Culture

❖ Language and culture are closely intertwined (interconnected), as language

often
serves as a medium to express cultural values, norms, traditions, and shared beliefs
and transmit them from one generation to the next.
❖ The way people speak and the vocabulary they use often reveal what is
important in
their culture.
❖ Culture to refer to all the ideas and assumptions about the nature of things and
people that we learn when we become members of social groups.
❖ It can be defined as “socially acquired knowledge.”
❖ This is the kind of knowledge that, like our first language, we initially acquire
without conscious awareness.

Understanding Categories in Language and Thought

Definition of a Category

A category is a group of things that share common features.

The word "dog" refers to a category that includes all individual dogs despite their
differences.
Vocabulary as Category Labels

The words we learn act as labels for different categories.

These words represent concepts that are relevant in our social world.
No Fixed Relationship Between Language and Reality
It might seem like the words (categories) we use perfectly match reality, but this is
not true.
Different languages organize and categorize reality in different ways.
Variation in Categories Across Languages

Some languages have many words for a single concept, while others have few.
Example: Some languages have multiple words for different types of "rain" or
"coconut," whereas others may have only one or two.
Color Categories as an Example

Dani (New Guinea): Only two color terms equivalent to "black" and "white."
Inuit (Greenland): Five color terms – black, white, red, green, and yellow.
English: More advanced technology and social development led to more color
terms – black, white, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange, and
gray.
Impact of Technology and Culture on Language
Societies with more technological advancements tend to have more specific words
for concepts, including colors.
Language reflects the needs and experiences of the society that uses it.

Conceptual Distinctions and Lexicalization

Some distinctions exist in thought but are not always expressed as separate words
in every language.
Example: Some languages may not have a single word for "purple" but can still
distinguish it from other colors.
"Lexicalization" refers to when a concept is expressed as a single word in a
language.
Kinship Terms
Definition: Kinship terms are lexicalized categories referring to family members
(e.g., brother, mother, grandmother).
Variation Across Languages: Different languages categorize family relationships
differently.
Example - Father vs. Uncle:
Some languages use the same term for "father" and "father’s brother."
English distinguishes between "father" and "uncle" but does not differentiate
between "mother’s brother" and "father’s brother."
Watam (Papua New Guinea): Uses separate words—aes (father’s brother) and
akwae (mother’s brother).
Mopan Maya (Belize): Differentiates "uncle" by age rather than parental lineage.
Example - Grandmother Distinctions:
Norwegian: Separate terms for "father’s mother" (farmor) and "mother’s mother"
(mormor).
English: Uses a single term (grandmother) for both.

What is Linguistic Relativity?

