EDF122: ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Stages of Human Development

In human development, there are a number of human development stages.

The stages include:

 Pre-natal or Ante - natal stage (from conception to birth)

 Infancy (0 to 2 years)

 Childhood stage (2 to 12 years)

 Adolescent stage (12 to 16 years)

 Adulthood stage

Understanding Adolescence

The term adolescence is a Latin word and it means “to grow up”. The term
adolescence also describes a particular stage in human development and
the stage is called adolescent stage”. Further, adolescence means a
period of rapid growth between childhood stage and adulthood stage. Other
definitions of adolescence include:

 Adolescence is the period of rapid growth between childhood and

adulthood, including psychological and social development (Atwater,
1992).

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 Adolescence is a period between childhood and adulthood with much

personal growth in physical, psychological and social—that gives the
period its special place within the field of developmental psychology
(Hopkins, 1993).

 Adolescence is the developmental period of transition between

childhood and adulthood that involves biological, cognitive and social
changes (Santrock, 1993].

Major changes during adolescence

 Biological changes: Biological changes during adolescence include

growth of breasts in girls, enlargement of hips in girls, growth of pubic
hair, enlargement of the penis in boys, increase in size, mass and
height.

 Cognitive changes: Cognitive changes during adolescence involve

improvement in thinking capacity, intelligence, and language
proficiency.

 Social changes: Social changes during adolescence include

developing relationships with other people in emotions, in personality
and in social context.

Definition of Psychology

Different authors have defined psychology differently. Some of the

definitions include:

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 Psychology is the study of human behavior.

 Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

of individual organisms.

 Psychology is the study of the mind.

Adolescent Psychology

Adolescent psychology is a branch of Psychology whose focus of study is

on behavoiur of human beings who are between childhood stage and
adulthood stage.

Aims of the course

This course seeks to help you to understand the adolescent stage, i.e. the
stage at which most secondary school students in Malawi are going
through. Specifically, this course will:

 Help you understand the behavior and developmental aspects of the

adolescence in our secondary schools.

 Help you understand adolescent problems or challenges and how to

deal with them.

Boundaries of Adolescence

It is difficult to explain the exact beginning and ending of adolescence in

human development. Basically, boundaries of adolescence are key factors

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which are used to mark the beginning and ending of adolescence. The
boundaries include:

1. Biological: Biological boundary explains that adolescence begins at

puberty and ends with the attainment of physical and sexual maturity.

2. Emotional: In this perspective adolescence begins at the beginning of

autonomy or independence from parents and ends with the
attainment of self-revised personal identity and emotional autonomy.

3. Cognitive: It begins with the emergence of logical reasoning, problem

solving and decision making skills and ends after attaining adult
logical reasoning and autonomous decision making.

4. Interpersonal: In this perspective adolescence begins with the shift

from parents to peer orientation and ends with increased capacity for
intimacy with peers and adults. (Note: During childhood stage, the
closest person for a child to refer to for decision making is a parent. In
addition, the best person a child can have fun with or enjoy a day with
is a parent. This pattern of interaction is different during adolescence.
At this stage, the adolescents tend to form relationships with their
peers. They enjoy spending their time with peers than with their
parents).

5. Social: In this perspective adolescence begins with entry into

personal, family and work roles responsibilities and ends with the
attainment of adult privileges.
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6. Educational: In this perspective adolescence begins with entry into

secondary schools and ends with the completion of secondary or
college education.

7. Religious: In this perspective adolescence begins with preparation for

confirmation and adult baptism and ends with the attainment of adult
status in a religious community.

8. Chronological: in this perspective adolescence begins with the

attainment of a given age associated with adolescence e.g. teen
years and ends with the attainment of a given age associated with
adulthood e.g. twenties.

9. Legal: in this perspective adolescence begins with the attainment of

juvenile status and ends with the attainment of legal status.

10. Cultural: in this perspective adolescence begins with the

training for preparation for ceremonial rites of passage and ends with
the ceremonial rites of passage.

For practical purposes the beginning of adolescence is mostly associated

with the beginning of puberty. However, it is difficult to determine
its ending since it merges/goes into early adulthood.

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THEORIES OF ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

(APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING THE BEHAVIOURS OF

ADOLESCENTS / WHY ADOLESCENTS BAHAVE THE WAY THEY
BEHAVE)

There are many theoretical perspectives (points of view/points of

understanding) of adolescence or adolescent development. The theories
(approaches towards understanding adolescence) include biological
perspective, psychoanalytical perspective, social cognitive perspective and
cultural perspective.

1. BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

G. Stanley (a psychologist) is the pioneer of the biological perspective

of the adolescent development. In this perspective, it is assumed that
adolescence begins with biological changes accompanying puberty.
Examples of biological changes at this stage include menarche,
menstruation and growth of breasts in girls. For boys, the changes
include growth of testes, growth of scrotum, growth of penis and
ejaculation of semen. Other biological changes include physical
changes like growth of the pubic hair, growth of the underarm hair
and enlargement of sweat glands.

The period of adolescence is sometimes called a period of storm and

stress because the adolescents rapid sexual maturation and powerful
sexual drives conflict with the cultural traditional prohibitions against
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their free expression. The stage is also marked by an increase in

crimes and delinquency

2. THE PSYCHOANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVE

In psychoanalytical theory, there is a structural model of the psyche

(mind) where by the mind of a human being is made up of three
parts/elements. The parts are Id, ego and super ego.

 The Id: This is an instinctual part of the mind. It contains hidden

memory, sexual and aggressive drives.

 Ego: This is the realistic part of the mind. It mediates between

the desires of the Id and the super ego.

 The super ego: It operates a moral conscience of the mind. (It

tells us about what is right or wrong/ it give a go
ahead/approves or not in whatever we do)

In psychoanalytical perspective, theorists believed that dynamics of

personality (changes in human behaviour) largely depend on how
sexual instinct, the ego and super ego were shaped during the
formative years of childhood.

