Dr. S. Idris, Dept.

of Microbiology, KASU

Module Two
• Classification of organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes;
• Classification of prokaryotes into Archaea and eubacteria
• Anatomy and cytochemistry of bacteria and fungi.

Classification of Organisms into Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

On the basis of structural complexity and organisation, all living organisms may have either
prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. In other words, prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are the two
fundamental types of cells that make up all living organisms. However, they differ significantly
from each other. The differences between the two reflect their evolutionary history and
functional complexity.

Prokaryotes

A prokaryote is a simple, unicellular organism that lacks an organized nucleus or other

membrane-bound organelle.

1. Prokaryotes lack an organized nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

2. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell called the nucleoid.
3. The cell is generally smaller and less complex (0.1 to 5.0μm in diameter).
4. DNA is not associated with histone proteins (except in Archaea).
5. Prokaryotic DNA is usually a single, and circular chromosome
6. Cell wall is present in most of prokaryotes making the cell more rigid, and acts as an
extra layer of protection, helps maintain cell shape, and prevents dehydration.
7. The small size of prokaryotes allows quick entry and diffusion of ions and molecules
to other parts of the cell while also allowing fast removal of waste products out of the
cell.
8. Prokaryotic cells possess 70S ribosomes
9. Reproduce through a simple form of asexual reproduction, mostly binary fission
10. Exhibit more diverse metabolic pathways
 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

Eukaryotes
1. Eukaryotes possess organized nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
2. Eukaryotic DNA is found in a membrane-bound structure of the cell called the nucleus.
3. The cell is relatively larger and more complex than that of prokaryotes.
4. The eukaryotic DNA always contains histone proteins.
5. Eukaryotic DNA is usually linear DNA and organized into multiple chromosomes
6. The cell wall is present in some
7. The small size of prokaryotes allows quick entry and diffusion of ions and molecules
to other parts of the cell while also allowing fast removal of waste products out of the
cell.
8. Eukaryotic cells possess 80S ribosomes
9. Most eukaryotes reproduce through mitosis and meiosis for somatic and gametes
respectively.
10. Exhibit simpler metabolic pathways.

Overview of the Classification of Microorganisms

The first, largest, and most inclusive group under which organisms are classified is called a
domain and has three subgroups: bacteria, archaea, and eukarya. Microorganisms or
microbes are microscopic organisms that exist as unicellular, multicellular, or cell clusters.
Microorganisms are classified into taxonomic categories to facilitate research and
communication. The classification system is constantly changing with the advancement of
technology. Microorganisms are assigned a scientific name using binomial nomenclature. They
can be divided into six major types: bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses.
 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

Fig.1: The Three Domains of Living Organisms

Bacteria
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms. They exist in four major shapes that include:
rod shape (bacillus), spherical shape (coccus), spiral shape (Spirilla), and curved/comma shape
(vibrio). Most bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall; they divide by binary fission; and they
may possess flagella for motility. The difference in their cell wall structure is a major feature
used in classifying these organisms. According to the way their cell wall structure stains,
bacteria can be classified as either Gram-positive or Gram-negative when using Gram staining.
Bacteria can be further divided based on their response to gaseous oxygen into the following
groups: aerobic (living in the presence of oxygen), anaerobic (living without oxygen), and
facultative anaerobes (living in both environments). According to the way they obtain energy,
bacteria are classified as heterotrophs or autotrophs. Autotrophs make their own food by using
the energy of sunlight or chemical reactions, in which case they are called chemoautotrophs.
Heterotrophs obtain their energy by consuming other organisms. Bacteria that use decaying
life forms as a source of energy are called saprophytes.
Archaea
Archaea or Archaebacteria differ from true bacteria in their cell wall structure and lack
peptidoglycans. They are prokaryotic cells with avidity to extreme environmental conditions.
Based on their habitat, all Archaeans can be divided into the following groups: (methane-
producing organisms), halophiles (archaeans that live in salty environments), thermophiles
(archaeans that live at extremely hot temperatures), and psychrophiles (cold-temperature
Archaeans). Archaeans use different energy sources like hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, and
sulphur. Some of them use sunlight to make energy, but not the same way plants do. They
 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

absorb sunlight using their membrane pigment, bacteriorhodopsin. This reacts with light,
leading to the formation of the energy molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

Fungi
Fungi are dimorphic eukaryotic cells (with a true nucleus). Most fungi are multicellular and
their cell wall is composed of chitin. They obtain nutrients by absorbing organic material from
their environment (decomposers), through symbiotic relationships with plants (symbionts), or
harmful relationships with a host (parasites). They form characteristic filamentous tubes called
hyphae that help absorb material. The collection of hyphae is called mycelium. Fungi
reproduce by releasing spores.

