Error and Measurement

Error and Measurement

1. Least Count

mm. scale Vernier Screw gauge Stop Watch Temp thermometer

L.C = 1mm L.C = 0.1mm L.C = 0.1mm L.C = 0.1Sec L.C = 0.1°C
 Error and Measurement

2. Significant Figures

 Non-zero digits are significant

 Zeros occurring between two non-zeros digits are significant.

 Change of units cannot change S.F.

 In the number less than one, all zeros after decimal point and to the left
of first non-zero digit are insignificant

 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not
significant.
 Error and Measurement

3. Permissible Error

 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦

then (Δ𝑓)max = max of ±Δ𝑋 ± Δ𝑌

 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = ( constant )𝑥 𝑎 𝑦 𝑏 𝑧 𝑐

Δ𝑓 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑦 Δ𝑧
then = ±𝑎 ±𝑏 ±𝑐
𝑓 max 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
 Error and Measurement

4. Errors in averaging

 Absolute Error Δ𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎mean − 𝑎𝑛

 Mean Absolute Error Δ𝑎mean = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 Δ𝑎𝑖 /𝑛

Δamean
 Relative error =
amean

Δamean
 Percentage error = × 100
amean
 Error and Measurement

5. Experiments

pitch
 Least count of screw gauge =
No. of circular scale division

main circular
Least
 Reading of screw gauge = scale + scale
count
reading reading
 Error and Measurement

 Least count of vernier calliper = 1MSD − 1VSD

main vernier
Least
 Reading of vernier caliper = scale + scale
count
reading reading
Unit and Dimensions
 Unit and Dimensions

Unit :
Measurement of any physical quantity is expressed in terms of an internationally
accepted certain basic standard called unit.
Fundamental Units. S.No. Physical Quantity SI Unit Symbol
1 Length Metre m

2 Mass Kilogram Kg

3 Time Second S

4 Electric Current Ampere A

5 Temperature Kelvin K

6 Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

7 Amount of Substance Mole mol

 Unit and Dimensions

Conversion from one unit to another:

• nu = constant
• n1 u1 = n2 u2

a b c
M L1 T1
• n2 = n1 1
M2 L2 T2
 Unit and Dimensions
Metric Prefixes :

• Velocity

• Acceleration

• Linear Momentum

• Force

• Work or Energy
RECTILINEAR MOTION
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

Average Velocity (in an interval) :

Total displacement rԦf − rԦi

vav = vത = ⟨v⟩ = =
Total time taken Δt

Average Speed (in an interval)

Total distance travelled

Average Speed =
Total time taken

Instantaneous Velocity (at an instant) :

ΔԦr
vinst = lim
Δt→0 Δt
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

Average acceleration (in an interval):

Δv vf − vi
aav = =
Δt Δt

Instantaneous Acceleration (at an instant):

dv Δv
a= = lim
dt Δt→0 Δt
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

Graphs in Uniformly Accelerated Motion along a straight line (𝐚 ≠ 𝟎)

X vs t graph
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

 v − t graph
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

 a-t graph

Maxima & Minima

dy d dy
=0& < 0 at maximum
dx dx dx

dy d dy
and =0& > 0 at minima
dx dx dx
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

Equations of Motion (for constant acceleration)

(a) v = u + at

1 2
(b) s = ut + at
2

(c) v 2 = u2 + 2as

(u+v)
(d) s = t
2

a
(e) sn = u + (2n − 1)
2
 RECTILINEAR MOTION

For freely falling bodies : (u = 0)

(taking upward direction as positive)

(a) v = −gt

1 2
(b) s = − gt
2

(c) v 2 = −2gs

g
(d) sn = − (2n − 1)
2
PROJECTILE MOTION &
VECTORS
 PROJECTILE MOTION &
VECTORS
Time of flight :
2usi n θ
T=
g

Horizontal range :

u2 si n 2 θ
R=
g

Maximum height :

u2 sin2 θ
H=
2g
 PROJECTILE MOTION &
VECTORS
Trajectory equation (equation of path) :

gx 2 x
y = xta n θ − 2 2 = xta n θ 1 −
2u cos θ R
 PROJECTILE MOTION &
VECTORS

Up the Incline Down the Incline

Range 2u2 sinαcos(α + β) 2u2 sinαcos(α − β)
gcos 2 β gcos 2 β
2usinα 2usinα
Time of flight
gcosβ gcosβ
Angle of projection with
π β π β
incline plane for maximum − +
4 2 4 2
Range
u2 u2
Maximum Range
g(1 + sinβ) g(1 − sinβ)
RELATIVE MOTION
 RELATIVE MOTION

vAB ( velocity of A with respect to B) = vA − vB

aAB ( acceleration of A with respect to B) = aA − aB

Relative motion along straight line −xBA = xB − xA

CROSSING RIVER

A boat or man in a river always moves in the direction of resultant velocity of

velocity of boat (or man) and velocity of river flow.
 RELATIVE MOTION

1. Shortest Time :

Velocity along the river, vx = vR .