Different languages organize words and categories in different ways.
The structure of a language can influence how people perceive and think about the
world.
Example: Some languages have many words for “rain” or “snow”, while others
have only one.
Weak Version of Linguistic Relativity
Our language influences how we think but does not completely control it.
The categories in our first language shape our habitual thought—the way we see
things in daily life without thinking too much about it.
Example: English speakers think of “time” as something that can be counted (days,
hours, minutes), but some cultures think of time as something flowing naturally
without strict divisions.
Strong Version: Linguistic Determinism
This idea says language determines thought—meaning we can only think in the
way our language allows.
If true, this would mean people who speak different languages have completely
different ways of understanding reality.
Example: The Snow Myth
People used to say that Eskimos (Inuit people) see snow differently from English
speakers because they have many words for it.
The idea was that English speakers see all snow as one thing, while Eskimos see
many types of snow because of their language.
This idea has been disproven—even English speakers can describe different types
of snow (powdery snow, wet snow, slush, etc.), and Eskimos do not have an
unlimited number of words for snow.
Key Takeaways
Language influences thought, but it does not completely control it (weak version is
more accepted).
We can learn new categories even if our language does not have words for them.
The way we talk about the world is shaped by our language and culture, but we are
not trapped by it.
What is the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?
It is the idea that the language we speak influences how we see and understand the
world. Proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf in the mid-20th century.
It suggests that different languages create different worldviews.
Connection Between Language and Culture
The hypothesis comes from studies of Native American languages, especially the
Hopi language.
Whorf argued that people perceive reality differently depending on how their
language organizes the world.
Example: Time in Hopi vs. English
In English, time is divided into past, present, and future.
In Hopi, time is not divided in the same way, so Whorf suggested that Hopi
speakers think about time differently from English speakers.
Example: Animate vs. Inanimate in Hopi
The Hopi language categorizes some objects as “animate” (living), including
clouds and stones.
Whorf believed that because of this, Hopi speakers see clouds and stones as alive.
In English, clouds and stones are considered inanimate (not living), so English
speakers do not see them as alive.
Whorf’s Famous Quote
He said, "We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages."
This means that the way we divide and understand the world is influenced by the
language we speak.
Strong vs. Weak Version of the Hypothesis
Strong version (Linguistic Determinism): Language controls thought completely.
Weak version (Linguistic Relativity): Language influences thought, but people can
still think beyond their language.
Key Takeaways
Language affects how we see the world, but it does not completely limit our
thinking.
Different languages may focus on different aspects of reality, leading to different
ways of thinking.
Against the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis
No Direct Collaboration: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf never co-authored a
book or article advocating the hypothesis.
The deterministic interpretation of their ideas is debated.
Counterarguments Against Linguistic Relativity:
Some argue that language does not strictly determine thought.
Example - French Language Gender Markings:
French marks nouns as masculine or feminine (e.g., la femme "the woman," la
pierre "the stone," la porte "the door").
This does not mean French speakers believe stones and doors are biologically
female.
Example - Hopi Language:

