12.

1
12.1 Chapter
12.2
124
12.5
12.6
12.1276 INTRODUCTION TO ATA
12.
12.10 8 OOMMUNICATION
12.12.1111
2.12 |1.1DATA COMMUNICATION
43
13.1 1,1.1 Definition
13.2 Data communication refers to the exchange of data between two devices via some
13.2 form of transmission medium.
13.5 Data communication is said to be local if communicating deviees are in the same
3.5building or a similarly restricted geographical area.
3.7
It is saidto be remote if the devices are farther apart.
3.8
.10 Combone nts
Components of data communication system (ombutet
11
12KCommunication system has following components : Ntok:
.16 Message : It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of
.19 text, numbers, pictures, sound or video or any combination of these.
.20
20 2.) Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
25
28
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location
The
of receiver computer is generally different from the sender computer.
distance between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used
in between.o
message is
4. Medium : It is the channel or physical path through which the
twisted pair
carried from sender to the receiver. The medium can be wired like
radiowaves,
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like laser,
microwaves.
between the
5. Protocol,It is a set of rules that govern the communication,
communicate with
devices., Both sender and receiver follow same protocols to
each other.
 INTHODUCTION TO DATA COMML
UNICAT TODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
following funetionN:
A protocol pertorms the meksnyo Packe, Precedence and order of transmission, These rules snsure that allthe nodes
sequencing.
Dota size.
ixed It refers torules
Data sequencing definealong
breaking the method of numbering packe pet a chance to üse (be communication Jines snd other resources o
and to correctly identifypackets, network based on the priorities assigned to them
detect loss or duplication of packets, W
Conneetion establishment and termination, These rules define how
belong to same message.
most efficicnt path between the connections are established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of
Data routing. Datu routiny defines the network Want to cominunicate with each other,
and destination.
security nd privacy is also built into most
Data formating.
A. characters Data formatting rules deline which roup of bit, M Data security, Providing data
within packet constitute data, control, addressing, Or otly communication software packages, I prevents access of databy unauthorized
Users.
information.
sender 9 Log information. Several communication software are designed to develop
A. Flow control. Acommunication protocol also prevents a tast
It ensures resource sharing and protee log information, which consists of all jobs and data communications tasksthat
overwhelming a slow receiver.
congestion by regulating the flow of data on communicait have taken place. Such ínfornmation may be used for charging the users of the
against traffic ngtwork based on their usage of the network resources.
lines.

AcOMPUTER NETWORK
2.1 Definition
communication
"XA network is a set of devices or nodes that are connccted va
Rule 1 Rule 1
Rule 2 Rulo 2
media or channel.])
Protocol
Protocol Aprinter, computer, or any machine that is capable
of comnmunicating on the
Rule n Rule n
network is referred to. a_ a deyice or node.
an interconnection of various
We can also say thatcomputer network is
through a communication
computers to share software, hardwareand data
network share files,
Message medium between them.j The computers connected in a
printers etc,
folders, applications and resources like scanner, web-cams,
Medium SThe best example of computer network is the Internet
Serder
Receiver 1.2.2 Network Computing Models
in the network. It refers to the
Network model describes the organization of nodes
interconnected
way in which the different nodes are
Error control. These rules are designed to computing models are:
ensure transmission of correct messages. detect errors in messages and to The different network
The most common method is tó 1. Centralized computing
retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a
discarded by the receiver and is block having error is 2. Distributed computing
retransmitted by the sender. 3. Collaborative computing
 INTRODUCTI
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.5

1.Centralized computing. It allows Various services like

client-servercomputng. network sharing hardware sharing and rie
Itis also knownas conputers are joined
to one poWer sharing.
multiple
n this ype of system, 3.Collaborative
mainframe computer (seefig. 11).
The Server ot maintrame computer has huge storage and processi It is the
computing/Hybrid computing
combination centralized and distributed computing
of
In collaborative
capabilities computing, the nodes are able to serve the basic needs of
maintrame or server are call their users but they are
computers that are connected to the dependent on some other computers for
The some specific request. processing
Clients or Nodes}
Ihiese nodes are not connected to each other: they are only connected
1.3DATA TRANSMISSION
1.3.1 Definition
Data transmission refers to the
Maintrame movement of data in form of bits between two or more
Camputer Server digital devices.
node 4 This transfer of data takes place via some form of
coaxial cable, fiber optics etc.) transmission media (for example,
1.3.2 Data Transmission Types
node node 4

Data Transmission
node node 3

Parallel
node2 niode 3 Serial
node 2

Fig. 1.1) Centralised Computing

(i) Distributed Computing
2. Distributed computing Synchronous Asynchronous
*. Distributed computing means that the task is divided. among
Computers. multinle 1. Parallel transmission
In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on
Distributed computing
workstations (See Fig. 1.interonnects
one ore ore separate communication lines.
1) personal computers oI
In distributed In order to transmit n bits, n wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own
and rely on computing,
the nodes are
capable of processing their
network services other than data
for own data
line.

processing. Alln bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device
to another i.e. multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse.
 INTRODUCTIONTO DATA
MON
communication. INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.7
1.6
for shortdistance 8
transmission is usesd to transmit bit data These conversion devices convert the
Parallel separate wires are used parallel data into serial data a
the fig. 1.2, eight sender side so that it can be
As shown in transmitted over single line.
fro soier to
reiver. On receiver side, serial data
received is again converted to parallel torm So
that the interval circuitry of
Wires computer can accept it
Receiver MSB LSB
O Parallel 1 1 0 0
1 0 1
Sender to serial Serial
to Receiver
OConverter Single communication line parallel
0 |Converter
Source End
Transmission Destination End
Fig. 1.2 Parallel
transmission
Advantage of parallel simultaneously Fig. 1.3 Serial transmission
of transmiting data as multiple bits are transmitted
kis speedy way Serial transmission is used for long distance
communication.
with a single clock puise.
Advantage of Serial transmission
Disadvantage of parallel transmission Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the
as it requires n lines to transmit n bits
at the factor of n
i is costiy method of data transmission as compared to parallel transmission.
same time.