Velocity perpendicular to the river, vy = vmR

2
The net speed is given by vm = vmR + vR2
 RELATIVE MOTION

2. Shortest Path :

velocity along the river, vx = 0 = vR − vmR 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ

and velocity perpendicular to river vy = vmR 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ

 RELATIVE MOTION

RAIN PROBLEMS

vRm = vR − vm or vRm = vR2 + vm

2
NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
1. From third law of motion

FAB = −FBA

FAB = Force on A due to B

FBA = Force on B due to A

2. From second law of motion

dPx dPy dPz

Fx = = max Fy = = may Fz = = ma z
dt dt dt
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
3. In absence of any external force

dP
F = =0
dt

4. WEIGHT:

F = −𝑀g
M = Mass of body and g = acceleration due to gravity
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
5. Normal Reaction N:

• Force exerted from contact surfaces.

• Perpendicular to the surface

6. SPRING FORCE

F = −kx

x is displacement of the free end from its natural length or deformation of

the spring where K = spring constant.
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
7. SPRING PROPERTY

K × 𝓁 = constant

= Natural length of spring.

8. If spring is cut into two in the ratio m: n then spring constant is given by

m𝓁 n⋅𝓁
𝓁1 = ;𝓁 = k𝓁 = k1 𝓁1 = k 2 𝓁2
m+n 2 m+n

1 1 1
For series combination of springs = + + ⋯….
k eq k1 k 2

For parallel combination of spring k eq = k1 + k 2 + k 3 … … … …

 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION

9. SPRING BALANCE:

It does not measure the weight. It measures the force exerted by the object at the
hook.

Remember :
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION

11. m2 − m1 g
a =
m1 + m2

2m1 m2 g
T =
m1 + m2
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
12. Inclined Plane
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
13.Rocket Propulsion and Variable mass system
 NEWTON'S LAWS OF
MOTION
14.NEWTON'S LAW FOR NON INERTIAL FRAME :

FReal + FPseudo = ma

Net sum of real and pseudo force is taken in the resultant force.
a = Acceleration of the particle in the non inertial frame
FPseudo = −maFrame

(a) Inertial reference frame: Frame of reference moving with constant velocity.

(b) Non-inertial reference frame: A frame of reference moving with non-zero

acceleration.
FRICTION
 FRICTION

Friction force is of two types.

(a) Kinetic
(b) Static

KINETIC FRICTION: 𝐟𝐤 = 𝛍𝐤 𝐍

The proportionality constant μk is called the coefficient of kinetic friction and its
value depends on the nature of the two surfaces in contact.

STATIC FRICTION :

It exists between the two surfaces when there is tendency of relative motion but
no relative motion along the two contact surfaces.
 FRICTION

This means static friction is a variable and self adjusting force. However it has a
maximum value called limiting friction.

fmax = μs N

0 ≤ fs ≤ fsmax
 Friction

Angle of friction

Angle of repose
WORK, POWER &
ENERGY
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK DONE BY CONSTANT FORCE :

W=F⋅S
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

WORK DONE BY A VARIABLE FORCE

dW = F. d𝐬Ԧ

RELATION BETWEEN MOMENTUM AND KINETIC ENERGY

P2
K= and P = 2mK; P = linear momentum
2m

POTENTIAL ENERGY
U2 r2 r2
න dU = − න F ⋅ dԦr i.e., U2 − U1 = − න F ⋅ dԦr = −W
U1 r1 r1
r
U = − න F ⋅ dԦr = −W
∞
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

CONSERVATIVE FORCES
𝜕U
F=−
𝜕r

WORK-ENERGY THEOREM

WC + WNC = ΔK
 WORK, POWER & ENERGY

POWER

The average power ൫P᪄ or pav ) delivered by an agent is given by P᪄ or

W
pav =
t

F ⋅ dS dS
P= =F⋅ =F⋅v
dt dt
CIRCULAR MOTION
 CIRCULAR MOTION

θ2 −θ1 Δθ
1. Average angular velocity ⇒ ωav = =
t2 −t1 Δt

dθ
2. Instantaneous angular velocity ⇒ ω =
dt

ω2 −ω1 Δω
3. Average angular acceleration ⇒ αav = =
t2 −t1 Δt

dω dω
4. Instantaneous angular acceleration ⇒ α = =ω
dt dθ

5. Relation between speed and angular velocity ⇒ v = rω and v = ω × rԦ

 CIRCULAR MOTION

7. Tangential acceleration (rate of change of speed)

dV dω dr
⇒ at = =r =ω
dt dt dt

v2
8. Radial or normal or centripetal acceleration ⇒ ar = = ω2 r
r

9. Total acceleration
1Τ2
⇒ a = at + ar ⇒ a = a2t + 2
ar

Where at = α × rԦ and ar = ω × v
 CIRCULAR MOTION

10.Angular acceleration

dω
⇒ α= (Non-uniform circular motion)
dt

v2 mv2
12. Radius of curvature R = =
a⊥ F⊥
3/2
dy 2
1+
dx
If y is a function of x. i.e. y = f(x) ⇒ R = d2 y
dx2
 CIRCULAR MOTION

