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Pest Control, IPM Note

Chemical Method Of Pest Management, History Of Pesticides, Insecticides
(Classification), Major International Convention Related To Hazardous
Chemical Pesticide, Bio-Technological Method, etc.

Chemical Control
The use of chemical to kill, deter, change behavior, impair sterility or influence pest for
management purpose is called chemical method of pest management. Chemical refer to
pesticide which is an economic poison or any substances that control, prevent, destroy,
repel or influence the biological process of the pest.
Year (AD) Generation pesticides Example
900-1848AD Era of natural product Tobacco, arsenite, soap pyrethriods,
phosphorus
1854-1932 AD Era of 1st generation Petroleum product, sulfur, lead arsenate,
Bordeaux
1925-1958 AD Era of 2nd generation BHC, DDT, Parathion, aldrin, malathion,
Sevin, Carbamates.
1967-75 AD Era of 3rd generation Juvenile hormone
1976 AD - Era of 4th generation Antihormone (precocene)

Advantages
 It is effective and gives quick result.
 It is more economical method.
 Pesticides are available in wide range of formulation so are adaptable in any pest
situation.
Disadvantage
 Many pest have been developed resistance to pesticide.
 Sometimes secondary pest out break occurs-due to use of chemical pesticides.
 Overuse of pesticide cause injury to plant.
 Most of pesticide are toxic to man and higher animals and cause hazardous effect
to environment.
 Cost of pesticide is rapidly increased every year.
 Pesticide drift is also serious problems.
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History of pesticides

1867 Paris green used for first time.

1973 Othmar Zeidlar, German graduate who invented DDT first time
1939 Dr. Paul Herman muller find out DDT can be useful for controlling insect pest.
1948 Dr. Paul is honored with Nobel prize for identification of insecticide properties of
DDT.
1950 Gandaki hydroelectricity project imported DDT for controlling malaria for first
time under ministry of health.
1954 Used DDT extensively for pest management purpose in crop by MOAC in Nepal.
1954-1970 DDT was extensively used for pest management
1992 Paris green is imported from USA. Similarly, Gammazen, nicotine is also
imported.
1956/57 Dieldrin imported in Nepal
1950 s Organochlorine
1960 s Organophosphate
1970 s Carbamates
1980 s Synthetic pyrethroids
After 1990 Microbial hormones

Time of development

On the basis of time of development pesticides are classified.

1) First generation: Pesticide developed in the early years of the 20th century (beginning
to 1932). These are arsenicals, fluorides, cyanides, oils, soaps, carbon disulfide, paris
green, ethylene dichloride, ethylene dibromide, methyl bromide, sulfur, Bordeaux.
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2) Second gene ration: The discovery of DDT revolutionized the use of pesticide after
which several synthetic compounds such as BHC, parathion, aldrin, chlordane, malathion
sevin, carbamates continued to appear at a fast rate.

3) Third Generation pesticides: The discovery and use of juvenile hormone and related
chemical changed the direction of pesticide use in agriculture. E.g. Methoprene

4) Fourth Generation pesticides: The use of antihormonal insecticide e.g. Precocene

Formation: The technical grade of pesticides are usually coarse, sticky solid or viscous
liquid which are seldom use in pure or native form. They are mixed with carrier, diluent
and surface active agent according to pre-determine formula to produce final consumer
product. Therefore formulation refers to act of producing pesticide in precise form. There
is several kinds of pesticides formulation designed for different uses.
1) Solid formulation
Dust:
The particle size of dust ranges between 1-40 . In general the toxicity of an insecticides
increase as particle size decrease. The finished product may contain 0.1-25% toxicant and
rest other is carrier inert material. Dust donot adhere well to the plant surface but may be
useful in dry climate where water is limiting. For obtaining better result dust are applied
early in the morning where the foliage is still wet with dew and there is no wind to cause
drift. e. g.Malathion 5% D
Granule:
This formulation is prepared by sticking the powdered pesticide on the inert granule.
Granule formulation are extremely useful for systemic pesticides apply to the soil at
sowing time. Because of their large particle size (0.25—2.4mm) there is little or no drift
and slow release of insecticide from granules provide protection of the young plant for
first few week of its life. Eg.Carbofuran 3% GR, Chloropyrifos 4% GR
Bait:
Bait are prepared incorporating an insecticides into a food base. It is extremely
economical way of using insecticides as it targets the pest and non-target organism are
not affected. A good non- repellent type of stomach poison is mixed with food and its
effectiveness could be further improved adding some chemical attractant.
Wettable power (WP)
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The insecticides insoluble in water are mixed in carrier that are capable of making a fine
suspension. Wettable powder tend to settle at the bottom of spray tank quickly therefore
it should be agitated continuously in spray tank or applied immediately after dilution. It
contains 25-50% toxicant and the rest wetting or dispering agent for example Carbaryl
50% WP, Thidocarb 75 WP.
2) Liquid formulation
Emulsifiable concentration (EC)
An insecticide is dissolved in an organic solvent to which emulsifier are added. This
formulation is generally preferred to wettable powder because the liquid form is more
easily handled and mixed in the water. Further presence of oil in the emulsion makes it
more toxic and leaves more resistance deposit than that of suspension. It also requires
less agitation and is more satisfactory for used by small sprayer. For example
Chloropyrifos 20 EC, Dimethoate 30 EC.

