Chapter 5b: Advanced CPU

Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Outline
▪ Thread Scheduling
▪ Multi-Processor Scheduling
▪ Algorithm Evaluation

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Objectives
▪ Describe various CPU scheduling algorithms
▪ Assess CPU scheduling algorithms based on scheduling criteria
▪ Explain the issues related to multiprocessor and multicore scheduling
▪ Describe various real-time scheduling algorithms
▪ Describe the scheduling algorithms used in the Windows, Linux, and
Solaris operating systems
▪ Apply modeling and simulations to evaluate CPU scheduling
algorithms

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Thread Scheduling
▪ Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads
▪ When threads supported, threads scheduled, not processes
▪ Many-to-one and many-to-many models, thread library schedules
user-level threads to run on LWP
• Known as process-contention scope (PCS) since scheduling
competition is within the process
• Typically done via priority set by programmer
▪ Kernel thread scheduled onto available CPU is system-contention
scope (SCS) – competition among all threads in system

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling
▪ API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation
• PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS schedules threads using PCS
scheduling
• PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM schedules threads using SCS
scheduling
▪ Can be limited by OS – Linux and macOS only allow
PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling API
#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define NUM_THREADS 5
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int i, scope;
pthread_t tid[NUM THREADS];
pthread_attr_t attr;
/* get the default attributes */
pthread_attr_init(&attr);
/* first inquire on the current scope */
if (pthread_attr_getscope(&attr, &scope) != 0)
fprintf(stderr, "Unable to get scheduling scope\n");
else {
if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS");
else if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM");
else
fprintf(stderr, "Illegal scope value.\n");
}

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Pthread Scheduling API

/* set the scheduling algorithm to PCS or SCS */

pthread_attr_setscope(&attr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);
/* create the threads */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_create(&tid[i],&attr,runner,NULL);
/* now join on each thread */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_join(tid[i], NULL);
}
/* Each thread will begin control in this function */
void *runner(void *param)
{
/* do some work ... */
pthread_exit(0);
}

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling
▪ CPU scheduling more complex when multiple CPUs are available
▪ Multiprocess may be any one of the following architectures:
• Multicore CPUs
• Multithreaded cores
• NUMA systems
• Heterogeneous multiprocessing

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling

▪ Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP) is where each processor is self

scheduling.
▪ All threads may be in a common ready queue (a)
▪ Each processor may have its own private queue of threads (b)

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multicore Processors
▪ Recent trend to place multiple processor cores on same physical chip
▪ Faster and consumes less power
▪ Multiple threads per core also growing
• Takes advantage of memory stall to make progress on another
thread while memory retrieve happens
▪ Figure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multithreaded Multicore System
▪ Each core has > 1 hardware threads.
▪ If one thread has a memory stall, switch to another thread!
▪ Figure

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multithreaded Multicore System
▪ Chip-multithreading (CMT)
assigns each core multiple
hardware threads. (Intel refers
to this as hyperthreading.)

▪ On a quad-core system with 2

hardware threads per core, the
operating system sees 8 logical
processors.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multithreaded Multicore System

▪ Two levels of scheduling:

1. The operating system

deciding which
software thread to run
on a logical CPU

2. How each core

decides which
hardware thread to
run on the physical
core.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling – Load Balancing

▪ If SMP, need to keep all CPUs loaded for efficiency

▪ Load balancing attempts to keep workload evenly distributed
▪ Push migration – periodic task checks load on each processor,
and if found pushes task from overloaded CPU to other CPUs
▪ Pull migration – idle processors pulls waiting task from busy
processor

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Multiple-Processor Scheduling – Processor Affinity

▪ When a thread has been running on one processor, the cache contents
of that processor stores the memory accesses by that thread.
▪ We refer to this as a thread having affinity for a processor (i.e.,
“processor affinity”)
▪ Load balancing may affect processor affinity as a thread may be moved
from one processor to another to balance loads, yet that thread loses
the contents of what it had in the cache of the processor it was moved
off of.
▪ Soft affinity – the operating system attempts to keep a thread running
on the same processor, but no guarantees.
▪ Hard affinity – allows a process to specify a set of processors it may
run on.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 NUMA and CPU Scheduling
If the operating system is NUMA-aware, it will assign memory closes
to the CPU the thread is running on.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Algorithm Evaluation
▪ How to select CPU-scheduling algorithm for an OS?
▪ Determine criteria, then evaluate algorithms
▪ Deterministic modeling
• Type of analytic evaluation
• Takes a particular predetermined workload and defines
the performance of each algorithm for that workload
▪ Consider 5 processes arriving at time 0:

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Deterministic Evaluation

▪ For each algorithm, calculate minimum average waiting time

▪ Simple and fast, but requires exact numbers for input, applies
only to those inputs
• FCS is 28ms:

• Non-preemptive SFJ is 13ms:

• RR is 23ms:

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Queueing Models
▪ Describes the arrival of processes, and CPU and I/O bursts
probabilistically
• Commonly exponential, and described by mean
• Computes average throughput, utilization, waiting time, etc.
▪ Computer system described as network of servers, each with
queue of waiting processes
• Knowing arrival rates and service rates
• Computes utilization, average queue length, average wait
time, etc.

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Little’s Formula
▪ n = average queue length
▪ W = average waiting time in queue
▪ λ = average arrival rate into queue
▪ Little’s law – in steady state, processes leaving queue must
equal processes arriving, thus:
n=λxW
• Valid for any scheduling algorithm and arrival distribution
▪ For example, if on average 7 processes arrive per second, and
normally 14 processes in queue, then average wait time per
process = 2 seconds

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Simulations
▪ Queueing models limited
▪ Simulations more accurate
• Programmed model of computer system
• Clock is a variable
• Gather statistics indicating algorithm performance
• Data to drive simulation gathered via
 Random number generator according to probabilities
 Distributions defined mathematically or empirically
 Trace tapes record sequences of real events in real systems

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Evaluation of CPU Schedulers by Simulation

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Implementation
▪ Even simulations have limited accuracy
▪ Just implement new scheduler and test in real systems
• High cost, high risk
• Environments vary
▪ Most flexible schedulers can be modified per-site or per-system
▪ Or APIs to modify priorities
▪ But again environments vary

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 5b.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 End of Chapter 5b

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018