13. Normal reaction of road on a concave bridge

mv 2
⇒ N = mgcos θ +
r
 CIRCULAR MOTION

14.Normal reaction on a convex bridge

mv 2
⇒ N = mgcos θ −
r
 CIRCULAR MOTION

15.Skidding of vehicle on a level road ⇒ vsafe ≤ μgr

16. Skidding of an object on a rotating platform ⇒ ωmax = μg/r

v2
17.Bending of cyclist ⇒ tan θ =
rg

v2
18. Banking of road without friction ⇒ tan θ =
rg
 CIRCULAR MOTION

v2 μ+tan θ
19. Banking of road with friction ⇒ =
rg 1−μtan θ

20. Maximum also minimum safe speed on a banked frictional road

1Τ2 1Τ2
rg(μ + ta n θ) rg(ta n θ − μ)
Vmax = Vmin =
1 − μta n θ 1 + μta n θ

21.Centrifugal force (pseudo force) ⇒ f = mω2 r, acts outwards when the

particle itself is taken as a frame.

22. Effect of earths rotation on apparent weight ⇒ N = mg − mRω2 cos 2 θ;

where θ ⇒ latitude at a place

 CIRCULAR MOTION

23. Various quantities for a critical condition in a vertical loop at different

positions
 CIRCULAR MOTION

24. Conical pendulum :

Tco s θ = mg

Tsi n θ = mω2 r
Lcos θ
Time period = 2π
g
 CIRCULAR MOTION

25.Relations amoung angular variables :

ω0 ⇒ Initial ang. velocity

ω = ω0 + αt

ω ⇒ Find angular velocity

ω ⇒ Const. angular acceleration

θ ⇒ Angular displacement
1 2
θ = ω0 t + αt
2
ω2 = ω20 + 2αθ
CENTRE OF MASS
 CENTRE OF MASS

Mass Moment : 𝐌 = 𝐦Ԧ𝐫

CENTRE OF MASS OF A SYSTEM OF 'N' DISCRETE PARTICLES

m1 rԦ1 + m2 rԦ2 + ⋯ … … + mn rԦn

rԦcm = ; rԦcm
m1 + m2 + ⋯ … . . +mn

n
∑ni=1 mi rԦi 1
= n rԦcm = ෍ mi rԦi
∑i=1 mi M
i=1
 CENTRE OF MASS

CENTRE OF MASS OF A CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION

‫ ׬‬xdm ‫ ׬‬ydm ‫ ׬‬zdm

xcm = , ycm = , zcm =
‫ ׬‬dm ‫ ׬‬dm ‫ ׬‬dm

‫ ׬‬dm = M (mass of the body)

CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS

⇒ A system of two point masses m1 r1 = m2 r2

 CENTRE OF MASS

CENTRE OF MASS OF SOME COMMON SYSTEMS

⇒ A system of two point masses m1 r1 = m2 r2

The centre of mass lies closer to the heavier mass.

 CENTRE OF MASS

⇒ Rectangular plate (By symmetry)

b L
xc = yc =
2 2
 CENTRE OF MASS

⇒ A triangular plate

h
at the centroid: yc =
3

⇒ A semi-circular ring 2R
yc = xc = 0
π

4R
yc = xc = 0
⇒ A semi-circular disc 3π
 CENTRE OF MASS

R
⇒ A hemispherical shell yc = xc = 0
2

3R
⇒ A solid hemisphere yc = x =0
8 c

h
⇒ A circular cone (solid) yc =
4
 CENTRE OF MASS

⇒ A circular cone (hollow) h

yc =
3

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS AND CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM:

Velocity of centre of mass of system

dr1 dr dr dr
m1 + m2 2 + m3 3 … … … … + mn n
vcm = dt dt dt dt
M
m1 v1 + m2 v2 + m3 v3 … … … + mn vn
=
M
PSystem = MVcm
 CENTRE OF MASS

