1. Explain Medium Access Sub layer.

Remembering (L1) CO3 4M

The Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer is a part of the data link layer in the OSI
model. It is responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to the medium
and permission to transmit data. The MAC sublayer ensures that signals from different
stations on a network do not interfere with each other.

Functions of MAC Sublayer:

 Frame delimiting: Identifies the beginning and end of a frame.

 Frame error checking: Uses error detection techniques to ensure the integrity of
transmitted data.
 Addressing: Each device on the network has a unique address to ensure data is
delivered to the correct recipient.
 Access control: Determines which device can use the medium at any given time,
using protocols like CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA.

2. Define the term carrier sense in CSMA/CD.

Remembering (L1) CO3 4M

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network protocol
for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer.

Carrier Sense:

 Definition: Carrier sense refers to the mechanism by which a device listens to the
network medium before transmitting data. It ensures that the medium is free from
other traffic before sending a signal.
 Purpose: This helps in reducing collisions by preventing multiple devices from
transmitting simultaneously.

3. What is channel allocation? Explain Channel Allocation Techniques in

details.

Remembering (L1) CO3 4M

Channel Allocation: Channel allocation refers to the process of assigning available

communication channels to different transmitting devices in a network to avoid interference
and optimize the use of the spectrum.

Channel Allocation Techniques:

1. Fixed Allocation:
o Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA): Each user is assigned a
unique frequency band.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): Each user is assigned a unique
o
time slot.
2. Dynamic Allocation:
o Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): Users are assigned unique codes to
differentiate their transmissions.
o Dynamic Channel Allocation (DCA): Channels are allocated on demand
based on current network conditions.

4. Explain Pure ALOHA & Slotted ALOHA.

Understanding (L2) CO3 7M

Pure ALOHA:

 Operation: Transmissions are made randomly without checking the channel's status.
 Collisions: High probability of collisions as devices may transmit at any time.
 Efficiency: Low efficiency (maximum throughput is 18.4%).

Slotted ALOHA:

 Operation: Time is divided into discrete slots, and transmissions can only begin at
the start of a slot.
 Collisions: Reduced probability of collisions as devices synchronize their
transmissions to time slots.
 Efficiency: Higher efficiency than Pure ALOHA (maximum throughput is 36.8%).

Diagram:

5. Explain how slotted ALOHA solves the problem of Channel allocation.

Understanding (L2) CO3 7M

Slotted ALOHA:

 Synchronization: By dividing the channel into time slots and allowing transmissions
to occur only at the beginning of these slots, Slotted ALOHA ensures that collisions
are limited to the time slot boundaries.
 Efficiency: This synchronization mechanism reduces the number of collisions
compared to Pure ALOHA, thereby improving the channel utilization and throughput.
 Example: If a device wishes to send data, it waits until the start of the next time slot,
reducing the likelihood of overlapping with another device's transmission.

6. Explain the following networking devices in detail:

a) Switch b) Router c) Bridge d) Gateway e) Repeater f) Hub Understanding (L2) CO3

7M

a) Switch:
  Function: Operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) to connect devices within the same
network. It uses MAC addresses to forward data to the correct destination.
 Benefit: Reduces collisions and increases bandwidth by creating separate collision
domains for each connected device.

b) Router:

 Function: Operates at the network layer (Layer 3) to route data between different
networks. It uses IP addresses to determine the best path for data packets.
 Benefit: Facilitates communication between different networks, including different
subnets and the internet.

c) Bridge:

 Function: Connects two or more network segments, operating at the data link layer
(Layer 2). It filters traffic based on MAC addresses and reduces network collisions.
 Benefit: Extends the network by connecting different segments, allowing for better
traffic management and segmentation.

d) Gateway:

 Function: Operates at multiple layers to connect networks using different protocols.