Suspension concentrate (SC) (Flowable)

Suspension concentrate are becoming more popular as they avoid settling problem and
dust hazard. Suspension concentrate consist of fine particle of pesticides suspended in a
fluid of creamy consistency. They are measured by volume and diluted directly with
water for application for example Spinosad 48 SC

Aerosol
It is an insecticide mixture contained in a volatile solvent which is expelled through a fine
orifice as a gas under pressure to produce a fine spray of a minute particle. It is
particularly effective against flying insects such as mosquito, housefly etc.e.g Baeygon
spray

3) Gaseous form
i) Dry fumigants : Insecticides used as a dry solid which come in contact with
atmosphere liberate toxic gases and are deposited on the surface as a fine particle. This
formulation is commonly use for control stored grain pest. Eg.Aluminium phosphide
56% Tab
ii) Liquid fumigants : Fumigants are most often formulated as liquid. Carbon disulphide
and carbon tetrachloride are colour-less liquid used for stored grain pest. Eg. Carbon
disulplide used for control PTM
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LD 50 (Lethal Dose 50)

Lethal Dose 50 is defined as dose of pesticide to kill 50% of test (organism) animal. It is
measured in mg/kg unit. Lower LD50 value indicates higher toxicity.
On the basic of LD50 value WHO classified pesticide into four hazard category.
Class Hazard LD 50 for rate Label Example
category mg/kg body wt. colour
Oral Dermal
Ia Extremely <5 <50 Red Aldicarb, Bromadiolone, Mercuric
Hazardous chloride, Parathion , Phorate,
Phosphamidon
Ib Highly 5-50 50-200 Red Monocrotophos, Zinc phosphide,
Hazardous Dichlorvos, Paris green,
Eudosulphan,Carbofuran carbaryl
II Moderately 50- 200- Yellow Acephate, Bifenthrin, Carbosulfan,
Hazardous 2000 2000 Chlordane, Carbaryl, Chlorpyrifos,
Dicofol, Dimethoate, Endosulfan,
Fenvalerate, Fipronil, Deltamethrin,
Paraquat, Qunialphos, Thiodicarb,
Metaldehyde, Imidacloprid,
III Slightly >2000 >2000 Blue Atrazine, Bacillus thuringiensis,
Hazardous Ethephon, Glyphosate, Spinosad
U Unlikely to 5000 or higher Green Captan, Chlorantrianilprole, Mancozeb,
present Maneb, Propineb, Zineb
acute
hazard

Band pesticides in Nepal

PoPs Non-PoPs
DDT Toxapheone
Aldrin Chlorodane
Endrin Methyl parathion
Dieldrin Monocrotophous
Heptachlor Organomercuric fungicides
Mirex Endosulphan
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Phospamidon
Phorate
BHC
Lindane

Persistent organic pollutants (PoPs)

Synthetic organic compounds that persist for long time in nature and accumulate in fatty
tissue of human beings and magnified through food chain.
Insecticides (classification)
Organochlorine: Chlorinated hydrocarbon which consist of basic hydrocarbon nucleus
with various numbers of chlorine atoms attached or substituted at places in molecules.
These are hard insecticides because they generally persist for a long time in the
environment. Its property is initially regarded as useful property but gives rise to
pesticide residue problem in product. It was extensively used for pest control initially but
now it is phase-out. These insecticides act by contact ingestion in some cases by vapour
action but none are systemic.
DDT, Chlordane, Endrin, Endosulfan, Aldrin, Dieldrin, BHC, Methoxychlor,
Toxapheone.
Organophosphate: They have a similar central core which includes a phosphorus atom.
Some are very toxic such as parathion and some are safest such as malathion. All
organophosphate insecticide are nerve poison both for insect and human and inhibit the
enzyme cholinesterase. Some organophosphate insecticides have systemic properties
whereas many are contact (Dichlorvus) and some are fumigants.
Parathion, Phorate, Fenitrothion, Dichlorovus, Quinalphos, Chloropyriphos, Trizophous,
Acephate, Phosphamidon, Ethion, Monocrotophos, Dimethoate,
Synthetic Pyrethriod: They have long lasting effect than natural pyrethrum and have
high insecticidal property against wide range of pest. They are use in low rates and are
expensive. Cypermethrin, Permethrin, Alfa-cypermethrin, Deltamethrin, Bifenthrin,
fenvalerate.
Carbamates: These are based on carbamic acid nucleus which are nerve poison. Some
have very low toxicity (Carbaryl) and some others are extremely poisonous (Aldicarb).
For example, Carbaryl, Carbofuran, Carbosulphan, Thiodicarb
Others: Acetamaprid, Thiomethoxam, Flubendiamide, Abamectin, Emamectin benzoate,
Aluminium phosphide, Cartap hydrochoride, Fipronil, Imidaclorpid, Propagite.
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Classification of pesticides
On the basis of mode of action
i) Contact pesticide
Insecticide kills the insect through contact action because of their solubility in the oil
present in the body surface. Insect come in contact while spraying or moving through
treated surface. Insecticides penetrate through the point of weakness of the integument,
base of the wings and antenna, trachea, base of the hair etc. e.g. Malathion,
Choloropyrifos
ii) Stomach poison
These pesticides are ingested and then absorbed through the wall of alimentary canal.
Stomach poison are either spray or dusted on the crop or used at bait for insect having
biting chewing type of mouthpart. Insect having piercing and sucking mouthpart are
hardly affected by contact poison. E.g.Chloropyrifos, Triaziphos, Quainalphos.
iii) Fumigants pesticides
These are volatile compound which produce toxin in gaseous form in the air. They enter
the body of insect through the respiratory system and therefore kill insect in close space
(like rice weevil, grain moth) regardless of their mouthparts e.g. Methyl bromide,
Alminium phosphide etc. Normally, true fumigants are gases at normal temperature and
pressure and must be stored in pressurized cylinder.
iv) Systemic pesticides
Systemic pesticides have property of being absorbed into the sap streams of plants (from
leaves or root) and then of being translocated to other parts of the plant. Most of systemic
pesticides are effective against sap feeders as ingestion of insecticide depend upon
amount of sap ingested by insect e.g.Dimethoate, Carbofuran, Carbaryl