It is also believed that human beings have the powerful biological

drive (motivation/motives/desires) that must be satisfied. On the
contrary, the society dictates/declares many of such motives or
desires as undesirable/unwanted/prohibited: hence make the

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adolescence fail to get satisfied/fulfil their desires/motives. In return,

this arouses a lot of anxiety in the adolescence. The anxiety in turn
produces a variety of defensive mechanisms such as repression,
regression, denial, intellectualization and sublimation

 Regression: return to behavior of an earlier age during stressful

times, to try to recapture security.

 Repressions: block from consciousness those feeling and

experiences that cause anxiety.

 Denial: refuse to accept feeling and experiences that cause

anxiety.

 Intellectualization: participate in abstract intellectual discussion

to avoid unpleasant, anxiety producing feelings.

 Sublimation: channel disturbing sexual or aggressive impulses

into ‘acceptable’ activities such as study, work, sports and
hobbies.

It is also believed that people are not aware that the biological
instincts are the driving forces (causative factors) behind their
behaviours. For example, too little or too much control of the sex
drive leads to neurotic conflicts in adolescents or later in adulthood.
(e.g. use it or lose it).

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Anna Freud also believed that adolescence is a special period of

turbulence because of the sexual conflict brought in by puberty.

3. THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Theorists in this perspective believe that biological drives are shaped

by psychological and social changes. For instance, Robert Havigurst
believed that readiness of individuals to learn some tasks is shaped
by some social demands.

In addition, Albert Bandura believes that human behaviour is shaped

by cognition, bearing and the environment. For instance, Bandura (a
psychologist) observed that much of the behaviours by the
adolescence come from observational learning in which adolescents
observe and imitate the behaviour of their parents, other adults and
peers. Further, the behaviour and learning of the adolescents are
greatly affected by cognitive variables (factors) such as competences,
encoding strategies, expectances, personal values and self-
regulatory systems.

Further to that, Jean Piaget (1896 -1980) believed that individuals are
motivated to understand the world and they use the process of
organization and adaptation (assimilation and accommodation) to
understand it (the world). They understand the world by going
through the four stages of cognitive of development and the stages
are:
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 Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years): At this stage, the infant

develops an understanding of itself and the reality (how things
work) through interaction with the environment. At this stage
the infant is able to differentiate itself and with other objects.

 Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years): The child is not yet able to

conceptualize abstractly (not able to understand abstract
things) and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are
classified in simple ways, especially by important features. (E.g.
cannot see the difference between a dog and a goat)

 Concrete operations (7 to 11 years): As physical experiences

accumulate; accommodation is also increased. The child
begins to think abstractly and conceptualise, creating logical
structures that explain his or her physical experiences. (e.g. can
explain the difference between a dog and a goat)

 Formal operations (11 to 15 years): Cognition reaches its final

form. At this stage, a person no longer requires concrete
objects to make rational judgments. He or she is capable of
deductive and hypothetical reasoning. His or her ability for
abstract thinking is very similar to that of an adult.

Based on the above stages of development, Jean Piaget defined

adolescence as a stage of transition from the use of concrete
operations to the application of formal operation in reasoning.
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4. THE CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE:

Theorists in this perspective observed that that behaviours or

experiences of the adolescents largely reflects the society in which
one grows up and that cultural experiences differs from one culture to
another. However, it has been observed that adolescents are growing
up more similar to one another than expected. This situation or
aspect is now called Universality of Adolescence. This is happening
as a result of social and technological changes particularly in
communication.

NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS/ DEMANDS OF ADOLESCENTS AND

SOCIETAL EXPECTATIONS FROM THE ADOLESCENTS
These are (expectations) the appropriate attitudes, understandings and

skills adolescent students need to acquire at certain times in their lives

during maturation and personal growth. These include:

1. Accepting one’s body and using it effectively

Because of the rapid changes in their body and the accompanying

self –consciousness, the adolescents need to accept their body, care
for it and use it effectively in work, sports, play, and everyday tasks.

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine sexual role

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Sexual motivation along with the changing sex role in society

challenge the youth to explore and affirm (confirm, uphold) their adult
sexual identity

3. Achieving new and more mature relations with peers of both sexes

With increasing emotional and personal, maturity adolescents

become more capable of forming intimate and stable relationships
with peers of both sexes in friendship and love

4. Attaining emotional independents of parents and other adults

Youths need to learn how to affirm themselves as autonomous

individuals in relation to their parents, other adults and peers. This
means being able to tolerate disappointment, criticisms and rejection
in relation to others.

5. Preparing for and economic career

Adolescents need to discover their special interests and abilities and

then choose a career goal, prepare for it educationally and get started
in it.

6. Preparing for marriage and family life

Young people need to acquire the personal maturity and social skills
necessary for achieving satisfying relationships with others in close
living arrangements like marriage and family.

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7. Desiring and achieving socially responsible behaviour

Adolescents need to achieve meaningful participation in community
and national affairs as well as dealing with the social and ethical
issues of their day

8. Acquiring a set of values or guide to behaviour

Youths need to examine and affirm their personal and moral values.
Difficulties in decision-making are often due to confusion over one’s
basic values.

Accomplishment of societal expectations/mastering of the adolescents

demands/tasks given above help the adolescents in the following ways:

 It helps them to build self-confidence (build confidence in themselves)

 It affirms maturity of the adolescents

 It allows the youth to make adjustments and preparations for more

difficult tasks ahead of them.

Failure to accomplish societal expectations/mastering of demands/tasks of

the adolescents/tasks can give rise to the following:

 Frustrations

 Anxiety

 Social disapproval

 Having a sense of personal inadequacy in the face of future tasks

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Ways of assisting the adolescent students to fulfill /accomplish the

demands of adolescents or social expectations

 Help students to set realistic and manageable goals.

 Assist students to realize their abilities and their goals

 Encourage them to tolerate disappointments and criticisms

 Set manageable tasks to your students

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CHAPTER 2: THE FOUNDAMENTAL CHANGES OF ADOLESCENCE

Puberty and pubertal growth

As already noted above, the onset (beginning) of adolescence is heralded
or marked by two significant changes;

 Physiological changes in appearance

 The onset of puberty

Pubescence and adolescence have often been confused and considered

as synonymous. However, puberty can be distinguished from adolescence
because for most people puberty has ended long before adolescence is
exited or begins. Different authorities have attempted to define puberty
differently:

 Santrock [1990] states that puberty is a rapid change to physical

maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that take place
primarily during early adolescence

 Slavin [1988] defines puberty as a series of psychological changes

that render the immature organism capable of reproduction.

