with which it was roofed rustled faintly when breathings of
the coming tempest whispered across the highlands. The
congregation, seated on backless puncheon benches, seemed to
crouch beneath the uncertain illumination of a few torches and
lanterns. Protracted meetings in the mountains are always held in
midsummer, when the crops are laid by, so that perhaps the rising
generation comes to associate their souls’ salvation and hot,
breathless nights like this. Fleeing from the wrath to come no doubt
gets hopelessly mixed in some minds with running for adequate
shelter from the sudden passionate thunder-storms of the season.
There were six exhorters at work, swaying on their feet, shouting,
two of them singing, the mourners’ bench partly filled, a promising
tremor of excitement abroad in that portion of the congregation which
had not yet come forward or risen for prayer—and the shower was
almost upon them.
Vesta Turrentine, who always came up from the riverside store
kept by her widower father at Turrentine’s Landing to stay with her
Aunt Miranda during protracted meetings, had withdrawn to the end
of a bench, where she sat with bowed head, watchful, agonizedly
alert, letting her attitude pass for that of a penitent, hoping to be
undisturbed. She was a slim, finely built young creature, already past
the mere adolescence at which the mountain girl is apt to seek a
mate. As she sat, chin on hand, dark eyes staring straight forward,
her salient profile, a delicate feminine replica of old Jabe Turrentine’s
own eagle outlines, relieved against the lights of the meeting, a man
who crawled through the bushes found her very good to look upon.
So absorbed was he in staring at her that he did not notice another
man, deeper in shadow, who stared at him. Careless of observation,
certain that the meeting was fully occupied with itself, Ross Adene,
the first man, crept forward to the girl’s knee, touched it, laid his
yellow head against it with a murmured greeting.
Drawn by F. E. Schoonover Half-tone plate engraved by H. C. Merrill
“HE WORKED WITH THE AIR OF A MAN WHO HAS COME AT LAST TO SOME
DECISION, TURNED TO REACH FOR THE TOWEL—AND LOOKED INTO THE
MUZZLE OF HIS OWN GUN, WITH HIS DAUGHTER’S RESOLUTE EYES
BEHIND IT” (SEE PAGE 69)
“Ross?” The whisper was strangled by terror; her hand went
down against his hair, spread protectingly to conceal its shine.
“Who did you reckon it was?” whispered the young fellow.
“Anybody else hangin’ round hidin’ to get sight of ye and a chance to
speak with ye?”
“Didn’t you get my word?” Vesta breathed. “Pappy’s on the
mounting—unless’n the storm’s turned him back.”
“I reckon it has,” Ross answered, settling himself comfortably in
the deep shadow beside her. “It’s shore goin’ to be a big one.”
As he spoke there was an instant’s breathless hush of the voices
in the meeting, a dying down of the lights. It was followed by a white
flash so blinding, so all-enveloping, that in it one could see nothing.
Close after came a crash which seemed to rend earth and menace
heaven. The young fellow leaped to his feet, regardless of all
concealment, pulling the girl up beside him, flinging an arm about
her. After that lightning-flash the torches and lanterns seemed
darkness. Women were screaming, mothers calling to their children,
men shouting hoarsely, and running toward plunging teams hitched
in the grove.
It would have seemed that in such confusion even the rashest
intruder might go unchallenged, unrecognized, yet Vesta pushed her
companion from her and into the shadow again before she looked
around for her people. Her Aunt Miranda was puffing ponderously
down the aisle toward a shrieking infant which had awakened from
its nap on a back bench.
“Aunt ’Randy,” Vesta called, “I’m goin’ home with—somebody. I’m
all right. I’ll be thar afore ye.”
She could see Mrs. Minter’s lips shape themselves to some
words which her vigorously nodded head suggested were those of
assent. She dipped into the dark; Ross swept his sweetheart up on a
capable arm, and they set off running down the wood path which led
across the fields to the Minter place.
The noises of the meeting behind them diminished as they ran.
Other people were hurrying through the forest, calling, assuring
themselves of the whereabouts and safety of members of their
parties. Here and there lanterns or torches flickered.
“Hadn’t we better go through the bushes?” panted the girl.
“Somebody’s apt to see ye—an’ then—”
“No,” returned Adene, half lifting her along; “nobody’ll take notice
in a storm like this; an’ if they should, I’m about tired of dodgin’. We
got to marry sometime, girl. How about then? Yer pappy’ll know then,
won’t he?”
Thereafter they ran in silence. Twice the lightning illuminated their
way, diminishing peals of thunder following. It was after the second
of these that a shot rang out, startling Vesta so that she clung to
Ross’s arm and screamed. The young fellow made the usual dry
comment of the mountain-born, “They’s a man standin’ somewhars
right now with an empty gun in his hand.” Then they fled breathlessly
under the cover of a projecting ledge in the small bluff among the
bushes which had been Adene’s objective point. The heavens
opened, and the floods descended.