Major International Convention Related to Hazardous Chemical Pesticide

a. Stockholm convention(Stockholm, Swe den): Stockholm Convention on
Persistent Organic Pollutants is an international environmental treaty, signed in 22
May 2001 and effective from 17 May 2004, that aims to eliminate or restrict the
production and use of persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Eliminating dangerous
chemicals and clean up old stockpiles and equipment containg PoPs is major issues
of this convention.
b. Rotterdam convention (Rotterdam, Netherland): The Rotterdam Convention
(formally, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
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Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade) is a multilateral

treaty to promote shared responsibilities in relation to importation of hazardous
chemicals. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on
exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe
handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. Signatory nations
can decide whether to allow or ban the importation of chemicals listed in the treaty,
and exporting countries are obliged to make sure that producers within their
jurisdiction comply. This treaty was signed in 10 September and effective from 24
feburary 2001.
c. Basal convention (Basel, Switzerland): The Basel Convention on the Control of
Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, usually
known as the Basel Convention, is an international treaty that was designed to
reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to
prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It
does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. The Convention is
also intended to minimize the amount and toxicity of wastes generated, to ensure
their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of
generation, and to assist less developed countries in environmentally sound
management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate. The Convention was
signed on 22 March 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992.
INNOVATIVE METHOD
Innovative method includes genetic alteration, use of insect attractant, repellent,
antifeedant, hormone and their analogue. Their application is aimed at modifying,
managing & regulating insect pest rather than merely killing them.
Advantage
 They are required in minute quantity to attract large mass of insect pest and
therefore they are economical.
 They are non-pollutant and are ecologically acceptable.
 They are specific to particular species only, and non targets are spared.
 They can be used to monitor the insect population.
 They are best fit with integrated pest management practices.
 They don't leave any residual problem

Disadvantage
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 Attractant of many pests are yet unknown.

 This requires knowledge and skill to use such compound.
 Quick result is not obtained. Therefore, it cannot be used in short term control
measure.
 Sex-pheromone attracts only one sex therefore opposite sex still continue damage.
 This can't be used as sole control measure.
 Insect can find untreated host, so their number mayn't be affected.
Type of insect attractant
Individual of different species of insect, communicate chemically. The chemical
substance that brings behavioural message termed as semio-chemical. The signal is
termed allomone that benefit the producer and as kairomone that favours the receiver.

Semio-chemical

Not secreted (artificial or

Naturally secreted
botanical constituents

Pheromone Allelochemical
Intraspecific Interspecific Attractants Disruptants Repellent

Releaser Primary pheromone

pheromone (Physiological effects )
(mating,
Aggregation, Kairomone (favour receiver)
Allomone (favour
Alaram)
emitter)
Based on purpose of orientation, the attractant are categorized into:
i) Food attractant
Insect live in every favorable environment and their food requirement is diverse. The
food lure vary according to food habit of insect. For e.g.scavenger are attracted by
decomposed product of organic matter, blood sucking insect are attracted by carbon
dioxide, water and lactic acids. Food lure generally act as olfactory stimuli and their
receptor organ are usually present on the antenna and insect response to the stimuli. The
most favorable food are mixed with poison to attract and kill the insect.
 Cue lure—Cucurbit fruit fly
 Methyl eugenol- Oriental fruit fly
 Ammonium carbonate—Housefly
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 Protein hydrolysate—fruit fly

ii) Pheromone
A pheromone is a chemical or mixture of chemical released by an organism in the
environment, that causes specific reaction in a receiving organism of same species.
 Helilure:- Helicoverpa armigera
 Spodolure:- Spodoptera litura (Tobacco caterpillar)
 Leucin lure:- Leucinod orbanalis
 Pectin lure:- Pectinophora gosspiella (pink ballworm)
 DBM lure:- Plutella xylostella Diamond Back Moth
iii) Oviposition attractants
The natural substances that control the selection of site by an adult female for oviposition
are termed as oviposition lure. Ammonia, amine, sulphide and fatty acids are known to
attract many insect for oviposition. Dipteran files oviposit near to the organic matter
decomposing site.
Hydrolysed protein—fruit fly

