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Spacecraft Configurations
Space System Design, MAE 342, Princeton University
Robert Stengel
• Angular control approaches
• Low-Earth-orbit configurations
– Satellite buses
– Nanosats/cubesats
– Earth resources satellites
– Atmospheric science and
meteorology satellites
– Navigation satellites
– Communications satellites
– Astronomy satellites
– Military satellites
– Tethered satellites
• Lunar configurations
• Deep-space configurations

Copyright 2016 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. 1
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE342.html

Angular Attitude of Satellite

Configurations
• Spinning satellites
– Angular attitude maintained by gyroscopic moment
• Randomly oriented satellites and magnetic coil
– Angular attitude is free to vary – Axisymmetric distribution of mass, solar cells, and
instruments
Television Infrared
Observation
(TIROS-7)
Orbital Satellite Carrying Amateur
Radio (OSCAR-1)

ESSA-2 TIROS
“Cartwheel”

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Attitude-Controlled Satellite
Configurations
• Dual-spin satellites • Attitude-controlled satellites
– Angular attitude maintained by gyroscopic
moment and thrusters – Angular attitude maintained by 3-axis control
system
– Axisymmetric distribution of mass and solar cells – Non-symmetric distribution of mass, solar cells
– Instruments and antennas do not spin and instruments

INTELSAT-IVA
NOAA-17

LADEE Bus Modules

Satellite Buses
Standardization of
common components for
a variety of missions

Modular Common Spacecraft Bus

Lander Congiguration

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Hine et al 5

Evolution of
Lockheed-
Martin A2100
Bus
• 1990s to
present
• Orbit
maintenance
with ion
engines and
hydrazine
thrusters
• Bi-propellant
liquid apogee
motor
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Satellite Buses

Boeing (Hughes) 702 Bus

Boeing Phoenix
Bus

Bus Reliability Analysis

Percentage of Insurance Claims by Anomaly Type

Zandbergen: Frost & Sullivan, 2004

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Small Satellite Buses

NRL TacSat-1,
TBD

AFRL TacSat-
2, 2006

TacSat-1 Linux
Instrumentation Bus
TacSat-1 Computer

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CubeSats
• Standardized module
•10-cm cube
• 1 liter volume
• Maximum mass = 1.33 kg
• Multiple module designs

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubesat http://www.cubesatkit.com

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CubeSats

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CubeSats
Secondary payloads or launched directly from
International Space Station

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Micro-MAS 3U CubeSat
https://directory.eoportal.org/web/eoportal/satellite-missions/m/micromas-1

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Near-Earth Spacecraft

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Earth Observation
Satellites
• Mission
–Determine properties of the
earth’s land and water features
• Typical instrumentation LandSat 2
–Multi-spectral imaging (e.g.,
Aqua)
• Scanning radiometer
• Spectroradiometer
• Microwave sounding
• Infrared sounding
• Humidity sounding SPOT-5
• Earth’s radiation budget IKONOS-2
–Integration with meteorological
satellites
–Commercial and research
operators
–High-resolution optical imagery
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Atmospheric Science
Satellites
• Mission
–Determine properties of
Aeronomy of Ice in the
the near-earth
Mesosphere (AIM) Spacecraft
environment
• Typical instrumentation
–Direct measurements of
the ionosphere
• Density, temperature,
ionic concentrations,
cosmic radiation
–Magnetic and electric
fields
–Multi-spectral
transmission
measurements through
the lower layers
• Radio
Satellite Charging at High
• Light
Altitudes (SCATHA) P78
–Spacecraft charging

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Upper Atmospheric Research

Satellite (UARS)
• Launched in 1991
• Deactivated in 2005
• Decayed in 2011
• Orbit altitude: 574 x 575 km
• 5,900 kg
• Power = 1.6 KW

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Two UARS Instruments

• CLAES: nitrogen, chlorine, ozone,

water, and methane from IR signature
• IR radiometer:
• Etalon: Fabry-Perot interferometer temperature, water vapor,
measures light wavelengths
nitrogen oxides, volcanic
aerosols
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Earth/Atmosphere Terra

Observing Constellation
• Earth Observing System
combines data from formation
of satellites
• Successors to UARS Aqua
• Studying ozone, air quality,
and climate
–High-resolution dynamics limb
sounder
–Microwave limb sounder
–Ozone monitoring instrument
–Tropospheric emission Aura
spectrometer
• “A-Train” constellation also
includes multi-national
Cloudsat, Calipso, Metop-1,
and Parasol satellites 20

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Meteorology
Satellites

Geostationalry
Operational
Observation
Satellite (GOES)

• Mission
–Determine global and local weather
• Geostationary Operational Defense Meteorological
Environmental Satellites (GOES), Satellite Program (DMSP)
Defense Meteorological Satellite
Program (DMSP) spacecraft operated
by NOAA
• Typical instrumentation
–Multi-spectral imaging of the atmosphere
–Data relay from buoys, search & rescue
beacons 21
–Solar monitoring