 Papalia [1990] describes puberty as a process that leads to sexual

maturity and ability to reproduce.

Hormonal changes during puberty

Behind the first whisker or wet dream in boys and behind the first menarche
and widening of hips in girls is a flood of hormones. Hormones are powerful
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chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through

the body by the bloodstream. The key to understanding the endocrine
system’s role in pubertal change is the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal
axis.

The hypothalamus is a structure in the higher portion of the brain, and the
pituitary is the body’s master gland. It is located at the base of the brain. Its
designation as the, master gland comes from its ability to regulate a
number of other glands. The term gonadal refers to the sex glands; that is
the testes in male and ovaries in female.

The hormonal system

While the pituitary gland monitors endocrine levels, it is regulated by the
hypothalamus. The pituitary gland sends a signal via gonadotropin----a
hormone that stimulates the testes or ovaries to manufacture other
hormones. The pituitary gland, through interaction with the hypothalamus,
detects when the optimal level is reached and responds by maintaining
gonadotropin secretion.
There are two main classes of sex hormones that are manufactured after
the trigger of the sex glands by gonadotropin. These are;

 Androgens

 Estrogens

Androgens are produced/secreted primarily in male and estrogens in

female. Current research, however, has been able to pinpoint more
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precisely which androgens and estrogens play the most important roles in
pubertal development. In this respect, testosterone appears to assume an
important role in pubertal development of male. Throughout puberty,
increasing testosterone levels are clearly linked with a number of
physical changes in boys e.g. development of genitals, increase in height
and voice changes. In female, estradiol is likely the most important
hormone responsible for pubertal development. The level of estradiol
increases throughout puberty and then varies in women across
their menstrual cycle. As estradiol levels rise, breasts and uterine
development occur and skeletal changes appear as well.

Note that both testosterone and estradiol are present in the hormonal make
up of both boys and girls, but that testosterone is dominant for boys while
estradiol is stronger in girls. Each hormone however is not solely
responsible for pubertal changes; there are other hormones and variables
responsible. These hormonal changes in girls and boys trigger a process
referred to as the Adolescent growth spurt marked by rapid physical
and physiological changes. The growth spurt refers to the accelerated rate
of increase in height and weight that occurs in adolescence. This physical
change has many of the features of stage transition predicted by the
epigenetic landscape model. There is a wide variation, both between and
within sexes, in the onset and rate of change during the transition to
adolescence. In boys, the growth spurt may begin as early as 10 years, or
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as late as 16 years. In girls, the same process only may begin as early as 8
years or not until 12 or 13 years. Other physical changes include increases
in strength, a doubling in the size of the heart, greatly increased lung
capacity and the release of sex hormones by the pituitary gland.

Physical changes during puberty

Puberty is not a single event. It is a series of changes involving almost
every part of the body and the final outcome of those changes being the
ability to reproduce. It is popular acceptance by scholars that girls begin
puberty at about one and half to two years ahead of boys. In each sex the
normal range of onset is approximately six years.

Slavin [1988] adds that like the onset, the rate of changes also varies with
some people taking only eighteen to twenty-four months to go through the
pubertal changes while others may require six years to pass through the
same stage. These differences in a way may mean that some individuals
may be completely mature before others of the same age have even begun
puberty

Changes in girls
The sequence of changes is as follows in girls:

 Initial enlargement of the breasts---breast bud stage.

 Straight lightly pigmented pubic hair begins.

 Maximum growth rate is attained.

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 Pubic hair becomes adult in type but covers a small area than in
adult.

 Breast enlargement continues: the nipple and the area around it now
project above the level of the breast.

 Menarche occurs.

 Underarm hair appears: sweat glands under the arms increase in

size.

 Breast and pubic hair reach adult stage.

Changes in boys
The sequence of changes is as follows in boys:

 Growth of the testes and scrotum begins.

 Straight lightly pigmented hair begins.

 Enlargement of the penis begins.

 Early changes in the voice occur.

 First ejaculation of semen occurs.

 Maximum growth rate is attained.

 Underarm hair appears and the sweat glands under the arms
increase in size.

 The voice deepens noticeably.

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 Growth of moustache hair, beard hair and pubic hair reach adult
stage.

Explanation
It may be noted that the sequence of events at puberty is generally the
same for both boys and girls. However, the timing and rate at which they
occur vary widely.
Changes take place in different organs of the body. Some organs are
directly responsible for reproduction while others only show the
physiological signs of sexual maturity. All organs necessary or directly
responsible for reproduction are denoted primary sex characteristics.

In the female body structures involved are:

 Ovaries
 Uterus
 Vagina

In the male body, structures involved include:

 Testes
 Penis
 Prostate gland
 Seminal vesicles
During puberty these organs enlarge and mature.
There are also secondary sex characteristics.

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These are physiological signs of sexual maturity that do not directly involve
the reproductive organs. Examples are:

 Changes in voice

 Texture of skin

 Pubic, facial, armpit and body hair.

Effects of early and late maturation

Comparison in girls

 Early matures may be associated with social recognition and

acceptance while late matures lack social recognition and
acceptance.

 Early matures are treated as adults and are expected to behave

likewise while late matures have a youthful appearance which leads
to immature behavior.

 Early matures feel more popular with boys while late matures feel
less popular.

 Early matures are dated frequently while late matures have little or no
dates at all because they are less attractive.

 Early matures act more independently while late matures are still
dependent.

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 Early matures are more likely to get into trouble while late matures
are less likely to get into trouble.

 Early matures take pride in their appearance while late matures suffer
from anxiety and self doubt.