2. Serial Transmission
Disadvantages of Serial transmission
1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to
In serial transnission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one increase
in overall transmission cost.
after the other.
It requires only one communication Iine rather than n lnes to transmit data 2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are
from sender to receiver. transmitted serially one after the other.
Thus ati the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion. 1.3.2.1 Types of Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
There are two types of serial transmission-synchronous and asynchronous Both these
As shown in fig. 1.3, suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent transmissions use Bit synchronization.'
from
source to deslination. Then least significant bit (LSB) Le. 0 will be
transmitted first followed by other bits. The most significant bit (MSB) i.e. I Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning
will be transmitted in the end via single and end of the data transmission occurs.
communication line. Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end
The internal circuitiy of computer transmits data in paralel
order to change this parallel ata into serial fashion, So in Aring atransmission. Therefore bit synchronization provides tning
data, conversion devices are used. couuo
 INTROL

INTRODUCTION TODATA COMMUNICATION 1.9

1.8
AsynchronousTrasmission character at a time
oniy one control where a synchronized. But within each byte, receiver muust be synchronized with tne
AsvnchoOUS
tranSmission sends
the alphabotor
number or character i .e. it incoming bit stream.
a letter of
characteris either using start Application of Asynchronous Transmission
data at a time. madepossible
serdS ONe bvte of devicesis bit and 1. Asynchronous
synchronization betweentuo transmission is well suited for keyboard
Bu receiverto the paper tape devices. The advantage of this type-terminals and
method is that it does not require
stop bit. heginning of data i.e. alertsthe
beginning of
arrival
of any local storage at the
terminal or the computer as transmission takes
Start it indivates the
usually 0 is added to the each
byte, character by character. place
bits, Astart bit the receiver know that byte is
DeW grop of data i.e. to let 2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in
iniicates the cnd of appended to the end of the which
Stop bi:
more additional bits are byte. information is transmitted in short bursts. This type of transmission is used
aisted, one or (See fig. 1.4). by modems.
arecalled stop bits
These hits, usualy ls
Advantages of Asynchronous transmission
Start bit 1. This
Siop bit data method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as
0 compared to
110 1 0 1 1. 0 synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous
transmission is better,
because line cost would be low and idle time will not be
expensive.
2. In this approach each individual
Fig. 1.4 Start and Stop bit
character is complete in itself, therefore if
character is corrupted during transmission, its successor and
Addition of start and stop increase the number of
data bits. Hence mor character willnot be affected. predecessor
bandwidth isconsumed in asynchronous transmission. 3. It is possible to transmit signals from
sources having different bit rates.
There is idie time between the transmissions of different data bytes. This ide 4. Thetransmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted
une is also known as Gap (See fg. 1.5). available.
becomes
5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.
Gaps between Stop bit Start bit
7data units Disadvantages of asynchronous transmission
1. This method is less efficient and slower than
D11001Þ100 0001100110 0111101010 synchronous transmission due
Sender to the overhead of extra bits and insertion of gaps into bit
Receiver stream.
2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the
Direcion ot data flow recognition of the start
bits. These bits can be missed or corrupted.
Synchronous Transmission
Fig. 1.5
The gap or idie time can be of
Asynchrorous Transnission Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.
Asynchronous, because at bye varying intervals. This
In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain
is called
level sender and receivermechanism not to be multiple bytes.
need
1.10 INTRODUCTION TO DATA

sender & receiver by timing' the transmission of each bit.

COM UNICATIO
There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream (Se
ig
In the absence of start &stop bits, bit synchronization is established I.S),. INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
Comparison between Serlal and Parallel
1.11

Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any Sr.
transmission
responsibility of receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes t s gap, No. Factor
Serial
reconstruct the original information. Parallel
1. Number of
bitsOne bit
transmitted at one clock n bits
pulse
2. No. of lines required toOne line
L10101010 11001111 01011110| 00110011 | 10110011
transmit n bits n lines
Sender
Receiver 3. Speed of data transfer
Slow
Direction of flow Fast
4 Cost of transmission
Low as one line is
Higher as n lines are
required
5 required.
Application
Fig. 1.6 Synchronous Transmission Long distance Short distance
in order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates communication communication. like
att between
same clock frequency. two computer to printer.
computers
Application of Synchronous transmission
Comparison between Asynchronous and
Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication beti Sr. Synchronous.
computers. No. Factor
Asynchronous Synchronous
Advantage of Synchronous transmission 1 Data sent at one time
Usually 1byte Multiple bytes
1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bi 2. Start and Stop bit Used Not used
(start bit & stop bit) and also there is no gap between the individual da Gap between data units
bytes. Present Not present
4. Data transmission speed Slow Fast
Disadvantages of Synchronous transmission 5. Cost Low
1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local but: High
6
storage at the two ends of line to assemble blocks and it also requird Synchronization btween|
sender and receiver
Not required Required
accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in t
cost. 7. Application Transfer of data Transfer of da
2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. Th between keyboard and| between t
requires proper synchronization which makes the system complicated. computer computers.
 DATA

1.12
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.13

1.4 TRANSMISSION MODES 2. Another example of simplex transmission is

of the flow
of loudspeaker system. A
The tem Tränsmission
Mode defines the direction
deviceslie. it tells
direction of signal flow bet
the
informaio, announcer speaks into a microphone and his/her voice is sent througn a
amplifier and then to all the speakers.
between two communication 3. Many fire alarm systems work the same way.
(HDX)
the two devices, Simplex, Half duplex Ful 2. Half Duplex(HDX)
of transmission modes :
There are three types
In half duplex transmission data can be sent in both the directions, but only in
duplex (FDX)
one direction at a time.
Both the connected devices can transmit and receive but not
Transnission Mode simultaneously.
When one device is sending the other can only receive and vice-versa.

Full Duplex
Half Duplex
Sirnplex A is sending, B is receiving

1. Simplex mode
direction.
information is sent in only one
Send Receive
In simplex transmission on
either send only or receive only i.e. A
Device connected in simplex mode is receive. B is sending, A is receiving
can only
device can only send, other device sender.
information to be transmitted back to the
There is no m¹chanism for
Communication is unidirectional.
Receive Send
Examples of Simplex mode :
the examples of simplex devic Fig.1.8 Half duplex mode
1. Keyboards and traditional monitors are accept output.
Keyboard can only introduce input, the monitor can only Example of half duplex mode:
A walkie-talkie operates in half duplex mode. It can only send or receive a
CPU transmission at any given time. It cannot do both at the same time.
Direction of fiow
Monitor
As shown in fig. 1.8 computer A sends information to computer B. At the end of
transmission, computer B sends information to computer A. Computer Acannot send
any information to computer B, while computer Bis transmitting data.
3. Full Duplex (FDX)
4Direction of flow In full duplex transmission, data can be sent in both the directions
1 Keyboard simultaneously.
Both the connected devices can transmit and receive at the same time as
Fig. 1.7 Simplex transmission shown in fig. 1.9
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMU
1.14