It translates data formats and protocols to enable communication between diverse
systems.
 Benefit: Facilitates communication between different network architectures and
protocols, such as between a local network and the internet.

e) Repeater:

 Function: Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) to amplify and regenerate signals
over long distances, ensuring data integrity.
 Benefit: Extends the reach of the network by boosting signal strength, allowing for
longer cable runs without data loss.

f) Hub:

 Function: Operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) to connect multiple Ethernet

devices, making them act as a single network segment. It broadcasts data to all
connected devices.
 Benefit: Simple and cost-effective way to connect multiple devices, though it can
lead to increased collisions and reduced performance compared to switches.

7. Show the Ethernet frame format.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO3 7M

Ethernet Frame Format:

Field Size (Bytes)

Preamble 7
 Field Size (Bytes)
Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) 1
Destination MAC Address 6
Source MAC Address 6
EtherType/Length 2
Payload/Data 46-1500
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) 4

Diagram:

8. Describe the architecture of IEEE 802.11.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO3 7M

IEEE 802.11 Architecture:

 Basic Service Set (BSS): Fundamental building block of an 802.11 network,

consisting of a group of stations (STAs) that communicate with each other. There are
two types:
o Independent BSS (IBSS): Ad-hoc network without an access point (AP).
o Infrastructure BSS: Includes an AP, with all stations communicating through
the AP.
 Extended Service Set (ESS): Multiple BSSs connected through a distribution system
(DS), usually a wired network, allowing for seamless roaming between BSSs.
 Distribution System (DS): Connects multiple BSSs, enabling communication within
an ESS. The DS manages data forwarding and frame delivery.

Diagram:

9. Construct the comparison between different wireless technologies?

Enumerate 802.11 protocol stacks in detail.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO3 10M

Comparison of Wireless Technologies:

Technology Frequency Band Data Rate Range Application

802.11a 5 GHz Up to 54 Mbps 20-75 feet High-speed data
802.11b 2.4 GHz Up to 11 Mbps 100-150 feet General usage
802.11g 2.4 GHz Up to 54 Mbps 100-150 feet General usage
802.11n 2.4/5 GHz Up to 600 Mbps 175+ feet High-speed data
802.11ac 5 GHz Up to 1.3 Gbps 115+ feet High-speed data
802.11ax 2.4/5 GHz Up to 9.6 Gbps 115+ feet High-density areas

802.11 Protocol Stack:

 Physical Layer (PHY): Responsible for transmission and reception of data over the
wireless medium.
  Medium Access Control (MAC) Layer:
o Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): Basic access method using
CSMA/CA.
o Point Coordination Function (PCF): Optional access method using polling
by the AP.
 Logical Link Control (LLC) Layer: Provides addressing and data link control.

Diagram:

These answers and diagrams should help provide a comprehensive understanding of the
topics related to Medium Access Control and various networking concepts.
1 Write about the design issues of Network Layer. Remembering (L1) CO4 4M 2 Explain the
differences between congestion control & flow control. Remembering (L1) CO4 4M 3
Explain Connection oriented vs Connection less services Remembering (L1) CO4 4M 4
Explain the open loop and closed loop congestion control approaches in detail.
Understanding (L2) CO4 7M 5 Write about Comparison of Virtual Circuit and Datagram
Networks Understanding (L2) CO4 7M 6 Define a routing algorithm and mention the
properties of routing algorithms Understanding (L2) CO4 7M 7 Explain the concept of
Dijkstra’s routing algorithm with a neat diagram to compute the shortest path between source
and destination nodes with a neat diagram Applying/Analyzing(L3/L4) CO4 10M
ChatGPT

Sure, let's go through each of these questions one by one, providing detailed answers and any
relevant diagrams where applicable.