Hopi classifies stone as "animate," but this does not mean Hopi speakers believe
stones are living creatures.
Hopi truck drivers do not hesitate to drive over stones, showing biological
distinctions are still understood.
Key Issue:
Linguistic classification (e.g., "animate" or "feminine") does not necessarily equate
to biological classification ("living" or "female").
Language may influence perception, but it does not dictate beliefs or override
reality.
English and Snow
English has words like sleet, slush, snowflake, avalanche, and blizzard to describe
different types of snow.
But, English speakers also use phrases to describe things like fresh snow, powdery
snow, or dirty snow on the side of the street. These are not single words but
phrases that express snow in different ways.
These are non-lexicalized categories, meaning they're not expressed as one word,
but as descriptions using multiple words.
Language as a Tool for Expression
While English can create phrases to describe things, it’s still flexible. Speakers can
combine existing words in new ways to express their experiences.
For example, you might say “more like slush than snow outside” to describe the
weather. You’re using existing words but combining them in a unique way to
capture something specific.
Language Doesn’t Completely Control Thought
Language influences thought, but it doesn’t control it entirely.
For example, when the Hopi borrowed the word “santi” (Sunday) from English,
they created a new way of thinking about the week based on their own culture.
If a Hopi girl didn’t have the word for computer, she wouldn’t be unable to think
about it. She would adapt her language to include the new word once she
encountered the object.
Language Change is Possible
If language completely controlled thought, there would be no room for language
change. But language can change to fit new experiences, like when new
technology (like computers) comes into play.
Main Point:
Language influences thought, but humans have the ability to manipulate language
to express new ideas and concepts. We create new words or phrases when needed,
and language evolves to reflect new experiences and knowledge.
Language Structure Provides Clues, Not Causes
When we look at how people think, we can use language structure to help
understand their thinking. But language doesn’t cause how people think; it simply
reflects aspects of their culture and beliefs.
Example of Hopi Language
In the Hopi language, clouds are considered “animate” (alive).
This doesn't mean the Hopi people think clouds are alive like humans or animals,
but it reflects their traditional beliefs or way of thinking.
The word choice shows something about their culture, not about how they think in
a biological sense. Example of Yagua Language (Peru)
In the Yagua language, certain things like the moon, rocks, and pineapples are also
considered “animate.”
This doesn’t mean they think these things are alive like humans or animals, but
instead, they might see them as having “special importance” in their culture.
For the Yagua, the idea of “animate” refers to value or significance, not just being
biologically alive.
Cultural Differences in Thought
Language reflects cultural ideas, so different cultures might have different ways of
thinking about the same concepts.
For example, what English speakers think of as “alive” may be different from how
the Hopi or Yagua understand the concept.
Main Point:
Language structure gives us clues about how different cultures think and what they
value, but it doesn't directly cause their thoughts. Cultural ideas, like the
importance of certain objects or entities, shape the categories in the language they
use.
Social Categories in Language
Social Categories and Kinship Terms
Words like "uncle" or "grandmother" represent social categories.
These terms are used to indicate relationships with other people, often defining
how we are connected socially to them.
Sometimes, these words are used beyond their technical meaning. For example,
"uncle" might refer to close family friends who aren't technically your uncle.
Similarly, "brother" may refer to someone who isn't actually your sibling, but is
considered close in a social sense.
Address Terms
Address terms like "brother" can be used to create a sense of closeness or
solidarity.
For example, when someone on the street asks "Brother, can you spare a dollar?",
using "brother" helps create a sense of equality or connection, which may make the
request more likely to be granted.
Address terms can also reflect social status. For example, when speaking to
someone of higher status, we might use formal terms like "Sir" or titles like
"Doctor". In a more equal relationship, first names or even nicknames are used,
like "Bucky" or "Jen". T/V Distinction (Social Distance in Language)
In many languages, there are different pronouns used to show the social distance
between speakers. For example:
French: "tu" (close) vs. "vous" (distant)
German: "du" (close) vs. "Sie" (distant)
Spanish: "tú" (close) vs. "usted" (distant)
These forms show if the speakers are close in status (using informal pronouns like
"tu") or distant in status (using formal pronouns like "vous").
Traditionally, lower-status individuals had to use the formal pronouns when
addressing higher-status individuals. However, younger speakers in Europe today
may use informal forms like "tu" even if they don’t know each other very well.
Address Terms in English
In English, people are often addressed as Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Ms.
These terms have historical significance, especially for women. For example,
"Mrs." indicates a woman's marital status (i.e. that she is married). The system
used to focus on whether a woman was a wife or daughter.
However, "Ms." or "Mx." is now used to remove the focus on a woman's marital
status, making the address more neutral.
Men don't have the same marital-based titles in English, showing a gender
distinction in social categorization through language.
Main Point
Social categories in language reflect our relationships and social status.
Address terms help express closeness, respect, or social power between
individuals.
In many cultures, the terms we use for people (like "brother", "sir", "Mr.", or
"Ms.") are tied to how we categorize others socially based on things like family
connection, status, or marital status.
Gender and Language\ Different Uses of "Gender"
Biological Gender: Refers to the natural distinction between male and female in
terms of sex. This is the biological aspect of gender (e.g. human males and
females).
Grammatical Gender: This is the classification of nouns in certain languages. For
example, in Spanish, the word for sun ("sol") is masculine (el sol), while the word
for moon ("luna") is feminine (la luna).
Social Gender: Refers to how we classify people in terms of their social roles as
men or women. It is about the roles and expectations that society places on people
based on their sex.
Language and Gender
In many languages, including English, we see different terms used for men and
women, such as "Mr." and "Mrs." or "brother" and "sister."
Social gender is more about how we categorize people in society based on whether
they are male or female, and the roles they are expected to take on because of their
gender.
Binary Gender Distinction
Traditional studies often looked at the language differences between men and
women, which is based on a binary gender system.
"Male" and "female" often align with biological sex, while "man" and "woman"
are social categories.
Most studies focus on the distinctions between "men's" and "women's" language
and social roles.
Non-Binary Gender
In recent years, the non-binary gender category has gained more attention. Non-
binary individuals do not strictly identify as male or female, and they may express
their gender in a variety of ways. Non-binary people's speech and interactions
could be somewhere along a continuum between the typical patterns associated
with "men's" and "women's" language.
Key Points
Gender in language isn't just about biology (male/female), but also about the social
roles people take on (man/woman).
Grammatical gender refers to how languages classify nouns (e.g.,
masculine/feminine).
Non-binary people might express their gender language in ways that fall between
or outside traditional male and female categories.
Gendered Speech
Different Words for Men and Women