InTherefore
full duplex truly bi-directional
mode, signals
system.
UNICATIO,
goingin either directionshare the full capaci
INTRODUCTION TO DATA
COMMUNICATION 1,15

it represents 5. Diagram
5. Diagram
CPU
of link. one for Direction of tlow
transmission paths
The link may contain two separate
The other
sending
way Is that the channel capacity is divided between the sigva
an Monitor A is sending, B is racgiving

another for receiving. Sond

Receive

traveling in both the directions. efficiency as the line

4 Direction of flow

The use of fuil duplex line improves the eliminated. turn arOUY T Keyboard
Bis sending, A is receiving

arrangement is
time required in a half duplex Receive
Send
Exampie
Telephoneofnetworks
Fulldupiex mode:
operate in full duplex mode when two persons talk on telephon Comparison between Half Duplex and Full Duplex
HDX
FDX
line, both can listen and speak simultanequsly 1. Data can be sent in both the
directions 1. Data can be sent in both the
but not simultaneously.
A directions simultaneously.
2. In HDX, devices can transmit & 2. In
FDX, devices can transmit and
receive but not at the same time. When receive at the
same time i.e. Each
Both A and B can send
and one device is sending, the other is
receive simultaneously station/device can send as well as
Send receiving and vice-versa. receive data simultaneously.
Receive
3. Example of HDX system is walkie- 3. Example of FDX is the telephone
talkie where one person speaks and system where both the persons can
Fig. 1.9 Full duplex mode other listens & vice-versa.
speak and listen simultaneously.
Comparison between Simple and half Duplex 4.Diagrammatically HDX is represented 4. Diagrammatically FDX is represented
Half Duplex (HDX) as:
as:
Simplex
Direction of data at time 1
duplex, data can be.sent in |Direction of data at all imes
1. In simplex mode data can be sent in 1. In half
one direction only at all times. both the direction, but only in one Direction of data at time 2
direction at a time. Station 1 Station 2 Station 1 Station 2
2. Devices connected in simplex mode 2. Both the connected devices can
are either send only or receive only i.e. transmit as well as receive data but no
Comparison between Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex
one device can only send, other can only simultaneously. S.N. Basis Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex
receive. 1 Direction of Data can be sent Data can be | Data can be sent
3.Communication is undirectional 3.Communication is bidirectional transmission of in one direction sent in both the in both the
message only directions but directions
4. Examples of simplex system are:|4. Example of HDX system is walkie not simultane- simultaneously.
Keyboard & traditional monitors, takie which can send as well as receive
loudspeaker system and fire alarms. ously.
transmission but not simultaneously.
1.16 Two Four INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
Two 1.17
Number of wires
2. (e) To move from sources to
required Medium High different routes. destination, a packet (short message) may
Low
Efticiency
3.
Cost of
trans- Cheapest
Average
Costliest 2. Multipoint Configuration
(a) Multipoint configuration is the
are attached to a single link. (seeconfiguration is which more than two devices
4.
mission Transmission
5 Example
T.V. and
radio ||
transmission and|of
data from Telsystem.
ephone (b) It is also known as
fig. 1.11)
Multi-drop configuration.
hard disk to (c) The networks having
broadcasting Networks.
multipoint configuration are called Broadcast
main memory
in a computer (d) In broadcast network, a
message or a
by all other machines in a network. packet sent by any machine is received
(e) The packet contains address field
that specifies the receiver.
1.5LINE CONFIGURATION () Upon receiving a packet, every
machine
two or more
devices are
connected packet. If the transmitted packet is for that checks the address field of the
configuration defines the way in which particular machine, it processes it;
Line otherwise it just ignores the packet.
communication line. (g) Broadcast network provides the
of connections: provision for broadcasting &multicasting.
There are two possible types (h) Broadcasting is the process in
which a single packet is received and
1. Point to Point processed by all the machines in the network. It is made
special code in the address field of the packet. possible by using a
2. Multipoint
Networks (i) When a packet is sent to a subset of the
1. Point to Point Configuration machines i.e. only to few machines
the devices. (see fig. 1.10) in the network it is known as
(a) t uses dedicated link between multicasting.
for the transmission between th
(b) The entire capacity of the link is used
two devices.

Link
Link

Fig. 1.10 Point to Point Configuration

Mainframe
(c) The networks using such a configuration are called Point to po
networks. Multipoint configuration
(d) In point to point networks, there exist individu
many connections between
pairs of machines. Pin t 11 AA, ti
 IN
1.18 broadcast
Comparison between point to polnt
networkand
network:
Broadcast Network INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.19

This Point-t0-Point
network uses Network
dedicalcd ink ln Broadeast networkS, all devi Multi-computer
LAN. MAN & systems communicateby using
WAN communicate using very
long short
cables)
and very fast
attached to buses.)
.
communication line, Sltl Internet is the
between the two devices. example of inter-network (connection
of two or more
capacity of 1.6.2 Network Classiflcation networks) )
two devicescapacity
The entire is used for link between The entire
the sing on the basis of Geographical
of transission comunication link is shared h Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classifiedSpaninto 3
devices in a network.
the main categories :
between those two devices only. aiternate
No such
network, several broadcast networks.
routes are possi 1. LAN (Local Area Network)
3. In point-to-point available trom in 2. MAN (Metropolitan Area
Network)
dtfterent routes are 3. WAN (Wide Area Network)
one device to another.

A.6 NETWORK HARDWARE NETWORK

different criteria
COaputer Networks are classified on the basis of such,
by the components.
span or size or by role played
geographical LAN MAN
Scale WAN
Classification on the basis of
.6.1Network systems on the basi
classification given below is of different multiprocessor OCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
The
their physical size. LAN is privately owned network hat operates in a very small geographic
Processors located area upto few kilometers.
Example
Inter-processor distance in same It is used to link devices ina
Data flow machines
single ofice, building or a campus.
Circuit board A LAN is used to connect the
0.1 m computers and other network devices so that
System Multicomputer the devices can communicate with each other to
im share the resources.
Room LAN The resources to be shared can be a hardware device
10 m like printer, software
100 m Building LAN likean application program or data.
1km Campus LAN The size of LAN is usually small. \It is determined by the
licensing
10 km City MAN restrictions on the number of users per copy of software, or by restrictions on
the number of users licensed to access operating
100 km Country WAN system.
Rhe various devices in LAN are connected to central devices called Hub or
1,000 km Continent WAN
Switch using acable.
10,000 km Planet Internet Hubs and switches are the communication devices used in the network. The
Data flow machines are highly parallel computers in which many functiona cables from the computer to the hub allow the data transmission to pass frem
work on same program. one computer to other.
 INTRODUCTION To DATA

technolCOMoMUgieNs.ICAN
1.20
wireless
Now-a-days LANs are being installed using
system makes Use of access point or APs to transmit and receive data.
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.21
network can become a server DQDB uses (wo
One of the computers in a
remaining computers calied Clients.
MANS and WANS on the
serving all connected to these unidirectional
two buses,
cables (buses) and all the
computels
LANs are also distinguished from
transmission media and topology, In general, a given LAN will use or basis
types of
mediun., The most common
type of transmission
LANare bus,ring and star.
topologies Intedevice.
tnetorking
communication of data rates of 4to 16
LAN offers high speed
second (Mbps)
megabits Network 1

