Automata and Compiler Design (CSE 304 )

Unit 1: Part 2

Dr. Murali Krishna Enduri

Department of CSE
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Nondeterministic Finite Automata:

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:
o Generalize FAs by adding nondeterminism, allowing several alternative computations
on the same input string.
o Ordinary deterministic FAs follow one path on each input.

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:

By continuing to experiment in this way, you will see that N1 accepts all
strings that contain either 101 or 11 as a substring.

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata:

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Formal Definition Nondeterministic Finite Automata:

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Nondeterministic Finite Automata:

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:
NFA Example

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:
NFA Example

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:
Draw NFA which accept 00 or 11 at the end of a string where symbols are 0 and 1.

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 Nondeterministic Finite Automata:
Draw a NFA which accept a string containing “for” anywhere in a string of {a-z}

Construct NFA a language L(M) = { (10)n : n > 0 }

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 Concatenation of two Regular Languages:
Theorem 3: The class of regular languages are closed under concatenation.
In other words, If L1 and L2 are regular languages then L1o L2 is also a regular language

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 Star operation of Regular Language:
Theorem 3: The class of regular languages are closed under star operation.
In other words, If L is a regular language then L* is also a regular language

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DFA VS
NFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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Converting NFA to
DFA

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

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 REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
• Regular expressions
• describe regular languages

• Example:

• describes the language

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
Recursive Definition

Given regular expressions and

Are regular expressions

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

A regular expression:

Not a regular expression:

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

: language of regular expression

Example

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

• For regular expressions and

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
• Regular expression:

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

• Regular expression

• Regular expression

= { all strings containing substring 00 }

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS to NFA

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS to NFA Thompson’s construction

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REGULAR EXPRESSIONS to NFA

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Constructing RE for given DFA using Arden's theorem
In order to find out a regular expression of a Finite Automaton, we use Arden’s Theorem
along with the properties of regular expressions.
Statement −
Let P and Q be two regular expressions.
If P does not contain null string, then R = Q + RP has a unique solution that is R = QP*
Proof −
R = Q + (Q + RP)P [After putting the value R = Q + RP]
= Q + QP + RPP
When we put the value of R recursively again and again, we get the following equation −
R = Q + QP + QP2 + QP3…..
R = Q (ε + P + P2 + P3 + …. )
R = QP* [As P* represents (ε + P + P2 + P3 + ….) ]

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 The equations for the three states q1, q2, and q3 are as follows −
q1 = q1a + q3a + ε (ε move is because q1 is the initial state0
q2 = q 1 b + q 2 b + q 3 b
q3 = q 2 a

Now, we will solve these three equations −

q2 = q 1b + q 2b + q 3b
= q1b + q2b + (q2a)b (Substituting value of q3)
= q1b + q2(b + ab)
Arden's theorem = q1b (b + ab)* (Applying Arden’s Theorem)
If P does not contain null string, q1 = q 1a + q 3a + ε
then R = Q + RP has a unique
solution that is R = QP* = q1a + q2aa + ε (Substituting value of q3)
= q1a + q1b(b + ab*)aa + ε (Substituting value of q2)
= q1(a + b(b + ab)*aa) + ε
= ε (a+ b(b + ab)*aa)*
= (a + b(b + ab)*aa)*
Hence, the regular expression is (a + b(b + ab)*aa)*.
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 Here the initial state is q1 and the final state is q2
Now we write down the equations −
q1 = q 10 + ε
q2 = q 11 + q 20
q3 = q 21 + q 30 + q 31
Now, we will solve these three equations −
q1 = ε0* [As, εR = R]
So, q1 = 0*
Arden's theorem q2 = 0*1 + q20
If P does not contain null So, q2 = 0*1(0)* [By Arden’s theorem]
string, then R = Q + RP has a Hence, the regular expression is 0*10*.
unique solution that is R = QP*

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 State Elimination Method

Step-01:

Step-02:

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 State Elimination Method
Problem-01:

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 State Elimination Method
Problem-02:

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 State Elimination Method
Problem-03:

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 State Elimination Method

Problem-04:

Problem-05:

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mpyCeSvGh-M
https://www.guru99.com/linux-regular-expressions.html

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 Minimization of Finite Automata
1. State minimization problem

2. There can be more than one DFA that accepts the same language
Among these equivalent DFAs, it is often useful to find the smallest,
that is, the DFA with the minimum possible number of states

3. This is especially important when DFAs are used for designing

computer hardware circuits

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Minimization of Finite Automata

Equivalent finite automata

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 Minimization of Finite Automata
Unreachable states
1. A DFA sometimes contains states that cannot possibly be reached from the initial
state
2. These can easily be identified and they can be removed without changing the
language accepted by the DFA

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 Minimization of Finite Automata
Equate & collapse states having same behavior.
Build equivalence relation on states:
p≡q ↔ (∀z∈Σ*, (p,z)∈F ↔ (q,z)∈F)

I.e., iff for every string z, one of the following is true:

z z
p p
or
z z
q q

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DFA Minimization: Algorithm

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DFA Minimization: Example

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DFA Minimization: Example

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Watch Video: 60
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DFA Minimization: Example

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 DFA Minimization: Algorithm
1. Delete inaccessible ( or unreachable) states.