Repellents
Substances that prevent damage by making food or living condition unattractive for pest
is known as insect repellent.
i) Physical repellents: Contact stimuli repellent oil, dust, hair etc
ii) Auditory repellent: Amplified sound repel the mosquito
Supersonic vibration sound of bait repel cotton bollworm.
iii) Visual repellent: White light is more attractive than red light. Trips are attracted to
blue sticky trap.
iv) Barrier repellent: Wire meshing on door and window acts as effective barrier
repellents
v) Chemical repellent: Oil citronella repel the mosquito.
 Azadiractin of neem repel many insect.
 Cabbage butterfly never oviposite in the field surrounded by tomato.
 Dhaturo plant repel white fly.
Antifeedant:
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Antifeedant are those chemical which inhibit feeding when applied or present in plant
and in it's absent insect could feed the given plant. Interfere with gustatory, stimulus and
insect will not feed plant i.e. treated with antifeedant.
Alkaloid in potato (Solanine,Tomatin) reduce attack of leaf hopper
Azadiractin in neem reduce attack of sucking insect
Synthetic chemical Triazenes (4-dimethyl triaxone acetanilide): Catterpillar
Hormones
Hormones are the secretion of endrorine gland that regulates the growth and development
in insect.
Juvenile hormone: Juvenile hormone helps to keep the larva in a permanently juvenile
condition
Methoprene—Mosquito
Hydroprene—Cockroach

Ecdyson hormone: These hormones promote moulting in insect.

E.g. Diflubenzuron—Mosquito, midge
Bufrofezin—leaf hoppor
Lufeneuron—dog flea
Genetic control
Genetic control refers to employment of an insect to destroy its own kind or self
destruction of the species. It involves mass production, sterilization and releases of pest
population that will mix and mate with the other population of the environment to reduce
their fertility. This is also refer to as autocidal control, sterile insect release method which
has been tested in insect screw worm.

BIO-TECHNOLOGICAL METHOD
Bio-technology refers integrated use of bio-chemistry, microbiology and engenering
science in order to achieve capabilities of micro-organism, cultured tissuse, cells and
parts of plant. Biotechnology is defined as application of scientific and engenering
principles to the processing of materials by biological agent to provide goods and
services. A recent topic of biotechnology is genetic engineering which involve gene
splicing recombinant DNA coloning and tissue culture technology. Genetic engineering
may be defined as extra cellular creation of new form or arrangement of DNA in such a
way to allow incorporation and continue propagation of altered genetic condition in
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nature. In short, genetic engeneering means manipulation of gene under control