Depending onthe size of the company and the building there may be
multistory building with hundred
more LANs. Acompany located in a internetworking
device
floor. Between each floor, a
emphoyees mav have a LAN on each
rRler is used to interconnect the
LANS. bridgs Hub
internetworking
device
Network 2
S compujers. printers and other devices use network interface &
moment
NICs) hat allow the devices to communicate at any given
speeds. DODB’Disubted Queuee
Network3 Digitat Bus
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
A MAN is made up of LANs that are interconnected across a ci Fig. 1.12 MAN
meropolitan area<as shown in fig. 1.12 Each bus has a specialized device that
device is called head end as shown in initiates the transmission activity. This
fig. 1.13
1A MAN can be created as asingle network such as Cable TV Netm
covering the entire city or a group of several Local Area Networks(LAN Head end
Bus
this way resources can be shared from LAN to LAN and from compute A
+ Direction of flow on Bus A

computer also.
MANS are usually owned by large organizations to interconnect its van
branches across a city 2 3

Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high s

DSL line to customers and Cable TV
network. Bus B
Directlon of tlow on Bus B
MAN based on IEEE 802.6 standard known as
is
Dual Bus))
DODB (Distributed Head en

Fig. 1.13 Architecture of DQDB

 INTRODUCTIÓ
side of the
1.22 right hand INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
Data that is to be
sent to the
computeronthe sender i 1.23

sender 1s
The subnet consists of two major components:
transmitted on upper bus. transmitted
the left hand
side of the Switching elements. Transmissiorn ne
Data that is to be sent to
lower bus.
Transmission lines carry bits between different machines and
elements are specialized computers that switching
linesThe switching elements are calledconnect two or more transmission
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) country, continent Or Systems and Data switching exchanges or Switching modes, Intermediate
geographic area such as even routers.
WAN Covers a large
The purpose of switching
showninthe figure.
1.14 elements is to choose an outgoing line whenever it
whole of the world,as LANS (or WANs) and
receives the data from an incoming line. )
WAN interconnects two or more audio
We can say that
transmission of data,
distance
image, and viden Host
Subnet
~ provides long
iniormation.) public, leased or
whole of the world, it may utilize private
Since WAN spans combination of these.j LAN
LAN
communication devices or application
Host

collection of machines used for running h programs, LAN

WAN contains hosts are connected
machines are called hosts. These host to
the
All carries the message from
communication subnet. The subnet
(See Fig. I.15) Router ajagatue dstay
troetme
Fig. 1.15 Relation between host and
subnet
In WANs, propagation delay and variable signal
travel times are the
problems that may occur because of the large distances invoBved.
WANs are not used for time critical Therefore
applications.
nternetworks
When two or more networks are connected to each
other it is known as
Internetwork or internet.
These individual networks are connected to form
various internetworking devices like routers, inter-networks by using
gateways.)
Here, it is worth noting that the term internet is
different from the term
Internet.
The ternm internet refers to interconnection of
networkS and the term Interne
Fig. 1.14 WAN
means specific worldwide network.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA
1.24

Comparison between LAN and WAN: cOMMUNICATIO, INTRODUCTION TODATA

COMMUNICATION
1.25

S. WAN 3. LAN is uscd lo

No.
LAN connect the MAN is used to interconnect the
computeTs other network devices so various LANS and enables the sharing
LAN operates in asmall geographic WAN operates in alarge that they can communicate with of
resources from LAN to LAN. I mus
arca such as office., building or a area such as country, continent geographiç each other and share the resources.
MAN helps in providing large scale
campus. even whole of the world. telephone service and cable TV
service.
ALANis usually privately owned. WAN can be private, public 4. LAN is easy and cheap to design MAN is not
leased type. so easy and cheap to
and maintain.
design and maintain. It incurs high
LAN oflers high speed WAN offers low data setup and maintenance cost.
cOmmunication of data. communication. 5. The various equipments used in The various devices
used in MAN are
4. LAN is asy to design and maintain. WAN is not s0 easy to design LAN are repeaters, hubs, Network routers, telephones.
maintain. Interface Cards (NICs).

5. used for time critical The problems like propagation dela Comparison between LAN, MAN and WAN
ppications there is no and variable signal travel time ma
Propagation delay in LAN. exist in WAN because of S.No. Basis LAN MAN WAN
distance involved. So WAN is no M. Full form Local Area Metropolitan Wide Area
used for time critical applications. Network Area Network Network
The communication medium used in Communication links used in WAN Geographic Operates in small Operates in large Operates over
area Such as same
LAN is co-axial cable, Unshielded | can be PSTN or satellite linke span area such as city. larger area such