2. Initialize all entries as unmarked & with no dependences.

3. Mark all pairs of a final & nonfinal state.

4. For each unmarked pair p,q & input symbol a:

1. Let r=δ(p,a), s=δ(q,a).
2. If (r,s) unmarked, add (p,q) to (r,s)’s dependences,
3. Otherwise mark (p,q), and recursively mark all dependences of newly-marked entries.

5. Combine unmarked pairs of states.

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
2. Initialize table entries:
Unmarked, empty list f

a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d
1 0 1 b
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0 d

e
3. Mark pairs of final &
nonfinal states f

h
a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d δ(b,0) ≡? δ(a,0)
0 1 b
1 δ(b,1) ≡? δ(a,1)
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
pair & symbol, … f

a b c d e f g
Build equivalence relation on states:
p≡q ↔ (∀z∈Σ*, (p,z)∈F ↔ (q,z)∈F) 66
 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d g ≡? b Maybe.
0 1 b
1 c ≡? f No!
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
3. For each unmarked
pair & symbol, … f

h
a b c d e f g
Build equivalence relation on states:
p≡q ↔ (∀z∈Σ*, (p,z)∈F ↔ (q,z)∈F) 67
 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
pair & symbol, … f

a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d δ(e,0) ≡? δ(a,0)
0 1 b
1 δ(e,1) ≡? δ(a,1)
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
f
pair & symbol, …
g

a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d h ≡? b Maybe.
0 1 b
1 f ≡? f Yes.
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
f
pair & symbol, …
g

h
(a,e)
a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
f
pair & symbol, … (g,a)

g
(g,a)

h
(a,e)
a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b Need to mark.
1 0 1
0 1 So, mark (g,a) also.
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

4. For each unmarked f

(g,a)
pair & symbol, …
g
(g,a)

h
(a,e)
a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
4. For each unmarked
pair & symbol, … f
(g,a)

h
(a,e)
a b c d e f g

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 DFA Minimization: Example
0 1

0 1 0
a b c d b
1 0 1
0 1
1 1 0
e f g h c
1 0

0
d

e
5. Combine unmarked
pairs of states. f
0 1

a 0 b 1 g
a≡e c
e 1 h 0
b≡h 0
d≡f d 1 h
g (a,e)
1 f
0 a b c d e f g

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DFA Minimization: Example

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 DFA Minimization: Correctness

Why is new DFA no larger than old DFA?

Only removes states, never introduces new states.
Obvious.

Why is new DFA equivalent to old DFA?

Only identify states that provably have same behavior.
Could prove x∈L(M) ↔ x∈L(M’) by inductions on derivations.

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 DFA Minimization: Notes

Order of selecting state pairs was arbitrary.

• All orders give same ultimate result.
• But, may record more or fewer dependences.
• Choosing states by working backwards from known non-equivalent states
produces fewest dependences.

This algorithm: O(n2) time; Huffman (1954), Moore (1956).

• Constant work per entry: initial mark test & possibly later chasing of its
dependences.
• More efficient algorithms exist, e.g., Hopcroft (1971).

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DFA Minimization

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Structure of Compiler

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 Lexical Analysis

• Initial part of reading and analyzing the program text.

• Text is read and divided into tokens, each of which corresponds to
a symbol in the programming language.
• Ex: Variable, keyword, delimiters or digits.

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Lexical Analysis- Example

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Lexical Analysis- Example

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Example of TOKENS

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Example of TOKENS

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Example of NON TOKENS

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 Tasks Lexical Analyzer

Separation of the input source code into tokens.

» Stripping out the unnecessary white spaces from

the source code.

» Removing the comments from the source text.

» Keeping track of line numbers while scanning the new line characters. These
line numbers are used by the error handler to print the error messages.

» Preprocessing of macros

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 Identify tokens and lexemes?

1. x=x*(acc+123)

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Applications of Finite Automata to Lexical Analysis

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Applications of Finite Automata to Lexical Analysis

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Applications of Finite Automata to Lexical Analysis

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Applications of Finite Automata to Lexical Analysis

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