Acceleration of centre of mass of system

dv1 dv dv dv
m1 + m2 2 + m3 3 … … … … + mn n
acm = dt dt dt dt
M

Fext = Macm
 CENTRE OF MASS

IMPULSE
Impulse of a force F action on a body is defined as :-
tf
ԦJ = න Fdt ԦJ = ΔP (impulse − momentum theorem)
ti

Important points :

1. Gravitational force and spring force are always non-impulsive.

2. An impulsive force can only be balanced by another impulsive force.

 CENTRE OF MASS

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION (e)

Impulse of reformation ‫ ׬‬Fr dt

e= =
Impulse of deformation ‫ ׬‬Fd dt

Velocity of separation along line of impact

=
Velocity of approach along line of impact

(a) e = 1 ⇒ Velocity of separation = Velocity of approach

⇒ Kinetic Energy is conserved

⇒ Elastic collision.
 CENTRE OF MASS

(b) e = 0 ⇒ Velocity of separation = 0

⇒ Kinetic Energy is not conserved

⇒ Perfectly Inelastic collision

(c)0 < e < 1 ⇒ Velocity of separation < Velocity of approach

⇒ Kinetic Energy is not conserved

⇒ Inelastic collision
 CENTRE OF MASS

Elastic Collisions
 CENTRE OF MASS

Inelastic Collisions
 CENTRE OF MASS

Oblique Collisions
RIGID BODY DYNAMICS
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

1. RIGID BODY :

If the above body is rigid

VA co s θ1 = VB co s θ2

VBA = relative velocity of point B with respect to point A

 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Types of Motion of rigid body

Pure Translational Pure Rotational Combined Translational and

Motion Motion Rotational Motion
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

2. MOMENT OF INERTIA (I) :

Moment of Inertia is a scalar positive quantity.

I = mr1 2 + m2 r2 2 +…..

= I1 + I2 + I3 + ⋯ … … . .

SI units of Moment of Inertia is Kgm2 .

 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Moment of Inertia of :

2.1 A single particle : 𝐈 = 𝐦𝐫 𝟐

where m = mass of the particle

r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis about

which moment of Inertia is to be calculated

2.2 For many particles (system of particles) :
n

I = ෍ mi ri2
i=1
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

2.3 For a continuous object :

I = න dmr 2

where dm = mass of a small element

r = perpendicular distance of the particle from the axis

 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

3. TWO IMPORTANT THEOREMS ON MOMENT OF INERTIA :

3.1 Perpendicular Axis Theorem

[Only applicable to plane lamina (that means for 2-D objects only)].

Iz = Ix + Iy (when object is in x − y plane).

3.2 Parallel Axis Theorem

(Applicable to any type of object):

IAB = Icm + Md2

 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

List of some useful formula :

Object Moment of Inertia

2
MR2 (Uniform)
5
Solid Sphere

2
MR2 (Uniform)
3

Hollow Sphere
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

MR² (Uniform or Non Uniform)

ring

MR2
(Uniform)
2

Disc
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

2
MR (Uniform or Non Uniform)

Hollow
cylinder

MR2
(Uniform)
2
Solid
cylinder
RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

ML2
(Uniform)
3

ML2
(Uniform)
12
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

2m𝓁2
(Uniform)
3

Ma2
IAB = ICD = IEF = (Uniform)
12

Square Plate
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

Ma2
(Uniform)
6
Square Plate

M a2 +b2
I= (Uniform)
12
Rectangular Plate
RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Object Moment of Inertia

M a2 +b2
(Uniform)
12

Cuboid
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

4. RADIUS OF GYRATION :

I = MK 2

5. TORQUE :

τ = rԦ × F
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Relation between ' 𝛕 ' & ' 𝛂 ' (for hinged object or pure rotation)

τext )Hinge = IHinge α

τresultant ൯external = Iα

1
Rotational Kinetic Energy = ⋅ I. ω)2
2

P = MvCM ⇒ Fexternal = MaaCM

Net external force acting on the body has two parts tangential and centripetal.
v2
⇒ FC = maC = m = mω2 rCM ⇒ Ft = mat = mαrCM
rCM
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

6. ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM :

For translational equilibrium

ΣFx = 0……..(i)

and ΣFy = 0……….(ii)

The condition of rotational equilibrium is

ΣΓz = 0
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Ԧ)
7. ANGULAR MOMENTUM ( 𝐋

7.1 Angular momentum of a particle about a point.

L = rԦ × P ⇒ L = rpsinθ

|L| = r⊥ × P

|L| = P⊥ × r
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

7.3 Angular momentum of a rigid body rotating about fixed axis :

LH = IH ω

LH = angular momentum of object about axis H.

IH = Moment of Inertia of rigid object about axis H.

ω = angular velocity of the object.
 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

7.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum

Angular momentum of a particle or a system remains constant if τext = 0 about

that point or axis of rotation.