twisted pair (UTP) because of long distances involved building or campus. as country or
continent.
7, LAN operates_on_ the principle of WAN operates on the principle of Ownership Usually privately Privately Usually public
the broadcasting. switching.. OWncd public owIned owned.
4. Set up cost Very cheap Moderate cost
Comparison between LAN & MAN. Very costly
Error Rate Very low Moderate High
S.
LAN MAN Transmission Trans1mission Transmission Because of long
No.
media medium is usually media can be distance
1. LAN stands for Local Area MAN stands for Metropolitan Are: Wires such as wires or medium can be
Network Network. Coaxial cable or telephone lines PSTN
2. LAN operates in a small geographic| MAN operates in a large geographi UTP satellite
area upto few kilometers such as area such as city or metropolitan area. VSpecd High Moderate Low
office, building or a campus. 8. Error rates Lowest Moderate Highest
 1.27
1.26 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
10
Internet Hub, Switch, bridge Router, gateways Router, Peer to peer relationship is suitable for small networks having less than
Working repeater gateways computers on asingle LAN. )
Devices
Advantages of Peer to Peer Networks
Example LAN is used in MAN is used for| WAN is used
scale for Peer to peer networks have following advantages:
offices to connect | large 1. Such networks are easy to set up and maintain as each
different telephone service Intemetworking computer manages
itself.
departments or in and cable TV in a i.e. internet.
2. It eliminates extra cost required in setting up the
server.
college campus city.
3. Since each device is master of its own, they are not
dependent on other
6.3 Network Classification on the basis of Relationship computers for their operations.
are
On the basis of relationshin between the different devices of the network, there Disadvantages of Peer to Peer Networks
three types of networks: 1, In peer-to-peer network, theabsence of centralized server make it difficult to
vi. Peer to Peer Networks backup data as data is located on different workstations.
Z. Client Sever Networks 2. Security is weak as each system manages itself only.
3. Hybrid Networks 3. There is no central point of data storage for file archiving.
devices of networky Both
Alhese two netvworks differ in terms of control capability of 2. Client-Server Networks
Onerating system th¡t
these implementations require special software called Network
the devices.
determines the control and flow of information between In such networks, there exists a central controller called serverA server is a
specialized computer that controls the network resources and provides
1. Peer to Peer Networks services to other computers in the network.
have same status in the network and
In Peer to peer networks, all the devices All other computers in the network are called clients.A client computer
share the link equally as shown in fig. 1.16. receives the requested services from a server.
A server performs all the major operations like security and network
management.
All the clients communicate with each other via centralized server as shown
in diagramn
If client 1wants to send data to client 2. it first sends request to server to
seek
permission for it. The server then sends asignal to client1 allowing it to
initiate the communication.J
Fig. 1.16 Peer to Peer relationship A server is also responsible for managing all the network resources such as
files, directories, applications &shared devices like printer etc.
Insuch networks there is no master or controller or server.
If any of the clients wants to access these services, it first seeks permission
Each device is responsible for setting up and maintaining its own security i.e. from the server by sending a request.
each device acts as client and server of its own.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
1.25
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.29
relationship.
Most Local Area Networks are based on client server
Hybrid nelworks incorporate the best features of workgroups in
networks with the performance, security and reliability of peer-tuP
Server networks. server-bäsu
Hybrid networks still provide all of the centralized services of
they also allow users to share and manage their servers, but
own resources within the
workgroup.

Client 5
Advantages of Hybrid Network
Cient 1
1. Client Server application are still
centrally located and managed.
2 Users can assign local access to
resources in their
computers.
3. Workgroups can manage resources without requiring assistance from
network administrator.
Client 2 Client 4
Disadvantages of Hybrid Network
1. Users may need to remember multiple passwords.
Client 3 2. Files can be duplicated and changes
overwritten between the computer with
the shared folder and the Server.
Fig. 1.17 Client Server Relationship 3. Files saved on the workstation are not backed up.

Advantages of Client Server Networks Comparison between client-server network and peer-to-peer
network:
. Centralized back up is possible.
performance of whole system.
2. Use of dedicated server improves the S.No. Basis. Client/Server network Peer-to-Peer network
all the shared resources are centrally
J. Security is better in these networks as Definition In Client-server networks, In Peer-to-Peer network, all
administered. centralized computer callcd devices have same power.
sharing resources.
A. Use of dedicated serversalso increases the speed of Server is used that has more
powers than clients.
Disadvantages of Client Server Ne.works
secondary storage. Cost
Mt requires specialized servers with large memory and It requires costly hardwarc The cost incurred in these
This leads to increase in the cost. devices to create powerful networks is less.
te

2 The cost of network operating system that manages the various clients is also
SCrver.

high. Centralised It offers centralized control It offers decentralized

control i,e. Server manages all the control, ie. all the devices
B. it requires dedicated network administrator.
nctwork resources like files, manage their resOureS
3. Hybrid Network directories, applications and themselves.
Hybrid networks are the networks that are based on both peer-t0-peer & printers ctcJ
client-server relatioship.
 INTRODUCTION
1.30
of network|Peer-to-Peer networks
CATK INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.31
AdministrationThis types professional easy to setup and
requires
administrator to manage the
manage. Designing a network in form of layers offers several benefits :
1. The various networking
functions such as error detection, encryption,
network. flow controls, routing, multiplexing can be
isolated into modules.
network Peer-to-peer network 2. Separating the various
functions into different modules make design
Security Client-Server
security as secure, process simpler and easier.
offers better 3. Such
compared to peer-to-peer modules also enable us to do research and
of layer independently from the other layers. development on each
because of centralization
resources.
Centralized
Backup Centralized back up is also backup
is
End System
possible,
possible.
configuration|Peer-to-peer confipure
Support for Client server used insmall networ
deviçes often supports large number is Layer N
of devices.
Layer N-1

11.7 NETWORK SOFTWARE

Functional
components.
Network software is one of the highly structured layers
that it can handle difer
Network software is defined in such a way so
protocols and services in an efficient manner.
Layer 1
1.7.1 Network Architecture: layers & protocols
network
Network architectur refers to the set of layers and protocols used in the Interconnection Medium

Layers
Networks are organized as a stack of different layers or levels (see fig.1.18 Fig.1.18 Layered Architecture of an end system
These layers are ustually built one upon the other. 4. This approach also makes the network more flexible to implement
Each layer has a distinct identify and performs a specific set of functions. changes in the future. If we want to add some newservice, we may only
The number of layers, the name of each layer, the content of each layer, need to modify functionality at one layer, reusing the functions provided
the function of each layer differs from network to network. at all other layers.

Each layer provides some services to the higher layers, hiding details3ofProtocols
these services are actually implemented. Protocol refers to set of methods and rules used in a particular layer.
Each layer has an active element a piece of hardware or software It is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
carries out the layer functions. It is caled layer entity. communication is to proceed.
1.32
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICAT
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.33
Laver n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on o
machine with the help of protocol. Figure 1.19 shows a computer called Host A communicating with anohei
Ihus, a protocol enables peer entities on different layer to communicate wks
computer called Host Bover a five layer network.
cach other. In such network architecture, no data are directly transferred from
layer n On
Alist of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer is called: one machine to layer n on another machine. This is called vitual
communication.
protocol stack Rather, all data and control information is passed from one layer to the layer
a different machine are sometimes
These entities in same layer on
peers may be software such as processes, hardware
calle
devi. immediately below it.
peers. Thus the The actual communication occurs through physical,medium that lies below
or even bhuman beings. layer 1.
Therefore we can say that there is no direct communication path between
Host
Host
B
peer-layer, they interact using the services of the lower layers.
A
There are two types of communication that can take place in the layered
Layer 5 protocol architecture (see fig. 1.20).
Layer 5
Layar 5 1. Hierarchical communication
Layer 45 ntertaca 2. Peer-to-peer communication
Layar 4 protocol
Layer 4 Layer 4

Laer 34 interface (N+1) layer

Layer 3 protocol
Layer 3
Layer 3
Peer-to peer
Laer 23 nterace communication
Layer 2 protocol N layer
Layer 2
Layer 2