It may be noted that both early and late maturation are advantageous as
well as
disadvantageous. For example, a girl who matures early enjoys social
recognition and acceptance and as a result she can develop socially as
long as she is emotionally ready. However, such recognition and
acceptance may sometimes facilitate her landing into trouble.

For instance, being popular with boys may result in frequent dating and this
later may lead to premarital sex and finally unwanted pregnancy. On the
other hand, a late mature who is socially unrecognized and unacceptable
can enjoy the advantage of growing up with less social pressure than do
early maturing girls and chances of getting into trouble are slim.

Comparison in boys

 Early maturing boys are more attractive to girls while late maturing
boys are less attractive to girls.
 Since they appear more mature, early maturing boys are likely to be
chosen leaders while late maturing boys are less popular with their
peers and less likely to be chosen leaders.
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 Early matures are less impulsive while late matures are more
impulsive.

 The mature behavior of early matures assists them to have or show

positive personality traits for example positive self-concept, feelings
of adequacy, acceptance and unrebellious attitudes while late
matures have a negative self concept, feelings of inadequacy,
dependency and rejection.

 Early matures develop more successful peer relationships while late

matures have less peer relationships.

 Early matures have a higher level of self –esteem while late matures
have low self esteem.

 Early matures have a lower attention span and are less talkative
while late matures have a higher attention span and are talkative.

There are both advantages and disadvantages of early and late maturation
in boys. As indicated boys who mature early enjoy high social status, tend
to be popular and to be leaders. Research has shown that many of the
advantages of early maturity are sustained in later life. Late matures
however have been found to be more creative, tolerant and perceptive.
This may be because of the trials and anxieties that they go
through. These problems help them to be better problem solvers.

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Psychological effects of early and late maturation

Biological changes which take place during puberty have a tremendous
effect on an adolescent psychologically. One of the changes for example is
menarche. Adolescent girls usually have psychological reactions to
physical appearance as well as menstruation. However, a girl’s reaction to
menstruation could be a result of culture or
how her parents view the event. In some cultures, or families, girls are
prepared ahead of time so that when they reach puberty menstruation does
not take them by surprise. This is helpful in the sense that those who are
prepared have a more positive attitude towards menstruation and usually
experience less distress since research has shown that menarche involves
physical discomfort and may be disruptive. Menarche and other
physical changes in the body can have a psychological effect on the
adolescent girl. For instance, she can be upset especially when she is not
prepared for the changes or if her friends mock her. Secondly early
maturity means being forced to behave like an adult. On the other hand,
late matures also get affected psychologically. For example, a girl
who matures late feels out of place when she is among mature
adolescents. Research has shown that girls who mature late worry about
whether their bodies will develop properly or whether they will be as well
endowed sexually as those around them.

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It is worthy-pointing out at this time that psychologists have come up with

different views as regards early and late maturation. In as far as boys are
concerned; those who mature early tend to enjoy several advantages.

Early matures look more poised, more relaxed, more good-natured, less
affected. They tend to be more popular with peers and more likely to be
leaders, and less impulsive. Even though such is the case early matures
sometimes have problems living up to the expectations of others
particularly when they should act as they look. Unlike the early
matures boys who mature late tend to have a negative self-concept,
feelings of inadequacy, and dependency, and rebelliousness. Because of
these many disadvantages which come with late maturation, research has
shown that late matures are more talkative and hungrier for attention. Since
late matures feel and act more childish, they may benefit from the longer
period of childhood when they do not have to deal with the new and
different demands of adolescence. They again may be more flexible.
In as far as cognitive ability is concerned research has indicated that by
adulthood, early maturing girls exhibit a high level of cognitive mastery and
coping skills partly because of their richer experience throughout puberty.
On the other hand, late maturing girls may fail to achieve the high level of
cognitive mastering and coping skills exhibited by early matures. Thus the
earlier the girl matures the higher the cognitive mastery. Scholars like

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Atwater [1993] have indicated that ‘boys who mature early sometimes fail
to grow intellectually and socially at least through mid adolescence. In
addition, the relative social neglect suffered by the late maturing boy,
together with the long period of puberty adjustment may also lead to
greater cognitive mastery and coping skills. This reflects a difference
between boys and girls.

Implications for Teaching

 Teachers of adolescent students need to be well acquainted with the

changes that take place during adolescence so as to understand
better the psychological factors that may be barriers to instruction.

 Teachers of adolescents need to understand the complications

brought about by the adolescent growth spurt and other psychological
and hormonal imbalances so as to appreciate the psychological and
behavioural challenges of adolescence.

 Teachers of adolescents may be able to understand that such

changes affect adolescent classroom performance either positively or
negatively.

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CHAPTER 3: THE CONTEXT OF ADOLESCENCE

Changes in Malawian family today and its implication on the adolescent

In many societies including Malawi, families have undergone tremendous

transformation in size, structure, and nature of relationships between
parents and their youths. These changes have tended to affect adolescent
trends of development significantly at home, and in the school and as they
become adults.

One thing that is noteworthy is the process of socialization between parents

and their adolescents. Until recently, the process was viewed as a one-way
process in which adolescents were considered to be the product of their
parents’ socialization techniques.

In contrast, the socialization process between parents and their

adolescents is now viewed as reciprocal in which adolescents socialize
parents and parents equally socialize adolescents.

This process is known as reciprocal socialization. Reciprocal socialization

is dependent upon the nature of parent-adolescent and the way that the
relationship revolves. In Malawi, the family with its social structure has
experienced a marked decline in reciprocal socialization. This, as may be
conceived has resulted from socio-economic development and the
influence from foreign cultures. For instance, parents now spend less time
with their adolescent children than before. The major changes in Malawian
families that have a major impact on parent-adolescent relations are.
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 The working parents

 Growth of the nuclear family

 Divorce, single parenthood and foster parenthood

 Changing parenting techniques

 Gender issues in the family

Activity 2

Parents definitely have played a role in your socialization. Briefly explain

how they contributed to your philosophy of life.

The working parent

Socio-economic development in Malawi has led to urban growth and an

increase in migration from rural to urban areas in search of employment
and better life.