7.5 Relation between Torque and Angular Momentum

dL
τ=
dt

Torque is change in angular momentum

 RIGID BODY DYNAMICS

Dynamics :

τcm = Icm α, Fext = Macm

Psystem = Mvcm

1 1
Total K.E. = Mvcm2 + Icm ω2
2 2
Angular momentum axis AB = L about C.M. +L of C.M. about AB

LAB = Icm ω + rԦcm × Mvcm

GRAVITATION
 GRAVITATION

GRAVITATION : Universal Law of Gravitation

m1 m2 m1 m2
F∝ or F = G 2
r2 r
where G = 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg −2 is the universal gravitational constant.

Gravitational Field
F GM
E= = 2
m r
 GRAVITATION

Gravitational potential : gravitational potential,

GM dV
V=− . E=−
r dr

−GM −GMr GMcos θ

1. Ring. V = &E= rƶ or E = −
x or a2 +r2 1/2 a2 +r2 3/2 x2

Gravitational field is maximum at a distance,

r = ±a/ 2
and it is E = −2GM/3 3a2
 GRAVITATION

2. Thin Circular Disc.

−2GM 2 1 2GM r
2 2
V= a + r − r &E = − 2 1 − 1
a2 a
r2 2
+a 2

2GM
= − 2 [1 − cos θ]
a
 GRAVITATION

3. Solid sphere
GM
(a) Point P inside the sphere. r ≤ a, then V = − 3a2 − r 2 &E =
2a3

GMr 3GM
− , and at the centre V = − and E = 0
a3 2a

(b) Point P outside the sphere .

GM GM
r ≥ a, then V = − &E=−
r r2
 GRAVITATION

4. Uniform Thin Spherical Shell / Conducting solid sphere

(a) Point P Inside the shell.
−GM
r ≤ a, then V = &E=0
a

(b) Point P outside shell.

−GM GM
r ≥ a, then V = & E= − 2
r r
 GRAVITATION

VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY :

1. Effect of Altitude

−2
GMe h 2h
gh = 2
=g 1+ ≃g 1− when h ≪ R.
Re + h Re Re

d
2. Effect of depth g d = g 1 −
Re

3. Effect of the surface of Earth

The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than its polar radius.
GMe
We know, g = Hence g pole > g equator .
R2e
 GRAVITATION

Escape Velocity:
 GRAVITATION

SATELLITE VELOCITY (OR ORBITAL VELOCITY)

1 1
GMe 2 gR2e 2
v0 = =
Re + h Re + h

When h ≪ R e then v0 = gR e
∴ v0 = 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 7.92 × 103 ms −1 = 7.92 km s1
Time period of Satellite

1
3 2
2π R e + h 2π R e + h
T= 1 =
Re g
gR2e 2

Re + h
 GRAVITATION

Energy of a Satellite
−GMe m GMe m GMe m
U= K.E. = ; then total energy → E = −
r 2r 2Re

Kepler's Laws
Law of area :
The line joining the sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time.
1
area swept r(rdθ) 1 dθ
Areal velocity = = 2
= r2 = constant .
time dt 2 dt

1 2 T2
Hence r ω = constant. Law of periods : = constant
2 R3
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Buoyant Force and Hydrostatic Pressure:
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
(i) Liquid placed in elevator: When elevator accelerates upward with acceleration a0
then pressure in the fluid, at depth ' h ' may be given by, p = ρh g + a0

and force of buoyancy, B = m (g + a0)

 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
(ii) Free surface of liquid in horizontal acceleration :

a0
tan 𝜃 =
g
p1 − p2 = ρ𝓁a0 where p1 and p2 are pressures at points 1&2.
𝓁a0
Then h1 − h2 =
g
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Equation of continuity

a1 v1 = a2 v2

In general av = constant .

Bernoulli's Theorem
P 1
i.e. + v 2 + gh = constant.
ρ 2

2gh
(vi) Torricelli's theorem - (speed of efflux) v = A2
, A2 = area of hole A1 = area of
1− 22
A1

vessel.
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
restoringforce F
ELASTICITY & VISCOSITY : stress = =
area of the body A

change in configuration
Strain, 𝜖 =
original configuration
ΔL
(i) Longitudinal strain =
L
ΔV
(ii) 𝜖v = volume strain =
V
X
(iii) Shear Strain : tan 𝜙 or 𝜙 =
𝓁
𝐹/𝐴 𝐹𝐿
1. Young's modulus of elasticity 𝑌 = =
Δ𝐿/𝐿 𝐴Δ𝐿
1 1
Potential Energy per unit volume = ( stress × strain ) = Y × strain2 Inter-
2 2
Atomic Force-Constant k = Yr0 .
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
dv dv
Newton's Law of viscosity, F ∝ A or F = −ηA
dx dx

Stoke's Law F = 6πηrv.