Layer 1/2 interiace

Layer 1 protocol Layer 1 (N-1) layer Hierarchical
Layer 1 communication

Physical Meduim Fig.1.20 Hierarchical and peer-to-peer communication

Hierarchical communication occurs between the adjacent layers of a system
Fig.1.19 Layer, protocols &intertaces in network architecture
for requesting and receiving services from the lower layer.
Peer to peer communication occurs between the peer layers. Such
The entities in layer n implement a service used by layer n+/. communication is enabled by protocol. The data units that are exchanged
In this cae layer n is called service provider and layer ntlis called servi between the peer entities are called Protocol Data Units (PDU).
User.
"These PDUs are exchanged using the services provided by the lower layer as
Layer n may use the services of layer n-1 in order to provide its service. there is no direct path between the peer layers.
1.34
INTRODUCTION TO DATA
GOMMUNICATIO INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.35
Interface
An IDUconsists of an SDU(Service Data Unit) and iCLnterface Controt
interface exists between cach pair of adjacent Bayer (see fig.1.19). Information) (sce fig. 1.21).
Interface defines ruies and procedure for hierarchical communication. SDUis the information passed across the network to the peer entity and
It defines the various primitive operations and services that the lower laye pto layer n+1.
then
make available to upper layers. ICI contains control infomation which is necessary to help the
impon. lower layer
Lefining clean interfaces between the layers is óne of the most et n) to do the necessary job. ICI is not a part of data.
considerations while deciding the number of layers to be included in In order to transfer SDU, the layer ni entity divides it into many
network architceture. small pieces.
Each such piece is given a header and is sent as a separate PDU (Protocol
Clear-cut interface definitions not only minimize the amount of informas, Data Unit).
to replace &
that must be passed between the layer and also make it simpler
implementation of one layer with a completely diferent implementation. P, Layer n
links.
example, replacing all telephone lines with satellite
Layer n
entity entity
SDU
Services
the servic
As discSsed above, a layer entity carries out its functions using 2-PDU:
provided by the next lower layer.
These services between the adjacet layer enttesO erarchl Fig.1.22 Layer nentities exchange n-PDUs in their layer nprotocol
ication) are provided through a Service AcCess r O (9A)( 2 A s discussed earlier, PDU are the
data unit exchanged between the peer
fig.1.23). entities. The PDUheaders enables the peer entities to carry out their peer
Each SAP supports one communication path and has a unique address for in protocol (see fig. 1.22).
identification. These headers identify which PDUs contain data and which contain control
For successfu! exchange of information between two layers, a set of rule e information.
about the interface should be present. The headers also contain sequence numbers and counts.
-Encapsulation
Each layer in the layered architecture provides a service to the layers which
are directly above and below it.
Service Data Unit On source machine a message M, produced by an application process nunning
Irnterface control lnformation in layer 5is given to layer 4for transmission (see fig.1.24).
Layer 4 on source machine adds a header in front of the message and passes
the result to layer 3.
Fig.1.21 IDU
The information added in the header includes control information such as
At typical imerface the layer n+l entity passes an JDU(Interface Data Unssequence numbers. Such a sequence number enables the layer 4 on
to the layer nentity through the SAP (see fig. 1.23). destination machine to deliver message in the right order.
 NTRODUCTION TO DATA
ie COMMUNCATO,
cr yers, heaiers can iso contain sizes, timers andother contro! felA INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMNUNICATION 1.37
Sack a prOoeSS of ading the header to data is called data encapsulation.
ndaka reaches iaver 3 on source machine, layer 3
protocol imposes ,
irit or the size of oeSsage.
Iserefore layer 3 breaks up the incoming messages into smaller units. Thess M Layer 4 protocot
NLS Are hen called packets.
Lye 3 also adds header to each such packet as shown in fig.1.24, messag LayYr 3 protoool
EH3H4 M1
Mis split into two parts Mi & M2. H M1