1. Write about the design issues of Network Layer.

Remembering (L1) CO4 4M

The network layer is responsible for routing packets from the source to the destination across
multiple networks. Key design issues include:

1. Routing:
o Static vs. Dynamic Routing: Static routing involves manual configuration,
while dynamic routing uses algorithms to adjust paths based on network
conditions.
o Optimality: Choosing the best path for packet delivery based on criteria like
shortest path, least cost, or fastest route.
2. Packet Forwarding:
o Addressing: Assigning unique network addresses to devices to ensure correct
packet delivery.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: Dividing large packets into smaller
fragments for transmission and reassembling them at the destination.
3. Congestion Control:
o Preventive and Reactive Measures: Techniques to avoid network congestion
and methods to handle congestion when it occurs.
4. Quality of Service (QoS):
o Traffic Prioritization: Ensuring critical data (like real-time video) receives
higher priority over less critical data.
o Resource Allocation: Allocating bandwidth and managing delays to meet
application requirements.
5. Security:
o Data Integrity and Privacy: Protecting data from unauthorized access and
ensuring it is not altered during transmission.
o Authentication: Verifying the identity of communicating devices to prevent
malicious activity.

2. Explain the differences between congestion control & flow control.

Remembering (L1) CO4 4M

Congestion Control:

 Objective: Prevents the network from becoming overwhelmed with too much traffic.
 Scope: Network-wide issue; affects multiple nodes and links within the network.
 Methods: Techniques like traffic shaping, load balancing, and congestion avoidance
algorithms (e.g., RED).
 Example: TCP congestion control adjusts the rate of data transmission based on
network congestion signals.

Flow Control:

 Objective: Ensures a sender does not overwhelm a receiver with too much data at
once.
 Scope: End-to-end issue; involves communication between two devices.
 Methods: Techniques like sliding window protocol and acknowledgment
mechanisms.
 Example: TCP flow control uses a sliding window mechanism to manage the data
flow between sender and receiver.

3. Explain Connection-oriented vs Connection-less services.

Remembering (L1) CO4 4M

Connection-oriented Services:

 Establishment: Requires a connection setup phase before data transmission.

 Reliability: Provides reliable communication with error checking and retransmission.
 Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
 Use Cases: Suitable for applications needing guaranteed delivery, such as file transfer
and remote login.

Connection-less Services:

 Establishment: Data is sent without establishing a connection.

 Reliability: Does not guarantee delivery; packets may be lost, duplicated, or arrive
out of order.
 Examples: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
 Use Cases: Suitable for applications where speed is crucial and some data loss is
acceptable, such as live streaming and online gaming.

4. Explain the open loop and closed loop congestion control approaches in
detail.

Understanding (L2) CO4 7M

Open Loop Congestion Control:

 Definition: Prevents congestion by controlling how resources are allocated before

congestion occurs.
 Mechanisms:
 o Admission Control: Limits the number of data flows entering the network.
o Traffic Shaping: Regulates the flow of data into the network to smooth bursts
of traffic (e.g., leaky bucket, token bucket).
o Resource Reservation: Reserves network resources for specific flows to
ensure adequate bandwidth.

Closed Loop Congestion Control:

 Definition: Reacts to congestion once it has been detected in the network.

 Mechanisms:
o Feedback Mechanisms: Nodes provide feedback about the current congestion
state (e.g., explicit congestion notification).
o Rate Adjustment: Adjusts the data transmission rate based on feedback (e.g.,
TCP congestion control algorithms like AIMD).
o Queue Management: Actively manages queues to prevent congestion (e.g.,
Random Early Detection (RED)).

5. Write about Comparison of Virtual Circuit and Datagram Networks.

Understanding (L2) CO4 7M

Virtual Circuit Networks:

 Connection Setup: Requires a connection setup phase before data transmission.

 Path Determination: Uses a fixed path for all packets in a session.
 Reliability: Ensures ordered delivery and reliability.
 Examples: Frame Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
 Use Cases: Suitable for applications requiring guaranteed delivery and consistent
performance.

Datagram Networks:

 Connection Setup: No connection setup phase; each packet is treated independently.

 Path Determination: Packets may take different paths to the destination.
 Reliability: Does not guarantee ordered delivery or reliability.
 Examples: IP (Internet Protocol).
 Use Cases: Suitable for applications where speed and flexibility are more important
than guaranteed delivery.

6. Define a routing algorithm and mention the properties of routing

algorithms.