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Evolution of TIROS

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Geostationary Operational
Environmental Satellite (GOES-NOP)

http://goes.gsfc.nasa.gov/text/GOES-N_Databook/databook.pdf
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GOES Expanded View

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GOES Coverage
Emphasizes the
Western Hemisphere

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GOES Weather Watch System

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GOES Sub-Systems
(details in future slide sets)

Communication Thermal Control

Telemetry and Command

Electric Power

Attitude Control

Propulsion

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Navigation Satellites
GPS Satellite
• Mission
–Aid position and velocity
determination
• Global Positioning System
(GPS) Implementation
–24 satellites (minimum) in circular,
medium earth orbit
–6 orbital planes, 55° inclination
–Atomic clocks provide precise
time reference
GPS Receiver
–Broadcast ephemeris (i.e., orbital
elements)
–Pseudo-random pulse code
• GLONASS, Galileo, Compass,
DORIS, IRNSS, QZSS
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Communication
Satellites
• Mission
–Facilitate global
communications
• Implementation
–Transponders with
dedicated coverage
areas
–Most satellites are in
geosynchronous Boeing 702 Iridium Satellite
orbit
–Iridium constellation
of 66 satellites in low
earth orbit
• Direct connection
from satellite to
phone
Iridium Constellation
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Geosynchronous Communication
Satellites in Orbit, June 2006

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Astronomy Satellites: Hubble

• Mission
–Conduct astronomical
observations outside the
earth’s atmosphere
• Typical instrumentation
–Multi-spectral imaging
–Hubble Telescope
serviced by Space Shuttle
missions (590-km orbit)
–Telescope aberration
repaired by astronauts

Before After

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Astronomy Satellites: Hubble

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Astronomy Satellites
Chandra X-ray observatory (Shuttle launch, 1999)
James Webb Infrared Telescope to be located at L2 Lagrange
point

Chandra, 1999 James Webb Telescope, 2018

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STEREO, 2006
(Solar TErrestrial RElations Observatory)
• Dual satellites
– Nearly identical space-based observatories -
one ahead of other in Earth orbit
– Stereoscopic measurements to study the
Sun and the nature of its coronal mass
ejections, or CMEs.
• Scientific objectives
– Understand the causes and mechanisms of
coronal mass ejection (CME) initiation.
– Characterize the propagation of CMEs
through the heliosphere.
– Discover the mechanisms and sites of
energetic particle acceleration in the low
corona and the interplanetary medium.
– Improve the determination of the structure of
the ambient solar wind.

http://stereo.gsfc.nasa.gov/instruments/instruments.shtml 34

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Military Satellites
• Missions Milstar

– Secure observations from space

– Early warning
– Reconnaissance
– Intelligence
– Communications SBIRS

– Navigation
– Weather
– Weaponry DSP

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DARPA SeeMe Constellation

• Two dozen small satellites
• Low-altitude orbits, 60-90-day mission duration
• Imaging of remote locations with <90-min delay
• Downlink to handheld units

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Orbital Express: ASTRO and NEXTSat

• DARPA, 2007
–Automatic rendezvous,
docking, and undocking
–On-orbit transfer of
replaceable units
–6DOF robot arm
–Video guidance sensor
–Atlas 5 launch

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USAF
X-37B
• Reusable
experimental/ope
rational vehicle
• Unmanned “mini-
Space Shuttle”
• Highly classified
project
• Rocketdyne AR2-
3 motor
• H2O2/JP-8
• Isp = 245 s

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Gravity-Gradient-Stabilized
Satellites
NRL TiPS Transit NASA TSS

Space Shuttle STS-75 Tethered Satellite Experiment, Feb 1996

http://www.nss.org/resources/library/shuttlevideos/shuttle75.htm

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Gravity-Gradient-Stabilized
Space Elevator

• Counterweight in geo-stationary orbit

• Earth station moored at the equator
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Lunar Spacecraft

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Early Lunar Spacecraft

1959

1964 1966 1966

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Early Lunar Spacecraft

• Mission
– Scientific discovery
– Preparations for human voyages to the moon
• Robotic exploration of the moon
– http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotic_exploration_of_the_Moon

Ranger Lunakhod
(pre-Apollo)

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Pre-Apollo Lunar Landers

• 1966: Lunar soft landing
• Luna 9
• Surveyor 1

• 1967: Surveyor 3
– Surface sampling tool
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Russia Perseveres with

Robotic Spacecraft
Lunakhod 1, 2 Luna 16, 17, 20, 24
(1970-73) (1970-76)

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Recent US Spacecraft
LCROSS THEMIS/ARTEMIS

Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter GRAIL

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Lunar Atmosphere and Dust

Environment Explorer
(LADEE), Sept 7, 2013
§ 30-day transit
§ Launched from NASA
Wallops Flight Facility
§ Minotaur V (from
Peacekeeper ICBM)