laboratory condition. It involves two steps.
 The invitro incorporation of gene or segment of DNA of interest into a small self
replicating chromosome.
 The introduction of recombinant DNA into a host cell where it will replicated.
E.g.Bt cotton one of the example of transgenic plant.
Advantage
 To improve the quality and yield of crop.
 Increase the genetic diversity.
 Maintain the stability among the genotypes.
 Reduce number of cycle and duration of breeding.
 Helps in understanding genetics, cytogentic and bio-engineering such as nitrogen
fixation gene, isolation of toxin, introduction of specific root to drought condition.
 Promote herbicide resistance, insect resistance, salt tolerance etc.
 The transgenic plant has little or no ecological risk beneficial and harmful insect
are not directly affected. The plant have inbuilt resistance to various insect so no
problem of pesticide pollution.
Disadvantage
 This method focuses large scale commercial agriculture rather than small scale
farmer.
 Rapid development of resistant by pest, exposed constantly to transgenic plant
containing a pesticidal gene such as Bacillus thuringiensis.
 The mortality of insect indicates it's toxicity to pollinators and nector feeder.
 There is a chance of secondary pest outbreak.
The main biotechnological method of pest management are:
i) Tissue culture technique
ii) Recombinant DNA technology
Tissue culture technique
Tissue culture is a technique of growing plant tissue on synthetic medium under
controlled & aseptic condition. Cellular totipotency has implication to manipulate plants
cells for rapid multiplication of the plant to cross plant at level of somatic cell by
overcoming the limit of cross ability and also to regenerate adult plant after modifying
the DNA molecule at cellular level. One of the principle advantage of using tissue culture
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is that the desirable traits can be selected in the laboratory and screening can be
completed relatively quickly in contrast to consider whole plants in a field based
situation. Plant tissue culture includes several specialized area like micro-propagation,
somaclonal variation, protoplast and anther culture.
Recombinant DNA technology
Recent advances in molecular biology have made possible to introduce gene from diverse
sources such as unrelated plant, bacteria, viruses, fungi, insect, higher animal and even
from chemical synthesis in laboratory. The recombinant DNA technology involves the
use of genetic engineering so that the modified plants carry the functional foreign gene.
These novel genes either reinforce the existing function or add new traits to transformed
plant. These developments have provided the opportunity to develop crops with novel
genes for insect resistance. The whole process of introduction integra tion and expression
of foreign gene in the host is called genetic transformation. Foreign gene can be
transferred through vector mediated or direct DNA transfer method.
VECTOR MEDIATED GENE TRANSFER
A vector is vehicle that transport the foreign gene into the recipients cells, protoplast or
insect plants. It is a DNA molecule capable of replication in a host organism into which a
gene is inserted to construct a recombinant DNA molecule. This method is also called as
indirect method of gene transfer. A vector could be plasmid such as tumor inducing and
root inducing plasmid of Agrobacterium tumefaciens. A plasmid is a usually a circular
piece of DNA primary independent of host chromosome often found in bacterial cell.
DIRECT GENE TRANSFER
Since the host range of Agrobacterium has been largely limited to dicotyledons plant
species, some other method of transfer of gene to monocotyledon plant such as cereals
have been developed. Many grains legumes species and woody plants are also not
amenable to Agrobacterium – mediated transformation. Direct gene transfer method
makes use of chemical, physical or electrical method to introduce DNA into cells.
Direct uptake of DNA
This method is based on ability of protoplast to uptake foreign DNA from the
surrounding solution. An isolated plasmid DNA (vector) is mixed with protoplast in
presence of polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol and calcium phosphate which enhance
uptake up DNA by protoplast. After 15-20 minutes of incubation, the protoplasts are
cultured in the presence of appropriate selective agent.
Electroporation
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In this technique a high voltage current is applied in a pulsed manner which create tiny
hole in the plant cell membrane. These holes are large enough for DNA molecule to
diffuse into the cells. These cells recover from the electric shock can be regenerate into
the whole plant. Generally, protoplast are used, which are suspended in buffered saline
solution containing plasmid DNA in a cuvette and an electrical impulse is applied across
two plantinum electrodes in the cuvette. The protoplast are then cultured to regenerate the
plants. Electroporation has been successfully used for obtaining transgenics in tobacco,
maize, rice, wheat and sugarcane.

Identify traits to alter and gene for insertion

Gene insertion

Select organism or cells with inserted gene

Evaluate gene expression it is stable?

It is passed?

Laboratory assays with genetically transformed

organism

Field trails evaluate risk associated with

environment

Commercialization of transgenic organism

Steps involved in producing transgenic organism

Micro projectile bombardment:
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This method consist of delivering DNA into the cells of intact plant organ, cultured tissue
or cell suspension or cell suspension via projectile bombardment. High density particle
usually gold, tungsten (1-2 µm in diameter) coated with plasmid DNA containing the
foreign gene are accelerated to high velocity by a particle gun apparatus. These dense
particles thus acquire sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate membrane and thus to deliver
the DNA into the cell. Banana, barley, bean, cotton, maize, wheat.
Micro injection:
This method involves injection of DNA directly into the plant cell nucleus or intact plant
organ. The foreign is delivered into the protoplast using a glass micropipette having an
orifice diameter of less than 1μm. It is useful technique for precise delivery of DNA into
target cells.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

A pest management system that in context of associated environment and population
dynamics of the pest species utilize all suitable technique and method in compatible
manner as possible and maintains the pest population at levels below causing economic
injury. Hence, integrated pest management (IPM) is economically justified sustainable
system of crop protection that utilize all suitable technique in a compatible manner and
aims at maximizing and sustaining productivity leaving the least possible adverse
consequences on the environment. The latest concept of IPM is very useful to the crop
protection technologist for managing the pest population. This system of pest
management include the use of mechanical, physical, biological, legal and chemical
measure along with the application of pheromone, hormone, antifeedant and chemo
sterilant.

Problem of indiscriminate use of pesticide was highlighted by Rachel Carson (1962) in

her popular book Silent Spring. In the past a single control measure pesticide application
dominated in the area of pest management in agriculture and public health with use of
highly persistent chemical. During the decayed of 1950, a number of organochlorine,
insecticide become very popular, excessive reliance on insecticides to pest control
problem in a crops has led to problem that threat production, sustainability health and
environment. Due to their high persistence and residue found in the environment many of
these products have been banned or restricted. Continuous use of pesticide causes
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environment pollution, pesticide resistance, secondary pest outbreak, pest resurgence

problems. So to reduce these problem the concept of IPM was introduced.
Component of IPM
IPM blends several environmentally safe pest management option including use of
selective chemicals as the last resort. The components of IPM are as follows:
i) Physical method: Temperature manipulation–Burning, High/low
temperature, Light Manipulation- light trap, Moisture manipulation, Use of
radiant energy
ii) Cultural method: Sanitation, tillage, crop rotation, trap cropping,
intercropping, weeding, intercultural operation , use of fertilizer/ manure, time
of sowing, resistant variety etc.
iii) Mechanical method: Hand picking, shaking, beating, winnowing, banding,
wrapping, screening, trench digging, trapping, smashing
iv) Biological method: Insect predator, parasitoid, predatory vertebrate, arachnid,
nematode, fungi, bacteria, viruses
v) Host plant resistance: Use of resistant variety, Bio-engineering
vi) Innovative method: Insect attractants, repellents, antifeedants, homones,
chemo-sterilants,
vii) Che mical method: Inorganic and organic insecticides, Organophosphate,
carbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, botanicals
History of IPM