Understanding (L2) CO4 7M

Routing Algorithm:

 Definition: A routing algorithm is a set of rules or procedures used to determine the

best path for data to travel across a network from the source to the destination.
Properties of Routing Algorithms:

1. Correctness: Ensures accurate and error-free routing decisions.

2. Simplicity: Easy to implement and understand.
3. Robustness: Performs well under a variety of conditions, including failures and
network changes.
4. Stability: Avoids oscillations in routing decisions.
5. Fairness: Ensures equal resource allocation among users.
6. Optimality: Finds the most efficient path based on criteria like shortest distance or
least cost.
7. Scalability: Performs well in large and complex networks.

7. Explain the concept of Dijkstra’s routing algorithm with a neat diagram to

compute the shortest path between source and destination nodes.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO4 10M

Dijkstra’s Routing Algorithm:

 Objective: Finds the shortest path from a source node to all other nodes in a weighted
graph.
 Algorithm Steps:
1. Initialization: Set the distance to the source node to 0 and to all other nodes to
infinity. Mark all nodes as unvisited.
2. Visit Node: Select the unvisited node with the smallest distance. Mark it as
visited.
3. Update Distances: For the current node, update the distance to its neighboring
nodes if a shorter path is found.
4. Repeat: Repeat steps 2-3 until all nodes are visited or the smallest distance
among the unvisited nodes is infinity.

Example: Consider the following graph:

scss
Copy code
(A)
/ | \
1 2 4
/ | \
(B) (C) (D)
| | / \
6 3 5 1
| | / \
(E) (F)------(G)
2

Step-by-Step Calculation:

1. Start at node A:
o Distance to A = 0 (source)
o Distance to B = 1
o Distance to C = 2
 o Distance to D = 4
2. Visit node B (smallest distance):
o Distance to E = 1 + 6 = 7
o No updates to A, C, D as they are already shorter.
3. Visit node C (next smallest distance):
o Distance to F = 2 + 3 = 5
o No updates to A, B, D, E as they are already shorter.
4. Visit node D (next smallest distance):
o Distance to G = 4 + 1 = 5
o No updates to A, B, C, E, F as they are already shorter.
5. Visit node F (next smallest distance):
o No updates as all neighbors have shorter paths already.
6. Visit node G (next smallest distance):
o No updates as all neighbors have shorter paths already.
7. Visit node E (last node):
o No updates as all neighbors have shorter paths already.

Shortest Path from A:

 To B: A -> B (Distance = 1)
 To C: A -> C (Distance = 2)
 To D: A -> D (Distance = 4)
 To E: A -> B -> E (Distance = 7)
 To F: A -> C -> F (Distance = 5)
 To G: A -> D -> G (Distance = 5)

Diagram:

This example illustrates the step-by-step process of Dijkstra's algorithm in finding the
shortest paths from a source node to all other nodes in a network.

8 Explain Distance vector routing algorithm with example. Applying/Analyzing(L3/L4) CO4

7M 9 Explain the Leaky Bucket congestion control algorithm with a neat diagram
Applying/Analyzing(L3/L4) CO4 10M
ChatGPT

Sure, let's dive into each of these topics with detailed explanations and diagrams.

8. Explain Distance Vector Routing Algorithm with Example.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO4 7M

Distance Vector Routing Algorithm:

 Definition: A routing algorithm where each router maintains a table (vector)

containing the distance (cost) to every other router in the network. The table is
periodically shared with immediate neighbors to update their own tables.
 Operation:
1. Initialization: Each router knows the distance to its directly connected
neighbors and sets the distance to itself to 0.
 2. Update: Routers exchange their distance vectors with immediate neighbors
periodically.
3. Bellman-Ford Equation: Used to update the routing table:
Dx(y)=min⁡v{c(x,v)+Dv(y)}D_x(y) = \min_{v} \{ c(x,v) + D_v(y) \}Dx
(y)=vmin{c(x,v)+Dv(y)} where Dx(y)D_x(y)Dx(y) is the distance from node
xxx to node yyy, c(x,v)c(x,v)c(x,v) is the cost to reach neighbor vvv, and
Dv(y)D_v(y)Dv(y) is the distance from neighbor vvv to node yyy.