2 r2 (ρ−σ)g
Terminal velocity =
9 η

SURFACE TENSION

Total force on either of the imaginary line (F)

Surface tension (T) = ;
Length of the line (𝓁)

ΔW
T=S=
A
 FLUID MECHANICS &
PROPERTIES OF MATTER
4T
Inside a bubble : p − pa = = pexcess
r

2T
Inside the drop : p − pa = = pexcess
r

2T
Inside air bubble in a liquid : p − pa = = pexcess
r

2 Tcos θ
Capillary Rise h =
rρg
 HEAT &
THERMODYNAMICS
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS
1 3 3
Total translational K.E. of gas = M < V 2 >= PV = nRT
2 2 2

3P
< V2 >=
ρ
3P 3RT 3KT
Vms = = =
ρ Mmol m

Important Points :

8KT KT KT
ഥ=
V = 1.59 Vrms = 1.73
πm m m

2KT KT
Most probable speed Vp = = 1.41 ഥ > Vmp
∴ Vrms > V
m m
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Degree of freedom :

Mono atomic f = 3

Diatomic f = 5

polyatomic f = 6

Maxwell's law of equipartition of energy :

Total K.E. of the molecule = 1/2fKT

For an ideal gas :

f
Internal energy U = nRT
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Workdone in isothermal process :

Vf
W = 2.303nRT log10
Vi

Internal energy in isothermal process :

ΔU = 0

Work done in isochoric process :

dW = 0

Change in int. energy in isochoric process :

f
ΔU = n RΔT = heat given
2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Isobaric process :

Work done ΔW = nR Tf − Ti

change in int. energy ΔU = nCV ΔT

heat given ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW

Specific heat :
f f
CV = R Cp = +1 R
2 2
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS
Molar heat capacity of ideal gas in terms of 𝐑 :

(i) for monoatomic gas :

Cp
= 1.67
Cv
(ii) for diatomic gas :
Cp
= 1.4
Cv
(iii) for triatomic gas :
Cp
= 1.33
Cv
Cp 2
In general : γ = = 1+
Cv f

Mayer's eq. ⇒ Cp − Cv = R for ideal gas only

 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Adiabatic process :
nR Ti −Tf
Work done ΔW =
γ−1

In cyclic process :
ΔQ = ΔW
In a mixture of non-reacting gases :
n1 M1 + n2 M2
Mol. wt. =
n1 + n2
n1 Cv1 + n2 Cv2
Cv =
n1 + n2
Cp( mix ൯ n1 Cp + n2 Cp + ⋯ . .
1 2
γ= =
Cv (mix) n1 Cv1 + n2 Cv2 + ⋯ .
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Second law of Thermodynamics

 Kelvin- Planck Statement

It is impossible to construct an engine, operating in a cycle, which will produce no

effect other than extracting heat from a reservoir and performing an equivalent
amount of work.

 Clausius Statement

It is impossible to make heat flow from a body at a lower temperature to a body at a

higher temperature without doing external work on the working substance
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Entropy
ΔQ f ΔQ
 change in entropy of the system is ΔS = ⇒ Sf − Si = ‫׬‬i
T T

 In an adiabatic reversible process, entropy of the system remains constant.

 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS
Calorimetry and thermal expansion

Types of thermometers :
𝓁 − 𝓁0
(a) Liquid Thermometer : 𝐓= × 100
𝓁100 − 𝓁0
(b) Gas Thermometer :
P − P0
Constant volume : T= × 100 ; P = P0 + ρgh
P100 − P0

Constant Pressure : V
T= T
V − V′ 0
Rt − R0
(c) Electrical Resistance Thermometer : T= × 100
R100 − R 0
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Thermal Expansion :

(a) Linear : ΔL
α= or L = L0 (1 + αΔTቇ
L0 ΔT

(b) Area/superficial :
ΔA
β= or A = A0 (1 + βΔTቇ
A0 ΔT

(c) volume/ cubical :

ΔV
r= or V = V0 (1 + γΔT)
V0 ΔT

β γ
α= =
2 3
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Thermal stress of a material :

F Δ𝓁
=Y
A 𝓁
Energy stored per unit volume :
1 2 1 AY 2
E = K(ΔL ) or E = (ΔL)
2 2 L
Variation of time period of pendulum clocks :

1
ΔT = αΔθT
2
T ′ < T − clock−fast : time−gain

T ′ > T − clock slow : time−loss

 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

CALORIMETRY :
Q
Specific heat S =
m⋅ΔT

ΔQ
Molar specific heat C =
n⋅ΔT

Water equivalent = mw Sw

HEAT TRANSFER

Thermal Conduction :
dQ dT
= −KA
dt dx
Thermal Resistance :
𝓁
R=
KA
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS