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Chinese, Japanese, and Indian

Lunar Exploration Programs
Chang’e-3 Lander (2013) Jade Rabbit “Yutu” (2013)

SELENE-2 (2017) Chandrayaan-2 (2017)

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GRAIL Spacecraft Used Sun-Earth

L1 Point for Low-Energy Transfer
to Lunar Orbit

Sun Earth

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Solar System Spacecraft

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Inner-Solar-System Spacecraft
• Examples
–MESSENGER (2004-2011)
• Three fly-bys of Mercury beginning in
2008
• Orbit Mercury for 1 year, 200 x 15,193 km
• Image entire surface of Mercury
MESSENGER
• Characterize surface chemistry, geology,
and magnetic field
–Venus Express (ESA, 2006)
• In orbit about Venus
• Multi-spectral surface mapping
• Measurements of interactions between
solar wind and Venusian atmosphere,
magnetic field, and temperature profile
Venus
Express

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MESSENGER Fly-By Trajectories

• MESSENGER mission
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y-GALKLHY-s 52

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Mars Orbiters and Landers

• Mission Viking Orbiter
–Determine physical
characteristics
–Search for life
–Prepare for human exploration

Mars
Reconnaissance
Orbiter

Phoenix

Viking Lander

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Mars Rovers
Mars Rover
• Mission (Spirit and
Opportunity)
– Scientific discovery
– Search for life
– Prepare for human exploration
• Sojourner
• Mars Exploration Rovers
– http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=O74DVxfrWkg
• Mars Science Laboratory Mars
Science
Laboratory
– http://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=noy8o0lN1fE

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The Outer-Solar System and Beyond

Asteroid Belt

Kuiper Belt

• Postulated home
of comets
• > 50,000 AU
• Rock and metals
• Between Mars
and Jupiter
Oort
Cloud

• Water, ammonia,
and methane
• Beyond Neptune 55

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Outer-Solar-System Spacecraft:
Galileo

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Outer-Solar-System Spacecraft:
Galileo
• Mission
– Explore Jupiter and its
moons
– Probe Jupiter’s atmosphere
– Launch: October 1989
(Space Shuttle, boosted by
Boeing Inertial Upper Stage)
– Two Earth fly-bys, one
Venus fly-by
– Jupiter arrival: December
1995
– http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_
spacecraft

• Mission terminated by 50-km/s descent into Jupiter’s atmosphere:

September 2003
• First asteroid fly-by (951 Gaspra)
• Discovered first moon of an asteroid, Ida’s Dactyl
• Mass = 2,380 kg 57

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Galileo’s Asteroid Images

Gaspra

Ida and Dactyl

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Galileo’s Probe

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Outer-Solar-System Spacecraft:
Cassini

• Mission
–Explore Saturn, its rings, and its moons
–Launch: October 1997 (Titan 4B/Centaur)
–Two Earth fly-bys, one Venus fly-by
–Saturn arrival: July 2004
–Huygens Probe entered atmosphere of Saturn’s moon Titan in January
2005
–$3.26B mission
–http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassini_spacecraft 60

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Outer-Solar-System Spacecraft:
Cassini

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Cassini’s Huygens Probe

and Moon Images
Titan

Hyperion Tethys Phoebe

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Outer-Solar-System Spacecraft:
New Horizons
• Mission duration: 2006-2015+
• Destination: Pluto and its moons
• Radioisotope thermal power
generator
• Spin-stabilized in cruise, 3-axis
control (hydrazine RCS) for
science
• May also fly by Kuiper Belt
objects, Trojan asteroids at
Neptune’s L5 point
• Fastest spacecraft to date
(Vearth = 16.21 km/s, Atlas 5)
• 546,700-kg initial mass
• Payload = 478 kg
• Jupiter fly-by adds 4 km/s
to speed
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_ 63
Horizons

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Outer-Solar-System
Spacecraft: Dawn

• Mission duration: 2007-

2015
• Orbited both Vesta and
Ceres (“proto-planets”),
transit asteroid belt
• Ion thrusters provide ΔV of
13 km/s
• Mass = 1,285 kg
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawn_
Spacecraft

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Next Time:
Spacecraft Dynamics

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Supplemental Material

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Tethered Satellites

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Lunar Spacecraft
SMART-1, 2003
(2003, solar-powered
ion engine, Isp =
1,640 s)

Lunar
Prospector
(1998)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_future_lunar_missions

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Genesis Spacecraft
• Genesis Solar Wind Sample Return
–Launch: August 2001
–Return: September 2004 (parachute did not open)
–http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_spacecraft

Genesis
Genesis Retrieval
Test

Genesis
Reentry
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Stardust Spacecraft
• Stardust Wild 2 Comet Tail Sample Stardust

Return
–Launch: February 1999
–Return: January 2006

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Nuclear-Powered Spacecraft

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• xx

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