Some languages have gendered vocabulary, where certain words are used
differently by men and women.
In Sidamo (Ethiopia): The word for "milk" is ado for men and gurda for
women.
In Japanese: Men traditionally say boku for "I" while women use watashi or
atashi.
In Portuguese: Saying "thank you" is obrigado for men and obrigada for
women.
English has some gendered expressions, like "master bedroom" (which has
been changed to "main bedroom" in recent years).
Voice and Pitch Differences

Men and women have physical differences in their vocal anatomy. Men
generally have:
Longer vocal tracts
Larger larynxes
Thicker vocal folds
As a result, men typically speak in a lower pitch (80–160 Hz) compared to
women (160–250 Hz).
In Japanese, the difference in pitch is noticeable, with men using a much
lower pitch and women using a higher pitch.
Gendered Interaction
Same-Gender vs. Cross-Gender Talk

Same-gender talk: Most of our socialization happens in same-gender groups,

and by age 3, children prefer speaking with others of the same gender.
Boys: Typically socialize in larger groups and often engage in competitive
activities, creating hierarchical relationships.
Girls: Socialize in smaller groups, often engage in co-operative activities, and
form reciprocal relationships.
Socialization Differences
Men's interaction styles often seem hierarchical, with a focus on having the
floor or controlling the conversation.
Men tend to take longer turns in conversations and may dominate speech in
certain settings (e.g. religious events).
Women's interaction styles tend to be more cooperative, promoting shared
conversation by allowing others to speak and take turns.
Tag Questions
Tag questions are short questions added to statements to seek agreement or
confirmation (e.g. "It looks nice, doesn't it?").
Women tend to use tag questions to invite agreement or encourage
conversation, as in: “It looks really nice, doesn’t it?”
Men, when using tag questions, often use them to assert information or
confirm something, as in: "You never study for tests, do you?"
Effects on Cross-Gender Interactions
Interruptions
In same-gender interactions, people tend to interrupt each other equally.
However, in cross-gender interactions, men are more likely to interrupt
women, reflecting a power dynamic in these conversations.
Back-Channels
Back-channels are verbal cues (e.g., "yeah," "uh-huh") used to show listening
or paying attention.
Women tend to use more back-channels, signaling engagement and
attention.
Men use fewer back-channels and may treat them as agreement rather than
active listening. In cross-gender interactions, the absence of back-
channels from men may make women feel that men are not paying attention
to them, while the more frequent back-channels from women may lead some
men to think that women are agreeing with them.
Gender Neutral Language
Emergence of Gender-Neutral Pronouns
As society recognizes that gender is not strictly binary (male or female), there has
been a push toward gender-neutral language.
In languages like Swedish, a gender-neutral pronoun "hen" has been introduced,
which is neutral between han (he) and hon (she).
In English, gender-neutral language has been evolving as well. For example, some
writers proposed new pronouns like hesh, himer, and hizer in the 19th century.
Others created new terms like xe and ze.

The Use of "Thon"

In the early 20th century, Henry Williams, a psychology professor, introduced the
gender-neutral form "thon", combining "that" + "one".
For example: "Every student should acquaint thonself with some method by which
thon can positively correlate the facts of thons knowledge."
Singular "They"
The gender-neutral singular "they" is a widely used pronoun today. It is used for
individuals whose gender is unspecified or non-binary, or simply when referring to
someone without specifying gender.
Example sentences:
"Somebody called earlier. Did they leave their number?"
"Nobody likes it, do they?"
This use of singular they is not a new concept— it was commonly used in earlier
periods of English.
Language Evolution and Criticism
Some critics argue that singular they is "illogical" because it pairs a
singular subject with a plural auxiliary verb. However, similar patterns
have existed in English for centuries.
For instance, the plural "you" was once used as a singular pronoun in
English (e.g., "you are" instead of "thou art").
In fact, the phrase "do they?" is now commonly used in the singular (not
"does they?").
Cultural and Linguistic Change
The adoption of gender-neutral language reflects broader cultural
changes, particularly the greater recognition of gender-nonconforming
individuals.
It shows that language is constantly evolving and adapting to reflect
changes in society, highlighting how language can evolve as our
understanding of identity and gender becomes more inclusive.