There is something cozy and delightful about standing sheltered
and dry, while the whole world falls down in rain, the elements
themselves seeking all in vain to reach and destroy you. Vesta put
out a hand to let the great drops strike on it, pushing back her hair
and lifting her face to the keen, sweet coolness of the downpour.
“Don’t you love it?” she asked again and again. “Hit ’minds me of
playin’ when I was a child, and just goin’ crazy hollerin’ ‘Rain flag’
when hit come down this a-way.”
“You an’ me used to play that together,” Ross reminded her. “That
was in the days before your dad took up the feud again.”
At this the girl turned and clutched him.
“Oh, Ross, I sent ye word not to come to-night,” she said, “but I
wanted to see ye an’ warn ye, too. Pappy’s actin’ quare. He’s bound
I shall marry.”
“Well, so ’m I,” assented Ross, half humorously. “Him an’ me
won’t fall out over that.”
“Don’t make a joke of it,” said Vesta. “Hit’s as much as your life’s
worth, an’ you know it. Hit’s as much as your life’s worth to be here
to-night. We ort never to meet again.”
She added the concluding words in a lower tone not intended,
perhaps, for her lover’s ears.
“Has he picked out a man for ye?” The young fellow returned to
what she had first said.
“U-m—h-m,” assented Vesta, reluctantly.
“Who?”
“Sam Beath.” She spoke very low.
 “Sam Beath.” The young fellow repeated her words louder. “That
feller that come up from the Far Cove neighborhood to stay in the
store?”
“Pappy don’t like him—for me—so very well,” Vesta faltered, “but
he’s kin to kin of ourn, an’—you know, he’ll keep up the feud. Pappy
says I’m gittin’ awful old; an’—”
“If what he wants is to see his gal married, you an’ me’ll wed to-
morrow night after meetin’,” Ross declared.
Vesta laid hold of the lapels of his coat. She even slipped an arm
about his neck in entreaty, a tremendous demonstration for a
mountain girl, who feels that she must always be in the shy, reluctant
attitude of one who is besought, whose scruples are overcome.
“Ross, I know ye don’t mean it, honey, but, oh, for any sakes!
walk careful! Three years you an’ me has been promised to each
other, a-meetin’ wherever we could, me scared to death for ye all the
time; but pappy ain’t never found it out. Ross, give me yo’ word that
you’ll be careful.”
A fleeting glow showed Adene his sweetheart’s pale, entreating
face, and then came darkness and the steady drumming of the rain
on the leaves.
“You an’ me are a-goin’ to be married to-morrow night after
meetin’ at Brush Arbor,” he repeated doggedly. And Vesta, used to
the men of her world, with whom action follows the word swiftly, if it
does not precede, began to cry, leaning weakly against his shoulder.
“Ross, I’ll run away with ye, I’ll go anywhars you say. I’ll work my
fingers to the bone for you. I’ll never look on the face of my kin again
—for your sake.”
In her pleading she raised her voice until it was almost a cry. The
storm had died down; the lisp of falling water scarcely blurred the
sound of their words.
“Not for my sake you won’t,” returned her lover, sturdily, putting a
strong arm about her, bending to cup her cheek in his hand. “Why, I
like your daddy fine. I picked him out for a father-in-law same’s I
picked you out for a wife. I ain’t never had any dad of my own to look
to. Yourn suits me. I’ll make friends with him.”
“And why ain’t you got no father?” inquired Vesta, tragically.
“’Ca’se my uncle shot him down when you was a baby in your
mother’s lap—and there all the trouble began.”
“Hit’s a long time ago,” said Ross, philosophically. “I ain’t bearin’
any grudge till yet. I reckon if your uncle hadn’t ’a’ got my father, my
father’d ’a’ got him. I aim to marry ye, here in Brush Arbor meetin’,
an’ make friends with your daddy an’ put an end to the feud.”
As a spectacular conclusion to the storm, and apparently to
Ross’s speech as well, there blazed through the woods a sudden
greenish-white radiance of lightning. It flickered on the wet leaves,
giving them a phosphorescent glow; it lit with an infernal illumination
a face peering between those leaves, looking squarely into Adene’s
own—a dark face, full of the strong beauty of age and courage, vivid
yet with the zest of life. The young fellow’s hand went up to cover
Vesta’s eyes, to press her head in against his breast.
“What is it?” she breathed.
“You said you was scared of lightning,” Ross answered close to
her ear, as the thunder reverberated through a darkened, wet world.
Evidently she had not seen. Certainly he would not tell her. As
the detonations died down, he stood rigid, waiting for the bolt of
death, weighing with instant clearness the chance of whether old
Jabe would kill only him, or slay as well the daughter who had
proved treacherous.
Nothing came. A light wind sprang up and set drops pattering
down from the boughs. The storm-clouds were rent, torn, scattered,
rolling sullenly away to the north. A few drowned stars began to
make the sky lighter.
All at once, as he waited for the death that came not, Ross
remembered the shot they had heard as they ran through the woods.
That was Jabe Turrentine’s gun. Turrentine had been the man
standing with an empty weapon, without another cartridge to reload.
When he was certain of this, Adene felt momentarily safe. The old
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