However due to the decline in family income and the increase in poverty in
most families both parents are forced to work in order to increase their
income. Consequently, employment causes parents to leave their children
unattended to or in the care of paid workers/housemaids. As may be
appreciated, this is not the best for children since working parents do not
have sufficient time to talk to their children and advise them ----hence
leaving this big task under the responsibility of teachers and the school.

The growth of the nuclear family

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Affluence especially in the urban areas and poverty in rural areas have
forced many families in Malawi to have fewer children and small size
families commonly known as the nuclear family.

This development which happens to be becoming common in many urban

dwelling families discourages the growth of the extended family system
which provided for foster parenthood.

As a result, a significant number of adolescents such as orphans and the

disadvantaged children may not benefit from any form of parental care if
the development of the nuclear family continues as a trend.

Divorce, premature death, and single parenthood

Another change in Malawian families that has significant impact on the

development of adolescents is the increase in divorce, death of a parent
and the resulting single parenthood and step parenthood. Single
parenthood and foster parenthood have become a familiar experience to
many adolescents in Malawi because of the rising divorce rate and
premature death of one parent.

Although divorce may come as a relief in strife-ridden families the great

majority of adolescents find the separation of their parents and divorce a
very painful and disruptive experience with long-term psychological effects.

Single parenthood is an integral part in society directly resulting from

divorce and premarital childbirths. However, it may come as a relief to note

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that the effects of divorce are not always bad. In some circumstances
adolescents from divorced parents may experience less anguish and less
maladjustment than those growing up within intact conflict-ridden
marriages. Significant proportions of divorced people remarry and
adolescents are likely to grow up in step parent families.

Effects of single parenthood on adolescents

Single parent families may be created by death of a parent but in most

cases they may result from divorce, separation and desertion [Papalia and
Olds, 1990]. According to Atwater [1992] divorce and separation almost
always bring drastic changes in the amounts and sources of income. For
example, a typical single parent family tends to suffer from financial
deprivation. This is particularly true in single parent families headed by
women.

Here the absence of a father, as may be conceived, has the following

implications:

 Less father support

 Less family cohesion

 More sibling conflict

 More house hold responsibility

As a result, young adolescents, according to Papalia and Olds [1990]:

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 Feel anger, depression, guilt and despair

 May worry about money or become very active sexually

 May begin to compete with the parent of the same sex or play man or
woman of the household

Some effects of one-parent family on schooling which studies carried out

so far indicate that students from one-parent homes:

 Achieved less in school

 Liked school less

 Had more problems with peers

 Were likely to need disciplinary action than students with two parents

Teachers therefore need to look at ways to co-operate with single parents

so as to assist affected students effectively. Finally, although most children
and adolescents initially experience stress when their parents divorce and
they are at risk for developing problem behaviors, divorce can also salvage
children and adolescents from conflicted marriages. Many children and
adolescents emerge from divorce as complete individuals.

Furthermore, in general Papalia and Olds [1990] quoting Ruther [1983]

state that children are better adjusted when they have a good relationship
with one parent than when they have grown up in a two parent home
characterized by discord and discontent. This is in support of the view

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many developmentalists in recent times adopted that single-parent children

do not necessarily breed problem children.

Gender and equity of family responsibility

Perhaps another dramatic change that has taken place in the Malawian
family is the growth of gender issues and the notion for women to share
domestic responsibilities equally with their husbands. Women’s push for
equity with men in the family is culturally influenced by the Western world
particularly North America and Western Europe. This probably explains
why the issue of equity in the family is confined largely to the families of
affluent-educated Malawians who are exposed to Western cultures through
the print and electronic media. In the absence of any documentation about
its impact on adolescent development in Malawi it may be dangerous to
speculate at the moment.

Parent adolescent conflict and the changing parenting techniques

Also noticeable, to a greater degree in Malawian families is an increase in

parent-adolescent conflict. Conflicts with parents increase in early
adolescence.

Such conflict is usually moderate, taking the form of defiance towards

parental orders. The increase in conflict can be associated with positive
developmental function of promoting developmental transition that occurs
when parents push an adolescent to leave home and become independent.

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It may also be noted that parents also tend to change their techniques of
parenting from being authoritative to becoming more permissive or a
mixture of the two extremes.

The balanced ecology of the family

Social ecology implies a balance between love and limits; support and
control. There are basically four parenting techniques.

 Indifferent

 Autocratic/authoritarian

 Indulgent

 Authoritative

Indifferent parenting

 Parents give little support and control or none at all.

 Adolescents are ignored by the parent.

 Adolescents are treated as though they don’t exist and thus engage
in attention seeking behavior either good or bad.

 Parents are mostly dysfunctional, alcoholic or drug abusers.

 Single parentage where the parent has to undertake a dual duty of

roles may result in indifference.

 Adolescents are impulsive and more prone to delinquent behavior.

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 Adolescents are precocious-----they experiment with sex, drugs and

alcohol.

Indulgent parenting

 Parents give high support but little control to their children.

 Material support is high.

 Parents don’t set any rules or standards for their children.

 Adolescents’ lack self-control are less mature and more irresponsible.

 Adolescents are more conforming to peers and less able to assume

positions of leadership.

Autocratic/authoritarian parenting

 Parents give a lot of control and little support.

 Parents give a lot of control and the child reacts rather than respond.

 Adolescents are more dependent and more passive.

 Adolescents are less socially adept, less assured and less

intellectually curious.

Authoritative parenting

 There is a balance or equilibrium between support and control.

 Equilibrium creates the greatest self-concept.

 There is a sense of security in the family.

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 Adolescents are socially skilled and self-assured.

 Adolescents are adaptive and creative.

 Adolescents are responsible and curious.

The six A’s of positive parenting

Authority: administered with love provides boundaries for making right

choices and develops a sense of self-decisiveness.

Accountability: by being accountable to children, parents teach them to be

accountable, which develops a sense of self-discipline and self-control.

Affection: caring words and actions develop a sense of lovability in the

child.

Availability: taking time for the children develops a sense of importance.

Appreciation: sincere praise and affirmation develops a sense of

significance.