 In 9th century, predaceous ant, Oecophyla sp was used against citrus insect pest in
China.
 The first natural enemies to be introduced by man from one country to another
was a Mynah from India to Mauritius in 1962 to control red locust.
 The first insect scientifically employed for biological control program was
Vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis brought from Australia and introduced into
California (USA) in 1988 to control the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi, a
serious pest of citrus.
 1950-60— A chemical pesticides maximum used
 1962—Rachel Carson published silent spring, which highlighted problem of
indiscriminate use of pesticide.
 1963—IPM word was coined by stern et.al.
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 1980—UNDP under FAO run IPM

 1992—UNDP under FAO run IPM in India.
 Hopper (Nilaparavata lugens and Sogatella frucifera) destroy 1593 ha of land by
causing hopper burn in 2 VDC of Chitwan (Kumroj & Kathar VDC)
 1997—First time IPM started in Nepal with some technical aid of UN/FAO in
Chitwan (2 VDC Kumroj & Kathar VDC) in Rice field.
 1997-2003: UN/FAO supported IPM program in Nepal for capacity building of
plant protection officer. They import foreign expert & conduct IPM FFS.
 2003-2008: First national IPM program which was officially launched by plant
protection Directorate under Ministry of Agriculture. Technically supported by
UN/FAO and financially supported by Norwyzean government. IPM-FFS training
were conducted crop-wise
 2008-2013: Second phase, IPM program with support of same organization for
capacity building of farmers, officers.
 Commodity wise IPM program
 Support intensive way for certain commodity
 Support women empowerment
 2013-2015: Government has launched its own IPM program. IPM started in each
district which is visible program of DADO
 Due to its high popularity different NGOs & INGOs have started IPM in their
programs.

Phase of plant protection

a) Subsistence phase: No use of external input. Depend on nature only. Produce what
nature gives.

b) Exploitation phase: Time of Green Revolution at which there is maximum use of

inputs without considering human health & environment. After that crisis evolved.

c) Crisis (1960)—Pollination decline

d) Disaster (1960 to 1980): Health problem, loss of biodiversity environment pollution

despite of external input
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e) Integrated control phase: After 1962, Farmers/Manufacturer companies consider health

& environment. They produce less hazardous chemical which are easily degradable.

Major tactics of IPM

Pest manipulation Plant manipulation Environment manipulation
Chemical method Cultural method Physical method
Biological method Legislative method
Mechanical method Mechanical method
Legislation Host plant resistance
Pheromone/food lure
Burning (Physical)

Principles of IPM
i) Growing healthy crops: By regular monitoring of the field grown by use of healthy
seeds, field sanitation suitable time selection for cropping, proper spacing etc.
ii) Regular visit to field: To analysis agro-ecosystem also enhancing farmer skills in
decision making process of crop management, regular visit in important process of
IPM
iii) Protect natural enemies: Natural enemies are conserved using safe pesticides,
reducing time of application of pesticides, mulching etc.
iv) Farmer should be export: Due to regular involvement farmer become export.