Series and parallel combination of rod :

𝓁eq 𝓁1 𝓁2
(i) Series: = + + ⋯ … ( when A1 = A2 = A3 = ⋯ … . . )
Keq K1 K2

(ii) Parallel : K eq Aeq = K1 A1 + K 2 A2 + ⋯ … ( when 𝓁1 = 𝓁2 = 𝓁3 = ⋯ … . . )

for absorption, reflection and transmission

r+t+a=1

Emissive power :
ΔU
E=
ΔAΔt
Spectral emissive power :
dE
Eλ =
dλ
 HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS
E of a body at T temp.
Emissivity: e =
E of a black body at T temp.

E (body)
Kirchoff's law : = E (black body)
a (body)

Wein's Displacement law : λm ⋅ T = b

b = 0.282 cm − k
Stefan Boltzmann law :
u = σT 4 s = 5.67 × 10−8 WΤm2 k 4
Δu = u − u0 = eσA T 4 − T04
SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

S.H.M.
F = −kx

General equation of S.H.M. is x = Asin(ωt + ϕ); (ωt + ϕ) is phase of the motion

and ϕ is initial phase of the motion.

Angular Frequency (𝛚) :

2π
ω= = 2πf
T
Time period (T) :
2π m
T= = 2π
ω k
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Speed:
v = ω A2 − x 2
Acceleration :

a = −ω2 x
1 1 1
Kinetic Energy (KE): mv 2 = mω2 A2 − x 2 = k A2 − x 2
2 2 2

1
Potential Energy (PE): Kx 2
2

Total Mechanical Energy (TME)

1 1 1
= K. E. +P. E. = k A2 − x 2 + Kx 2 = KA2 (which is constant)
2 2 2
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

SPRING-MASS SYSTEM

1.

2.

μ m1 m2
T = 2π , where μ = known as reduced mass
K m1 +m2
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple Pendulum

𝓁 𝓁
T = 2π = 2π (in accelerating Reference Frame);
g g
eff.

g eff is net acceleration due to pseudo force and gravitational force.

 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

COMPOUND PENDULUM / PHYSICAL PENDULUM

I
Time period (T): T = 2π
mg𝓁

where, I = ICM + m𝓁2 ; 𝓁 is distance between point of suspension and centre of mass.

TORSIONAL PENDULUM

I
Time period (T): T = 2π where, C = Torsional constant
C
 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Superposition of SHM's along the same direction

x1 = A1 sin ωt& x2 = A2 sin(ωt + θ)

If equation of resultant SHM is taken as x = Asin(ωt + ϕ)

A2 si n θ
A= A21 + A22 + 2A1 A2 co s θ & ta n ϕ =
A1 + A2 co s θ
WAVES
 STRING WAVES

GENERAL EQUATION OF WAVE MOTION :

𝜕2y 2
𝜕 2y
= v
𝜕t 2 𝜕x 2
x
y(x, t) = f t ±
v
where, y(x, t) should be finite everywhere.
x
⇒ f t+ represents wave travelling in - ve x-axis
v
x
⇒ f t− represents wave travelling in +ve x-axis
v

y = Asi n( ωt ± kx + ϕ)
 STRING WAVES

TERMS RELATED TO WAVE MOTION (FOR 1-D PROGRESSIVE SINE WAVE)

(e) Wave number (or propagation constant) (k) :

ω
k = 2 πΤλ = radm−1
v
(f) Phase of wave: The argument of harmonic function ( ωt ± kx + ϕ ) is called
phase of the wave.

Phase difference (Δϕ) : difference in phases of two particles at any time t.

2π
Δϕ = Δx
λ
2π
Also. Δϕ = ⋅ Δt
T
 STRING WAVES

SPEED OF TRANSVERSE WAVE ALONG A STRING/WIRE.

T
v=
μ
where
T = Tension
μ = mass per unit length

POWER TRANSMITTED ALONG THE STRING BY A SINE WAVE

Average Power ⟨P⟩ = 2π2 f 2 A2 μv

⟨P⟩
Intensity I = = 2π2 f 2 A2 ρV
S
 STRING WAVES

REFLECTION AND REFRACTION OF WAVES

yi = Ai si n ωt − k1 x

yt = At si n ωt − k 2 x

yr = −Ar si n ωt + k1 x ] if incident from rarer to denser medium v2 < v1

yt = At sin ωt − k 2 x
቉ if incident from denser to rarer medium. v2 > v1
yr = Ar sin ωt + k1 x

(d) Amplitude of reflected & transmitted waves.

k1 − k 2 2k1
Ar = Ai & At = Ai
k1 + k 2 k1 + k 2
 STRING WAVES

STANDING/STATIONARY WAVES :-

(b)
y1 = Asi n ωt − kx + θ1

y2 = Asi n ωt + kx + θ2

θ2 − θ1 θ1 + θ2
y1 + y2 = 2Aco s kx + si n ωt +
2 2

θ2 −θ1
The quantity 2Acos kx + represents resultant amplitude at x. At some position
2

resultant amplitude is zero these are called nodes. At some positions resultant
amplitude is 2 A, these are called antinodes.
 STRING WAVES
λ
(c) Distance between successive nodes or antinodes = .
2

(d) Distance between successive nodes and antinodes = λ/4.