Acceptance: unconditional love develops a sense of security and self-

worth.

Love is the superstructure, supporting unit and protective covering of a

family.

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Influence of peer relationships, secondary schools and the media on

adolescent development (Agents Socialization for the Adolescents)

A. Influence of Peer Relationships on adolescent development

Peers: These are members of the same age and level of maturity. Such
being the case they influence each other very much in most of their
activities since they are away from adults. In addition, they use their peers
as a primary reference group for defining themselves and their social
identities. It is worthy knowing that adolescents cannot compare
themselves with children because that would be retrogressive. Again they
cannot compare themselves with adults because that would be
inappropriate. For this reason, adolescents use their peers as a primary
reference group for defining themselves.

Two groups to which adolescents belong to

Peers belong to two groups which are cliques and crowds.

Cliques: These are small groups that meet mostly for personal
communication and sharing. Members engage in activities which are
usually unplanned and membership is on the basis of similar interests,
personality, schools, neighborhoods or religious affiliation.

Crowds: These are larger size groups that meet primarily for organized
social activities like parties or dances.

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It should also be noted that some adolescents do not belong to either

cliques or crowds. These adolescents are known as loners or outsiders.
Loners do not join groups. They may do this either by choice or by being
rejected by members of the cliques or crowds.

Influence of peer relationships on adolescent development (positives)

Peer relationships allow the adolescents to:

 Satisfy their needs: For instance, an adolescent may engage in

activities like drinking or smoking in order to win approval of his or her
friends. If an activity done (e.g. smoking) is acceptable and become
part of the group norms, the adolescent feels good, accepted, excited
and wins companionship.

 Peer relationships expose the adolescent to information about the

world outside the family

Through cliques and crowds, the adolescents meet and share

information with one another which may even include adult values. In
addition, cliques and crowds allow the adolescents to receive
feedback about their abilities.

 Peer relationships enable the adolescents to develop socially

development

Adolescents learn for instance to be fair towards others through

disagreements with their peers. They also learn to be skilled and

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sensitive partners in intimate relationships with selected peers. These

relationships if carried forward help form the foundation of later dating
and marital relationships.

Negative influences of peer relationships on adolescent development

Much as the above social aspects are appreciated, peer influence can also
have a negative effect on adolescent development.

 Peer relationships can influence the adolescents to undermine

parental values and control.

 Peer relationships can introduce adolescents to alcohol, drugs,

delinquency and other forms of bad behavior.

 The groupings into cliques or crowds means that certain adolescents

are left out either through rejection or being overlooked by their
peers. These tend to have feelings of loneliness and hostility and if
this can continue, it can lead to individual subsequent psychological,
health and criminal problems.

School influence

As children become adolescents and as adolescents develop and become

adults, they experience many transitions in schooling. Transitions from
primary school to secondary school can have an effect on the adolescent
child since he/she has to face new challenging tasks, make new friends,
receive instructions from new teachers and so on.

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Everybody’s life is affected in one way or another by teachers. As a

teacher-learner you may wish to know that you will meet groups of
individuals who are still searching for their identity, trying to seek approval,
making new friends and even struggling with psychological changes taking
place in their bodies. These are none other than adolescents. With the
same concern, psychologists and educators have for some time tried to
compile a profile of a good teacher’s personality traits (Qualities of a good
teacher) and some of them are:

 A good teacher should produce a sense of industry rather than

inferiority in students.

 A good teacher should be trusted by the community and know how to

alternate work and play, study and games.

 A good teacher knows how to create a setting in which adolescents

feel good about themselves and knows how to handle those
adolescents to whom school is not important.

 Should be able to understand the developmental characteristics of

the age group they are dealing with.

Adolescents respond best to teachers who exercise natural authority based

on greater age, experience, and wisdom rather than arbitrary authority or
abdication of authority by being pals with the adolescents.

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A question may come to our minds what all these characteristics have to
do with adolescent development in schools. It is pertinent to know that
teachers are part of the schooling process. Apart from teaching, teachers
also indulge in counseling as well as administrative work. All these take
place within the school setting.

If teachers know their roles and understand students’ problems and

background, they can offer necessary assistance which can later on assist
the adolescent socially, morally and even academically. For the
adolescents, peer groups in schools are an important source of status,
friendship and belonging. They are also a learning community in which
social roles and standards related to work and achievement are formed. In
general, we might say that schools provide the locus for many of the
adolescent activities after school and during weekends.

The peer group that an adolescent joins depends partly on the socio-
economic status, partly on values picked up from home, and partly on their
own personality. As a teacher-learner, you need to know that an adolescent
who joins a troublesome group will eventually become troublesome. Again
if they join a group that has an interest in academic work they will also do
the same and this can assist them to improve their academic performance.

The influence of the media

The media of mass communication is yet another important aspect that has
a bearing on adolescent development. Santrock [1993] argues that:
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‘If the amount of time spent in an activity is an indication of its importance,

then there is no doubt that the mass media plays an important role in
adolescent development’.

Research has shown that adolescents spend most of their time with some
kind of mass media either as a primary focus or as a background to other
activities. The question then is what these mass media are?

These are like television, music media like radios, tapes, records and music
videos and print media like comic booklets, newspapers, magazines and
periodicals as well as the internet.

These media of mass communication have positive as well as negative

impacts on adolescent development. Some of the negative implications of
the media are:

 Watching of videos and television and use of the print media can lead
to pollution of the mind. This happens when adolescents watch or
read anything without censorship e.g. pornographic films and
material.

 Certain plays on video and television can teach violence. Violence in

some cases is depicted as a way of life and sometimes police are
shown using violence in their fight against crime.

 Watching TV and video films can be deceptive as well. Santrock

[1993] states that such media may teach adolescents that problems

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are easily resolved and that everything turns out all right in the final
analysis. For example, in a film, adolescents may watch a fight where
someone is injured severely but after a few seconds he/she gets well.