Farmer field school

Farmer field school is started in 1990 then spread to Vietnam, Srilanka, India, Thailand
and Nepal. It is a participatory teaching learning system where farmers analyze agro-
ecosystem, discuss on the parameter and finally make a decision of pest management. It
consists of 25-30 members in one school. This large group is divided into 5 sub-group
consisting of 5 member in each sub group. Farmer field school is school without walls in
which all member involves in training entire the life-cycle of crop. Thus FFS farmer
participatory training for 16-18 weeks from land preparation to crop harvests. They are
being facilitated by trainer. Selection and initation of FFS depends upon interest of
farmers, base line survey, support from local leader, gender matrix and cropping
calendar. Each week farmer practices agro-ecosystem analysis in the learning field which
includes plant health, water management, nutrient management, weed density, disease
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surveillance, insect pest and there natural enemies observation. Farmer interpreted there
observation AESA (Agro-ecosystem analysis) to make field management decision. FFS
train farmers to make them expert in their own field.
Objectives of FFS
 To increase participation
 To enhance the farmer skill of crop management practices through observation,
exchanging experiences and experiment action.
 To increase decision making process of farmer in crop production.
 To develop skills or selection of appropriate crop management tools.
 To reduce use of pesticides.
General curriculum of FFS
 A field school group formation.
 Pre-test of participant based on their field problems
 Field observation- IPM and non-IPM demonstration.
 Agro ecosystem analysis of IPM & non-IPM plots.
 Special topic each week relevant to crop growth stage & pest problem.
 Field trials to study different component of IPM
 Presentation and discussion each week based on their observation and decision
making.
 Pest test with the same pre-test questionnaire to evaluate their learning & skills.
Steps of integrated pest management
a. Identification of key pest
b. Identification of secondary pest
c. Familiarize with the biology of key and secondary pest
d. Identification of crop production system of locality
e. Cost benefit information of management practices
f. Availability of management practices
g. Monitoring system should be developed to support decision making process.
h. Record keeping practice developed in IPM
i. Use of resistance variety than other IPM input to success the IPM
j. Consideration of social constraint & environmental constraint
In developing the IPM following information must be consider at 3 phage of crop
growing period.
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Before planting
 Listing of the key pest, number and damage threshold.
 Cropping history to know the possibility of pest problem. E.g. White grub
infestation may increase after maize farming
 Demarcation of the area to lunch IPM—(500 m2 for terai) (250m2 for hilly area)
 Preparation of possibly IPM management practices.
 Recording of seed seedling per unit area, dose of fertilizer, Soil testing,organic
matter testing, post harvest management option.
During crop cycle
 To know stage of crop and pest occurrence
 Appropriate option of pest management
After crop harvest
 The amount of stubbles/ ratton crop should be minimize at the time of harvest.
 Removal of overwintering sides of insect.

Why adoption of IPM is low in developing country like Nepal?

a. Farmer perceives IPM system more risky than conventional pest management
system.
b. In south Asia, IPM is more focused only in insect management but not on
disease and weeds.
c. It is more expensive than conventional pest management.
d. Only IPM is applied in small area but not on large area because of insufficient
IPM tools.
e. Insufficient bio-rearing lab
f. IPM more focused on high value crops and is biased to low value crop.

SAFE HANDLING OF PESTICIDE

Before using the pesticide it is necessary to know about the pesticide. Some informations
are attached in the container of pesticide for its safe handling which are as follows:
 Type of pesticide
 Trade name
 Chemical name
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 Type of formulation
 Active ingredient persistence
 Net content of pesticide
 Name & address of manufacture
 Registration number
 Expiring date
 Direction for use
 Hazard statement
 Direction for storage of disposal
 First aid, physician information and treatment
Precaution in handling of pesticide
Before using pesticide:
 Identify the problem in crop field correctly.
 Search for the alternative option of pest management other than pesticide.
 Use only recommended pesticide.
 Use personal protective equipment.
 Ensure the sprayer with no leakage.
During spraying of pesticide
 Use personal protective equipment and if it is contaminated with pesticide remove
& replace with clean one.
 Do not work using wet contaminated personal protective equipment(PPE)
 Take help while preparing pesticide solution.
 Never allow and other animal to go near to pesticide mixing area.
 Avoid the splitting of pesticide on body.
 Never drink smoke and anything while working with pesticides.
 Do not spray during strong wind condition.
 Spray in direction of wind but not against direction of wind.
After application of pesticide
 Store unused pesticide safely.
 Dispose the empty container of pesticide in safe place after cleaning them.
 Do not store the pesticide solution in the same sp rayer, it should be safely
disposed.
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 Clean the sprayer & other tools which used during pesticide application.
 Do not allow other people to go in pesticide spray field.
 Should not allow consuming crop product soon after pesticide application and
should considered waiting period.
MISUSE OF CHEMICAL PESTICIDES IN NEPAL

 Over dose & frequent use of chemical pesticides in vegetables & fruit (8-10
ltr/ha) (Manandar, 2003).
 Tomato, Brinjal, Okra, Broad leaf mustard cowpea are major vegetable &
pomegranate grapes, apple, papaya are major fruits in which chemical pesticides
are heavily sprayed.
 People use endosulfan, metacid to kill fishes in water bodies.
 People use chemical like Malathion to killed head louce.
 Use endosulfan for managing scabies in calf, dog etc.
 Sell pesticides treated seed to liquor industry
 Use malathion solution for making vegetable shiny & fresh in Broad leaf mustard,
tomato, brinjal etc.
 Baygon spray used to detract files by fish trader.
 Use Aluminium phosphide in close to bed room.
 Throwing to date expired & empty container of pesticides in canal & public area.
 Throwing of unused spray soln of pesticides in water bodies.
 Use of banned pesticides by some commercial farmers.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PESTICIDES

Pesticide poisoning

 Occupational & accidental prisoning

 100 people died in keral in 1958 due to consumption of wheat flower & Sugar
contaminated with paralthion leakage during shipment from Bornbay to Cochin.
 More than 3000 people died due to inhaling of vapours of methyl isocyanate
leaked from carbaryl manufacturing plant in Bhopal in 1984. 30,000 people were
disabled to varying degree. The surviving population is still expressing
teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic & other effects involving vital body organ.