Layer 2 protoco!
HO M1T2

Souroe machine
SAP SAP
Destination macthine

Fig.124 Information flow,encapsulation &

decapsulation
Laen
SDU 1.7.2 Design issues for the layers
The varnous key design issues that occur in
SDU below:
computer networking are discussed
Heser n-PDU 1. Addressing
Each laver should have mechanism for identifying the senders
and receivers.
Fig.1.23 Relation between layers at an interlace A network consists of many computersand each
computer can have multiple
Layer 3then passes these packets to layer 2. processes running at a time) In sucha scenario, ameans is needed to specify
Layer 2 adds not only a header to each picce but also a trailer. It then passes which process on one machine wants to communicate with the
process on the
other machine.
the resulting data unit to layer ! for physical transmission.
As there are multiple possible destinations, some form of
Al the receiving machine. the message moves upward from one layer t addressing is
another. required to specify a particular address.
At each layer of receiving machine the various headers added by the layer . Transmission modes
on source machine are removed (see fig.1.24). This design issue deals with the direction of data transfer between the two
This process of removing the headers on destination machine is known # connected devices.
decapsulation. Depending upon whether the system communicates only in one direction or
both at a time, there are three types of transmission modes :
 INTRODUCTION TO DÂTA COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION TODATA COMMUNICATION 1.39
1.38
(i) Simplex 6. Ability to receive the long
messages.
(i) Half Dupiex Some processes are not able to accept
In order to solve this problem, some
arbitrarily long messages.
-(üi) Full Duplex mechanisms are required to disassemble
the message into small units on sender side
3. Error Control units into original message on receiver side. transmit them & resemble these
physical communication circuits
design issue as
Error control is an important 7. To_use multiplexing &
are not perfect. demultiplexing
detection and correction. For this,
many errot Sometinmes, it is inconvenient or expensive to set up a separate
The layer must perform erTor code is used which is each pair of communicating processes. connection for
known but only that
detecting and correcting codes are In such a situation, a layer may decide to use the
same
agreed by both sender and receiver.
the sender which message
multiple, unrelated conversations. This concept of connection for
The receivershould also have some method to tell carrying multiple
conversations over a single connection is known as multiplexing.
provide positive or
is not. The receiver should
is received correctly and which The process of separating these
received data. conversations on receiving end is
negative acknowledgement for the
if data is received
correctly. Negative demultiplexing. Thus demultiplexing is the reverse of multiplexing.known as
Positive acknowledgement is sent This multiplexing and demultiplexing can be
acknowedgement means data is erToneous. they are done
used by any layer as long as
transparently.
4. Flow Control
swamp the sloy
Multiplexing is needed in physical layer where all the traffic for all
that the fast sender may not sCOnnections has to be sent over, at most, a few physical circuits.
This design issue makes sure sending dataa
may arise in which sender is
receiver with data, The situation 8Routing
process.
the speed that the receiver cannot Routing is another design issue that deals with
loosing some of the data. selecting an appropriate route
As a result receiver will keep from source machine to destination
procedures are employed that tell the sende machine.
To solve this problem, several waiting for an acknowledgement fron
The need for such decision arises when
how much data it can transmit before and destination.
multiple paths exist between source
receiver.
sende 1.7.3 Types of
of feedback from the receiver to services offered by layers
These procedures involve some kind
speed and the amounto The layers can offer two types of
about the receiver's current situation i.e. processing services to the layer ab0ve them. These are:
buffer storage le 1. Connection Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
5. Avoid loss of sequencing,
All the connunication channels cannot preserve the order of messages SMConnection Oriented Service
on them. In connection oriented service a
connection is established between the
As a result, there is a possibility of loss of sequencing. communicating n+ / entity using the service provided by the n-entity.
In order to avoid this problem, all the pieces should be numbered so that t The service dsers of connection oriented
service undergo three d1tferent
can be put back together at the receiver in the appropriate sequence. phases:
 COMMUNICATION
INTRODUCTION TO DATA INTRODUCTION TODATA COMMUNICATION 1.41
1.40
Connection establishment phase (reliable message stream) and the other treating data as stream of bytes
with no message boundaries (reliable byte stream).
B Data transfer phase Reliable message stream service is used for transferring the sequence of
3,onnection release phase
system. When w pages where it is important to preserve the message boundaries.
modeled after the telephone
Connection oriented service is we talk or transfe:
establish a connection; then connection. On the other hand reliable byte stream service is used for remote login.
make a phone call, we first we hang up or drop the In this case, when a user logs into a remote server, a byte stream from
information. And when we are done from one end of user's computer is transferred to remote server.
pushes bits
a tube. The sender
Such a connection acts like the other end. Another class of connection oriented service called unreliable
takes out from
the tube and the receive which the bits are received is connection oriented service does not require acknowledgements to be
service, the order in
In connection oriented sent to the source. Such a service is used where the use of
they are sent.
same as the order in which subnet negotia, acknowledgements introduce delays. For example: In case of digitized
the sender, receiver and
During connection establishment, required, maximum message size, ant voice over telephone, it is preferable to hear a bit of noise on the line
service
certain parameters.as qualityof addresses.
from time to time than to experience a delay waiting for
exchange of source and destination acknowledgements.
Connectionless Service 2. The service is said to be unreliable when the receiver does not
acknowledge
açtion and does not includ
Connectionless service is a self-contained the receipt of the message.
connection.
establishment, maintenanceandreleasing a route
Unreliable connectionless service is also known as unreliable datagram
destination address and is treated and service. Such a service is commonly used for junk e-mails or simply
Each message carries the full
independently of all other messages. junk-mails. The sender of such junk-mails does not establish or release
sender and receiver of data. the connection to send these mails nor does he require 100
There is no prior negotiation between percent
order of delivery & reliable delivery. Unreliable datagran service is similar to telegram
Connectionless service does not even preserve the
different messages may arrive out of order at th service, which also does not return an acknowledgement to the sender.
messages. As a result the
3. There can also be reliable connectionless service called acknowledged
destination.
Connectionless service is modeled after a postal system, in which we drop. diagram service.
letter in amailbox by specifying the destination address. In such a syster Such a service may not require connection to be established for sending one
two letters dropped in the sane mailbox going to the same destination m! short message but essentially requires reliability. This is similar to sending a
likely take different routes and arrive out of order. registered letter and requiring a return receipt. When a receipt comes back,
Both the services discussed above can be reliable or unreliable depending upon t the sender is sure that the letters was delivered to the destination.
fact whether or not the receiver acknowledges the receipt of each message. Another kind of service provided is the request-reply service. In this
I. The service is said to be reliable when the receiver acknowledges the rece. service the sender transmits a single datagram containing a request and
of cach message so that the sender is sure that data is received. Howe receiver transmits a reply that contains the answer. Request-reply service
such an acknowledgement sometimes results in overhead and delays. is used in client-server nmodel where client issues a
request and server
Reliable connection oriented service is used for file transfer and responds to it. For example: a query to a database for specitic
two different implernentations. One preserves the message boundar information.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATiOx
1.42
above:
INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION
1.43
discussed
various types of services
The table given below summarizes the The primitives Iisted above are used in the following
Service Example manner :
1. The server first executes LISTEN to indicate that it is
Type Sequence of pages
Reliable messagestream incoming connections. After executing the primitive, theprepared to accept
Remote login blocked until a request for connection server process is
ConnectionOriented Service Reliable byte stream appears.
Unreliable connection Digitized voice 2. The client process
executes CONNECT to establish the connection with
the server. The
Unreliable datagram Electronic junk mail CONNECT call needs to specify who to connect to, so it
includes a parameter providing the server's
Connectionless service Acknowledged datagram Registered mail suspended until there a response (see fig.1.25).address. The client process is
Request-eply Database query 3. When the packet arrives at the
server, it is processed by the operating
system there. When the system sees that the
1.7.4 Service Primitive connection, it checks to see if there is a listener; Ifpacket
listener
is requesting a
is there, it does
the user process to access two things :
Service primitives are the operations that enable
the service. (a) unblocks the listener.
These primitives tell the service to perform some action or report o (b) sends back an acknowledgement.
taken by a peer entity. 4. The arrival of this
When the protocol stack is located in the operating
system the primitives art acknowledgement then releases the client. At this point
the client and server are both running and
they have a connection
normally system calls. established.
which then turns control of the
These calls cause a trap to kernel mode, 5. The server then execute
packets. RECEIVE to prepare to accept first request. The
machine over to operating system to send the necessary RECEIVE call blocks the server.
of service being
The set of primitives available depends on the nature 6. The client then executes SEND to
provided. transmit its request followed by the
those of execution of RECEIVE to get the reply.
The primitives for connection-oriented service are different from
connectionless service.
Client machine
The various primitives implemented in a reliable byte stream in a client Connection Request
Server machine
server environment are given in the table below:
Client Acknowledgement Server
Primitive Meaning Process Process
Request for data
LISTEN Block waiting for an incoming connection.
System Reply
CONNECT Establish aconnection with a waiting peer calls
Disconnect
RECEIVE Block waiting for an incoming message Operating Kernel Protocol
System Stack Drivers
Disconnect Kernel Protoco! Drivers
SEND Send a message to the peer Stack
DISCONNECT Terninate a connection
Fig.1.25 Client server interaction on a connection
oriented network
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA
1.44 COMMUNICATION INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATION 1.45
se.
at the server machine nblocks the
7. The arrival of request packet work, it e Topology determines the data paths that may be used
After it has done the
process so it can process the request. devices of the network) between any pai of
clent.
SEND t0 eturn the answer to the
which can now inspect th The following factors are considered while
8. The arrivai of this packet unblocks the client, selecting atopoløgy:w
requests it can make them now. 1. Cost )) Cost
answer. If the client has additional
9. lf it is done, it can use
DISCONNECT to terminate the connection. Sl 2. Reliability i) Retiahúy
a packet to server to inform that th 3. Scalability
a call suSpends the client and sends
connection is no longer required. 4. Bandwidth capacity Ú) Scatakhity
also issues a DISCONNECT ofit
() Qelay inveed in eui ng intemtio
10. When the server gets the packet, it connection.
5. Ease of installation fem on node to ott
own, acknowBedging the client and releasing the 6. Ease of troubleshooting (vi) case o instateaton
packet get back to client machine, the client processj
11, When the server's 7. Delay involved in routing
released and the connection is broken. information from one node to another.
1.8.2 Types of Topologies
1.8NETWORK TOPOLOGY
1.8.1 Definition
various nodes
Topology
The term Topology refers to the way in which the
computers of a network are linked together.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. Bus Ring Star Mesh Tree Hybrid
the relationshi
The topoBogy of a network is the geometric representation of
of allthe links connecting the devices or nodes.
While making a selection of a particular. topology we
status of different devices that are to be linked. consider the relative
Thexodes in a network can have following two relationships :
1. Peer to Peer: In this
relationship, all the devices in the network have
equal status in sharing the link. For example, Ring & Mesh
2. Primary-Secondary: In this, one device
topology.
Link
HUB controls the traffic and all other
devices transmit through primary device. e.g. Star topology.
Node A Node B 1. Bus Topology
In Bus topology, there is a single
communication line or cable that is shared
by allthe nodes in the network.
Allthe devices in network are connected to this line.
A fink is the physical communication pathway that transters the data from one device to
anotie The Various nodes are connected to the bus cable by
Fig. 1.26 (0) Link between two devices drop lines and taps as
Fig. 1.26 (i) TopologY shown in fig 1.27.
 INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATO 1.47
INTRODUCTION TO DATA cOMMUNICATION
i.46 main line
connection running between the device and the Disadvantages of Bus topology
drop line is a
A punctures
into main cable or 1. Ifthe main central line fails the entire network collapses.
Atap is a
connector that either splices metallic core.
create a contact with the 2. In this topology, only limited number of devices can be inchuded. Signal
siiealhing of acable to
that absorbs the signal
when reflection at tap causes degradation in quality. This degradation can be
with aterminator
The main liirne or cable ends controlled by limiting the number and distance between these taps.
reaches the end of line. (see fig 1.27).
end of copper i 3. It is difficult to diagnose a fault in the system as single
electrical signal would reach the communication
Without a terninator the channel is shared by the network.
errors on the network.
and bounce back, causing 4. Sharing a single communication channel results in slower access time.
cable, all the computers on t
Wien one computer sends a signal up the
message is accepted by only th 5.In this topology, higher network traffic slows down the bus speed. Oniy one
nework receive thé information but the
the address field of the message: : device transmits at a time, other devices wait for their turn. As a result there
computer whose address is specified in is no coordination between the devices for,
nodes reject the message. reservation of transmission time
slots, so data collisions are frequent.
some of the energy is transfom:
As the signal travels along the main line,
of tg 2. Ring Topolog
into heat. This weakens the signal. This puts a limit on the number
those taps.
distance between
thatcan be made on main line and aiso on the In ring topology, the various nodes are connected in form ofa ring or
circle
(physical ring), in which data flows in a circle, from one station to another
Node 3 Node 4 station.
Node 1 Node 2
It has no beginning or end that needs to be
terminated.
node 6 node 1
Drop Drop Drop Drop
Line Line Line Line
S '