IMuch as the mass media may have negative implications, research

has shown that they also show positive traits for example:

 Music meets a number of adolescent personal and social needs for

example,

a. Mood control

b. Silence filling

c. Providing knowledge about the outer world

d. Expressing adolescent concerns against authority

Positive Implications of Media on adolescent development

 Television and printed media also expose adolescents to the outer

world different from the one they are living in; as a result, they learn
other cultures, clothing fashions, career possibilities and even
patterns of intimate relationships.

 Mass media assist adolescents in improving their communication and

writing skills.

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 Watching a play for example or reading a novel can help them check
their use of language and grammar and make necessary changes or
adjustments.

Implications

 Teachers of adolescent students need to appreciate the significance

of a positive self-concept, high self-esteem and other dimensions of
the self to classroom performance and need to foster such in
adolescent students.

 Teachers of adolescent students need to appreciate the role played

by familial socialization in adolescent classroom interactions and
performance.

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CHAPTER 4: PSYCHO-SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT DURING

ADOLESCENCE

Adolescents have the feeling to understand about themselves (self-

understanding) i.e. they want to understand who they are and what makes
them different from everyone else. This feeling (development of self-
understanding during adolescence) is commonly called the development of
the self.

A. The self and Identity

What is the difference between self and Identity?

a. The Self: The term self can be used to represent terms such as I and
the me. It can also be used to represent the active observer of a
particular process.

b. Identity: Identify is a self-definition of who one is, where one is going

and how one fits into a society.

Erickson and Identity

It should be noted that identity development/formation in the adolescents is

a key concept in understanding the lives/behaviours of adolescents
(Erickson, 1963). Erick Erickson developed a model of personal and social
development in which (stage five of the model - identity versus role
confusion) identity development occurs at about the same time with the
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beginning of puberty (beginning of adolescence). In stage five (identity

versus role confusion) of Erick Erickson’s model of personal and social
development, individuals are believed to explore solutions to questions
about who they are and what they are going to do in life.

During stage five (identity versus role confusion), adolescents are

confronted with conflicting roles such as vocational and romantic.
Adolescents who fail to resolve the identity crisis or develop a positive
sense of identity at this stage are described as having identify confusion.

The confusion takes one of two courses: individuals withdrawal, isolating

themselves from peers and family or they immerse themselves in the world
of peers and lose their identity in the world.

Contemporary thoughts on identity

Contemporary views of identity development suggest several important

considerations.

 Identity development is a complex process

 Identity development is a lengthy process, more gradual, than

Erickson’s term crisis implies.

 Identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence. It begins

with the appearance of attachment, the development of a sense of
self, and the emergence of independence in the family, and reaches
its final phase with a life review and integration in old age.

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 Resolving identity issue at adolescence does not mean that identity

will be stable throughout life.

 An individual who develops a healthy identity is flexible and adaptive,

open to changes in society, in relationships and in careers.

FOUR IDENTITY STATUSES

In an extension of Erickson’s work James Marcia [1980] proposed four

statuses of adolescent identity formation, which characterize the search for
an identity. The four identity statuses are:

 Identity Confusion: This describes adolescents who have not yet

experienced an identity crisis or have not made any value
commitments in life. Such adolescents are undecided about
occupational or ideological choices and are likely to show little
interest in such matters.

 Identity Foreclosure: This describes the adolescents who have made

vale commitments in life but have not experienced identity crisis in
life.

 Identity Moratorium: This describes the adolescents who are in the

midst of identity crisis having made partially values commitments or
having vaguely defined values.

 Identity Achievement: This describes adolescents who have

undergone and identity crisis and have made value commitments.

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B. SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM

Self-Concept: This refers to total understanding of oneself including

feelings, competencies and interests. This develops from childhood through
adulthood as individuals interact with their environment. The environment
may include peers, parents, teachers and responsibilities assigned to them.

Self-esteem: This refers to an evaluation and effective understanding of

one-self. For example, a student may view him/herself as a good student.

Ways through which parents and peers can promote self-esteem of the
adolescents

This can be done through:

 Expression of affection

 Concern about adolescents’ problems

 Harmony in the homes

 Availability of parents to give competent advice when needed

 Allowing the adolescents freedom within the well prescribed limits

Ways through which schools and teachers can promote self-esteem of the
adolescents

 Identify causes of low self-esteem for the child and areas of

competencies that are important to the adolescent and later, give the
appropriate support.
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 Give emotional support and social approval to the adolescent.

 Assist the adolescent to cope with challenging tasks.

C. AUTONOMY

Different authors have defined autonomy differently. For the sake of this of
this course (Adolescent Psychology), autonomy can be defined as
adolescents’ push for self-direction and independence from parental
influence. Adolescents’ push for autonomy/independence and responsibility
is labelled as rebellious by many parents and this creates a sense of
conflict for many parents.

FORMS OF AUTONOMY

 Desatelisation: The term is used to describe the adolescent process

of breaking away and becoming independent from parents.

 Individuation: This refers to adolescent development of

distinctiveness from their parents and developing more self-
responsibility.

A developmental transition in autonomy occurs when individuals leave

home and go away to college, far from parental influence. The wise
parent relinquishes control of a child in areas where the adolescent
shows signs of maturity and makes mature decisions. Adolescents move
away from the world of parents and get attached to peers and friends

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D. ATTACHEMENT

Attachment is a close emotional relationship between two persons,

characterized by mutual affection and desire proximity or a strong mutual
affection that blind a person to an intimate companion.

Adolescents do not simply move away into a world isolated from parental
influence. As they become more autonomous, it is psychologically health
for them to be attached to their parents. Attachments to parents increase
the probability that adolescents will be socially competent.

Types of attachments

 Secure Attachment: This is where the adolescent uses the parent as

a secure base from which to explore the environment.

 Insecure Attachment: This is where the adolescent avoids parents or

show considerable resistance towards the parent.

E. FRIENDSHIP

Friendship is a close and often enduring relationship between two

individuals which may be characterized by loyalty and mutual
affection. It can also be described as an act of being in good terms
with others.

It is important for parents and teachers to understand that the growth

of friendly relationships among adolescents promote the development
of positive self-concept.
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Functions of adolescent friendships

 Companionship: Friendship provides adolescents with a familiar

partner, someone who is willing to spend time with and join in
collaborative activities.