Protozoa
Protozoa are unicellular aerobic eukaryotes. They obtain nourishment by absorption or
ingestion through specialized structures. They make up the largest group of organisms in the
world in terms of numbers, biomass, and diversity. Their cell walls are made up of cellulose.
Protozoa have been traditionally divided based on their mode of locomotion: flagellates,
ciliates, amoeboid, and sporozoans (non-motile). They also have different means of nutrition,
which groups them as autotrophs or heterotrophs.

Microalgae
These organisms are also called cyanobacteria or blue-green algae, are unicellular or
multicellular eukaryotes that obtain nourishment by photosynthesis. They live in water, damp
soil, and rocks and produce oxygen and carbohydrates used by other organisms. It is believed
that higher plants originate from these organisms.

Viruses
Viruses are noncellular entities that consist of a nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) surrounded
by a protein coat. Although viruses are classified as microorganisms, they are not considered
living organisms. Viruses cannot reproduce outside a host cell (obligate parasites) and cannot
metabolize on their own. Viruses often infest prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells causing diseases.

Multicellular Animal Parasites

A group of eukaryotic organisms consisting of the flatworms and roundworms, which are
collectively referred to as the helminths. Although they are not microorganisms by definition,
since they are large enough to be easily seen with the naked eye, they live a part of their life
cycle in microscopic form. Since the parasitic helminths are of clinical importance, they are
often discussed along with the other groups of microbes in medical microbiology.
 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

Anatomy and Cytochemistry of Microorganisms

The anatomy and cytochemistry of microorganisms encompass the structural organization

and chemical processes within microbial cells. Microorganisms exhibit diverse anatomical
features and cytochemical properties that enable them to thrive in various environments.
Understanding the anatomy and cytochemistry of microorganisms is essential for the various
fields of research. Information about the anatomy and cytochemistry of microbial cells is
mostly obtained through the use of techniques such as microscopy, staining, and molecular
and biochemical assays. The insights derived therefrom help in developing antibiotics,
vaccines, and other industrial applications.

Anatomy of Bacterial cell

• Cell Wall: Provides structural support and protection. Composed of peptidoglycan (in
most bacteria) or other polymers like lipopolysaccharides (in Gram-negative bacteria).
• Cell Membrane: A phospholipid bilayer that regulates the transport of substances in
and out of the cell.
• Cytoplasm: A gel-like substance containing ribosomes, DNA, and other cellular
components.
• Nucleoid: The region where the bacterial chromosome (circular DNA) is located.
Bacteria lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules that carry additional genes, often for
antibiotic resistance or other adaptive traits.
• Flagella: Whip-like structures for motility.
• Pili/Fimbriae: Hair-like appendages for attachment to surfaces or other cells.
• Capsule/Slime Layer: A protective outer layer that aids in adherence and evasion of
the host immune system.
• Endospores: Dormant, resistant structures may be formed by some bacteria
(e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium) under stress.
• Biofilms: Communities of microorganisms may be encased in a protective
extracellular matrix.

Anatomy of Archaea

• Similar to bacteria in size and shape but differ in cell wall composition
 Dr. S. Idris, Dept. of Microbiology, KASU

• Lack peptidoglycan and often have unique adaptations to extreme environments (e.g.,
thermophiles, halophiles).

Anatomy of Fungal Cells

• Cell Wall: Composed of chitin, glucans, and mannoproteins.

• Cell Membrane: Contains ergosterol instead of cholesterol.
• Cytoplasm: Contains organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, and a membrane-
bound nucleus.
• Hyphae: Filamentous structures that form the mycelium in multicellular fungi.
• Spores: Reproductive structures for dispersal and survival.

Anatomy of Protozoan cells

• Cell Membrane: Flexible and often reinforced with pellicles or other structures.
• Cytoplasm: Divided into ectoplasm (outer, gel-like) and endoplasm (inner, fluid-
like).
• Nucleus: Membrane-bound, often with multiple nuclei in some species.
• Organelles: Include contractile vacuoles for osmoregulation, food vacuoles for
digestion, and cilia/flagella for motility.
Anatomy of Viruses
• Capsid: Protein coat that encloses the genetic material.
• Genetic Material: DNA or RNA, either single-stranded or double-stranded.
• Envelope: Some viruses have a lipid bilayer derived from the host cell membrane,
studded with viral glycoproteins.
• Spikes: Glycoproteins that facilitate attachment to host cells.

•
• Fig.2: Generalized structure of a virus

END