Tap Tap Tap Tap

Terminator Main ine Terminat node 2

Fig. 1.27 Bus topology

node 5
Advantages of Bus topology
t is easy to install, understand and the use for small networks.
2. Cost is less as only one main cable is
required and least amount of Ca0
required to connect computers.
3 Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by node 4 node 3
4. Failre of one node does not using a connecto.
affect the network functioning. Fig. 1.28 Single Ring
 INTRODUCTION 10
1.48
point li, INTRODUCTION DATA COMMUNICATION
dedicated point to TO
device or node has a
1.49
In this topology, each on either side of it. Each computer in the ring receives the token in
configuration with only two devices one station sequence and passes it to the
one direction from to anothe next computer until either the electronic
address matches the
Signal is passed along the ring in computer or the token returns to its origin. address of a
until it eaches destination.
The receiving computer returns the
Each device in ring incorporates a repeater.
signal intended for another device, its repeale indicating that the message is received. message (feedback) to the originator
When a device receives a them along. The sending computer then creates
regenerates the bits and passes another token and places it onto the
network.4
There are two kind of ring topologies : This token is then captured by any other
1. Single Ring station who wants to begin its
transmission.
2, Duai Ring The token circulates until a station is ready to
single cable is shared by all the devices and send and capture the token.
1. Single ring: la single ring network, a Advantages of ring topology
data travel only in one direction.
transmits. When the data reaches ; A. There is no master computer on
controller. Every computer has equal chance
Each device waits for its turn and then to place the data and access the token.
destination, another device can transmnit (see fig. 1.28).
rings to send the data, each in different S2. There are no collisions.
2. Dual ring: This topoBogy uses two
network (see fig. 1.29). J3. Data packets travel at greater speeds.
direetion, Thus allowing more packets to be sent over the
w4. It is easier to locate the problems with device and
cable i.e. fault isolation is
node 6 node 1 simplified. If one device does not receive a signal within a specified time, it
can issue an alarm. This alarm alerts the
and its location.
network operator to the problem

node 2
Disadvantages of ring topology
K A ring network requires more cable than a bus
network.
2. A break in cable ring brings down entire
network (in case of single ring).
node 5 3 Adding or removing the node disturbs the network
activity.
4. Inring network, communication delay is directly
of nodes in the network. Hence addition of new
proportional to the number
nodes in the network also
increases communication delay.
node 4 node 3
3. Star Topology
XThis topology has a central controller called Hub.
Fig. 1.29 Dual Ring Topology
Each computer in the network has a dedicated point to point link to
Token passing in Ring Network this
central controller. (see fig. 1.30).
Some ring networks do token passing. There is no direct link between these computers and the
Token is a short message that is passed around the ring. computers can
communicate via central controller only.