Pest resistance/pesticide resistance

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Resistance is the development of an ability to tolerate a dose of pesticide, which would

prove lethl to the majority of individual in the normal population of the same species.
Large scale use of pesticide to control pests has resulted in the development of resistance
which is most serious bottleneck in the successful use of pesticides.

Helicoverpa armigera in tomato field in eastern part of Nepal developed

 53-56 fold resistance to pyrethriods
 3 fold resistance to endosulfan
 2 fold resistance to methomils
A survey conducted in 1994 in Nepaljung in Helicoverpa of cotton developed
 103 to 126 fold to pyrethriods
 11 fold to methomil
 3 fold to endosulfan.
Resurgence of pests

Resurgence refers to an abnormal increase in pest population following insecticide

application. Use of broad spectrum & persistent insecticides kills the natural enemies
resulting into resurgence of insect pests. Sometimes, pesticides kill the key pests and
under such condition, secondary pests become the primary pests. Resur gence may also
develop due to increase in feeding & reproductive rates of insects due to application of
sublethal dose of pesticides.

Effect of non-target organisms

Repeated use of pesticides on cotton, fruits, tobacco & other crops has disruptive effects
on beneficial insects like pollinator bio-control agents, soil, wild & aquatic life. Many
invertebrates take up pesticides from soil into their bodies & may concentrate pesticides
several times greater in their tissues than those in the surrounding soil. The animals that
feed upon these invertebrates may, in turn, concentrate these residues to levels that may
kill them or affect their normal activities. Soil microorganisms which cause breakdown of
cellulose, nitrification, turn over of organic matter & other biological materials may also
be adversely influenced by pesticides.

Pesticide residue

Pesticide residue is any substance or a mixture of substances in or on any substrate

resulting from the use of pesticides. It has been demonstrated that less than one percent of
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the pesticide applied to a crop reaches the target pests & the remaining quantity gets into
different components of the environment. Since most of the chlorinated pesticides are
non-biodegradable, they leave excessive residue in various food commodities. The
presence of residue of these pesticides in food commodities & other components of the
environment is a matter of serious concern.

Secondary pest outbreak

The situation in which minor pests becomes major & major pest become minor after
certain period of time.

Pest Resistance management

Since selection & use pesticides are variables that grower can manipulate, identifying
optimal chemical use recommendation is a critical step in building a resistant
management program chemical use recommendations are as follows:

 Management by moderation
 Management by multiple attack
 Management by saturation.

Management by moderation is probably the most universal principle for successfully

managing resistance. It involves reducing overall chemical use

 Using lower dosages (when appropriate)

 Using higher treatment thresholds.
 Using chemical with shorter activity
 Treating only limited areas in orchard
 Maintaining only limited areas in orchard
 Maintaining unsprayed area as refugees for susceptible individual & spraying
only specific pest stages.

Management by multiple attacks

It involves using either mixtures or rotations of pesticides to prevent resistance use of

mixtures, for example tank mixes of two or more pesticide is based on the concept that
insects resistant to one pesticide will be killed by the other component of the mixture and
that few pests will be resistant to the entire mixture. Though mixtures of fungicide have
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been used for years to combat resistance but study shows that mixture should be avoided
whenever possible with predator & parasitoid.

Management by saturation

It involves methods that overcome resistance mechanism present in pests. The most
common method is to combat resistance by using high rates of pesticides, ones that kill
even resistant individuals. This approach rarely works in practice. The pesticide residue
are usually deposited very unevenly residue in most field situations, even when very high
rates are used.

Uneven deposition of pesticide allows resistant pests to survive in greater proportions

than susceptible pests, thereby increasing resistance. In addition, use of high rates can
have many detrimental impacts on natural enemies, the environment & human health.

Pesticide Residue Analysis

Due to intensive use of pesticide, their residues have become unavoidable part of
environment. Pesticide residue and their degradation products cause potential health
hazard with the aim to establish restrictive measure to protect the environment against
pollution.

A pesticide are a very heterogeneous group of compound with different biological and
physiochemical properties, the current trend in pesticide residue analysis is developing
multi-residual methods that not only provide simultaneous determination of large number
of pesticide but also can be applicable to large numbers of samples of different origin.
Although separation chemical analysis involves several stages (sample preparation,
analyte separation, i.e. quantification and data analysis) are important steps. Traditional
sample preparation method (liquid –liquid extraction, soxhlet extraction) are laborious,
time consuming, expensive, require large amounts of organic solvent and usually involve
many steps leading to loss of some analyte quantity. Modern method of residue analysis
includes:

a) Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE)

b) Supercritical fluid extraction (SPE)
c) Microwave assisted extraction (MAE)
d) Solid phase extraction (SPE)
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e) Solid phase micro-extraction (SPME)

f) Matrix solid phase dispersion (MSPD)
g) Quick easy cheap effective rugged and safe Method(QuEChERS)

Tolerance limit

Most countries have established maximum permissible level of different insecticide in

harvested produce which is known as maximum residue limits. The levels at which they
are set depend on the toxicity of the insecticide and on the importance of the food item.