Example: Consider the following network:

css
Copy code
2
A ------- B
| \ |
1 | \3 | 1
| \ |
C ------- D
1

Initial Distance Vectors:

 A: {A: 0, B: ∞, C: 1, D: ∞}
 B: {A: ∞, B: 0, C: ∞, D: 1}
 C: {A: 1, B: ∞, C: 0, D: 1}
 D: {A: ∞, B: 1, C: 1, D: 0}

Step-by-Step Updates:

1. A to B Update:
o Distance from A to B through C: 1+3=41 + 3 = 41+3=4
o Distance from A to B through D: ∞∞∞
o New distance vector for A: {A: 0, B: 4, C: 1, D: ∞}
2. B to A Update:
o Distance from B to A through C: ∞∞∞
o Distance from B to A through D: 1+∞=∞1 + ∞ = ∞1+∞=∞
o New distance vector for B: {A: 2, B: 0, C: ∞, D: 1}
3. C to D Update:
o Distance from C to D through A: 1+2=31 + 2 = 31+2=3
o Distance from C to D through B: ∞∞∞
o New distance vector for C: {A: 1, B: ∞, C: 0, D: 1}
4. D to A Update:
o Distance from D to A through B: 1+2=31 + 2 = 31+2=3
o Distance from D to A through C: 1+1=21 + 1 = 21+1=2
o New distance vector for D: {A: 2, B: 1, C: 1, D: 0}

After several iterations, the tables will converge to the shortest paths:

 A: {A: 0, B: 2, C: 1, D: 2}
 B: {A: 2, B: 0, C: 3, D: 1}
 C: {A: 1, B: 3, C: 0, D: 1}
  D: {A: 2, B: 1, C: 1, D: 0}

Diagram:

css
Copy code
Initial State:
A: {0, ∞, 1, ∞}
B: {∞, 0, ∞, 1}
C: {1, ∞, 0, 1}
D: {∞, 1, 1, 0}

After Updates:
A: {0, 2, 1, 2}
B: {2, 0, 3, 1}
C: {1, 3, 0, 1}
D: {2, 1, 1, 0}

9. Explain the Leaky Bucket Congestion Control Algorithm with a Neat

Diagram.

Applying/Analyzing (L3/L4) CO4 10M

Leaky Bucket Congestion Control Algorithm:

 Concept: Controls the rate at which data packets are sent into the network, ensuring a
steady flow and preventing bursts that can cause congestion.
 Mechanism:
o A "bucket" with a fixed capacity is used to hold packets.
o Packets arrive at varying rates and are placed in the bucket.
o Packets are sent out of the bucket at a constant rate.
o If the bucket is full, incoming packets are discarded (dropped).

Steps:

1. Arrival: Packets arrive at the bucket at varying rates.

2. Storage: The bucket temporarily stores the packets.
3. Transmission: Packets are transmitted out of the bucket at a constant rate.
4. Overflow: If packets arrive faster than they can be transmitted, excess packets are
dropped.

Example:

 Bucket Size: 10 packets

 Arrival Rate: Variable (e.g., 3 packets, then 5 packets, then 7 packets)
 Transmission Rate: Constant (e.g., 4 packets per second)

Scenario:

1. At time t0t_0t0, 3 packets arrive. The bucket now contains 3 packets.

2. At time t1t_1t1, 5 more packets arrive. The bucket now contains 8 packets.
 3. At time t2t_2t2, 7 packets arrive. The bucket contains 15 packets, but its capacity is
10. Hence, 5 packets are discarded, and the bucket remains at 10 packets.
4. At time t3t_3t3, 4 packets are transmitted, leaving 6 packets in the bucket.

Diagram:

bash
Copy code
Packets arriving
_____________
| | 4 packets/sec
| |----------------->
| |