 Stimulation: Friendship provides the adolescents with

interesting information, excitement and amusement.

 Physical Support: Friendship provides the expectation of

support, encouragement, and feedback that helps the
adolescents to maintain an impression of themselves as
competent, attractive and worthwhile individuals.

 Social Comparison: By comparing themselves with significant

others, friendships provides information about their behaviour,
characteristics and performance.

 Affection: Friendship provides the adolescents with a warm

close, and trusting relationship with other individuals.

 Intimacy: Friendship provides adolescents with a close

relationship characterised by self-disclosure and the sharing of
private thoughts.

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CHAPTER 5: PSYCHOSOCIAL PROBLEMS/CHALLENGES OF

ADOLESCENCE

Adolescents due to the developmental crisis that they are prone to face a of
psychosocial challenges. Among the major challenges are:

 Juvenile delinquency

 Drug and alcohol abuse

 Early pregnancy

 Sexually transmitted infections including HIV/AIDS

1. Juvenile delinquency

Juvenile delinquency refers to the predisposition to (tendency) and

indulgence in criminal or unlawful activities by children under the age of 18.
Criminal or unlawful activities include vandalism, robberies, using drugs or
alcohol, rape, and theft.

Factors causing juvenile delinquency

A number of factors have been postulated as causing delinquency among
adolescents. However, there are three major categories of factors namely:

 Psychological factors

 Socio-cultural factors

 Biological or hereditary traits

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Psychological and social-cultural factors

Advocates believe that delinquency (abnormal behaviour) is influenced by
environmental factors such as hostilities, anxieties, fears or deeper
neurosis. In some cases, delinquency is the result of poor socialization that
results in adolescents not developing proper impulse control [Sagi, 1982].
Other influencing factors include family environment, poverty and peer
influences.

 Family environment: Family factors, such as strained family

relationships and lack of family cohesion, are important sources of
delinquency [Kroupa, 1988]. Broken, dysfunctional homes have been
associated with delinquency, but are no worse than, and sometimes
not as detrimental as, intact but unhappy or disturbed family
relationships. It should also be noted that family environment is more
important in delinquency than family structure [Leflore, 1988]. One
study demonstrated that parental controls are significant inhibitors of
delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is distributed through all socio-
economic status levels.

 Peer influences: Some adolescents become delinquent because of

antisocial influences of peers.

 The media: Some adolescents tend to watch movies that are more
violent, and imitate what they have seen and heard.

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 School performance: The level of school performance is also

correlated with delinquency. Inability to get along with teachers and
administrators, difficulty adjusting to the school program, classroom
misconduct, poor grades and a lack of school success are associated
with delinquency.

Biological factors
Advocates of the biological causes believe that abnormal behaviour results
from physical malfunctioning of the body focusing on cognitive and genetic
factors.
Prevention of Delinquency
There are several strategies that can be used to mitigate delinquency
among adolescents:

 One way to prevent delinquency is to identify children [such as

hyperactive ones] who may be predisposed to getting into trouble,
and then plan intervention programs to help.

 Another preventive measure is to focus on dysfunctional family

relationships and assist parents in learning more effective parenting
skills.

 Anti-social youth may be placed in groups of pro-social peers, such

as at day camps where their behavior is influenced positively.

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 Young children may be placed in pre-school settings before problems

arise.

 Social skills training may be helpful with some offenders.

2. Drug and alcohol abuse

Drugs and alcohol abuse is one of the risky-taking behaviors among

adolescents and is strongly correlated with delinquency [Stuck et.al, 1985].

Drugs most commonly abused may be grouped into a number of

categories:

 Alcohol

 Narcotics

 Stimulants

 Depressants

 Hallucinogens

 Inhalants

Out of these groups the most frequently abused drugs and substances in
Malawi are alcohol, tobacco and marijuana.

Effects of alcohol on adolescent behaviour

Alcohol is an extremely powerful drug which is found in beer, wines and

spirits such as whisky. It acts primarily to slow down the brain’s activities. In

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low quantities alcohol is a stimulant. Taken in large quantities it can

damage or even kill biological tissues including muscle and brain cells. The
major mental and behavioral effect of alcohol on adolescents is reduced
skilled performance. Skills of intellectual functioning such as reading,
writing, memory and recall become impaired while behavioral control and
judgment become less efficient. Dementia tremens or alcohol dependence
syndrome characterized by strong addiction is the worst effect with an
individual failing to function without alcohol.

It is characterised by

 Continued drinking despite aversive consequences

 Liver damage

 Memory loss

3. Teenage pregnancy among adolescents

Adolescent pregnancy rate is very high in Malawi, particularly in schools.

Most discussions of adolescent pregnancy and its prevention affect many
social issues such as:

 Abortion rights: It’s about whether adolescents can terminate

unwanted pregnancies at will or not.

 Contraceptives: The net increase in premarital sexual intercourse

accompanied by a lack of efficient use of contraceptives has resulted
in an increase of out of wedlock pregnancies. This gives a question
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of whether adolescents should have easy access to contraceptives

to avoid unwanted pregnancies.

 Sex education:

Consequences of teenage pregnancies

 Increased health risks to both the mother and the child. For instance,
when a mother is younger than sixteen, the risk of dying during
pregnancy or childbirth is extremely high. The risk is very high
considering that their pelvises are immature and that the fetal head is
often unable to pass safely through the immature pelvis. This is also
why young teenagers are likely to have complicated deliveries and
caesarean sections.

Compared with mother older than 18 years, mothers younger than 16

years are likely to give birth to still-babies. Mothers younger than
sixteen years are all also likely to give birth to premature babies,
Further, they are likely to give birth to babies with low birth weight,
respiratory distress syndrome, and neurological defects [Bolton,
1980].

 Other physiological problems include pregnancy induced

hypertension, anaemia, vulnerability to HIV/AIDS and other STIs.

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 Adolescent mothers drop out of school and eventually fail to find

employment and become dependent on parents. these young women
find themselves trapped in economic insecurity.

 STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY

Desatelise

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