(e) All the particles in same segment (portion between two successive nodes)
vibrate in same phase.

(f) The particles in two consecutive segments vibrate in opposite phase.

 STRING WAVES
VIBRATIONS OF STRINGS ( STANDING WAVE)
(a) Fixed at both ends :
1. Fixed ends will be nodes. So waves for which
λ 2λ 3λ
L= L= L=
2 2 2

nλ 2L
L= or λ = where n = 1,2,3, … .
2 n

T n T
as v = fn = , n = no. of loops
μ 2L μ
 STRING WAVES

(b) String free at one end :

λ
1. for fundamental mode L = = or λ = 4 L
4

3λ 4L
First overtone L = Hence λ =
4 3

3 T
so f1 = (First overtone)
4L μ

5 T
Second overtone f2 =
4L μ
1
n+ T 2n + 1 T
2
so fn = =
2L μ 4L μ
Sound Waves
 Sound Waves

(i) Longitudinal displacement of sound wave 𝜉 = 𝐴sin (𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)

𝜕𝜉
(ii) Pressure excess during travelling sound wave 𝑃𝑒𝑥 = −𝐵 (it is true for
𝜕𝑥

travelling = 𝐵𝐴𝑘 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥) wave as well as standing waves)

Amplitude of pressure excess = 𝐵𝐴𝑘

𝐸
(iii) Speed of sound 𝐶 =
𝜌

Where 𝐸 = Ellastic modulus for the medium

𝜌 = density of medium

𝑌
 for solid 𝐶 =
𝜌
 Sound Waves
where 𝑌 = young's modulus for the solid

𝐵
 for liquid 𝐶 =
𝜌

where 𝐵 = Bulk modulus for the liquid

𝐵 𝛾𝑃 𝛾𝑅𝑇
 for gases 𝐶 = = =
𝜌 𝜌 𝑀0

where 𝑀0 is molecular wt. of the gas in ( kg/mole)

Intensity of sound wave :

< I >= 2𝜋 2 f 2 A2 𝜌V
 Sound Waves

I
(iv) Loudness of sound: 𝐿 = 10log10 dB where I0 = 10−12 W/m2 (This the
I0

minimum intensity human ears can listen)

𝑃
Intensity at a distance 𝑟 from a point source = 𝐼 =
4𝜋𝑟 2
 Sound Waves

Interference of Sound Wave

if 𝑃1 = 𝑝𝑚1 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥1 + 𝜃1

𝑃2 = 𝑝𝑚2 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥2 + 𝜃2

resultant excess pressure at point 𝑂 is 𝑝 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2

𝑝 = 𝑝0 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝜃

2 2
𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑚 1
+ 𝑝𝑚2 + 2𝑝𝑚1 𝑝𝑚2 cos 𝜙

where 𝜙 = 𝑘 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 + 𝜃1 − 𝜃2

and 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 2 𝐼1 𝐼2
 Sound Waves
(i) For constructive interference
𝜙 = 2n𝜋 and ⇒ p0 = pm1 + pm2 (constructive interference)

(ii) For destructive interfrence

𝜙 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 and ⇒ 𝑝0 = 𝑝𝑚1 − 𝑝𝑚2 (destructive interference)
2𝜋
If 𝜙 is due to path difference only then 𝜙 = Δ𝑥.
𝜆

Condition for constructive interference: Δx = n𝜆

𝜆
Condition for destructive interference: Δ𝑥 = (2𝑛 + 1) .
2

(a) If pm1 = pm2 and 𝜃 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, … resultant 𝑝 = 0 i.e. no sound

(b) If pm1 = pm2 and 𝜙 = 0,2𝜋, 4𝜋, … p0 = 2pm &I0 = 4I1 p0 = 2pm1
 Sound Waves

v 3v 5v (2n+1)v
Close organ pipe : f = , , ,……….. n = overtone
4𝓁 4𝓁 4𝓁 4𝓁

v 2v 3v nV
Open organ pipe : f = , , ,………
2𝓁 2𝓁 2𝓁 2𝓁

Beats : Beats frequency = 𝑓1 − 𝑓2 .