M.

Spivak : Calculus
(3rd edition)
Solutions

1 Prologue

1.1 Basic Properties Of Numbers

1. Proving the following :
(i) If ax = a for some number a 6= 0, then x = 1

Démonstration.
ax = a
(a−1 )ax = (a−1 )a (Since a 6= 0)
(a−1 a)x = (a−1 a) (P5 - Mult. associative law)
(1)x = 1 (P7 - Mult. inverse)
x=1 (P6 - Mult. identity)

(ii) x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y)

Démonstration.
x2 − y 2 = x(x) − y(y) (P5 - Mult. associative law)
= [x(x) + 0] − y(y) (P2 - Existence of additive identity)
= [x(x) + ((−xy) + xy)] − y(y) (P3 - Existence of additive inverse)
= [x(x) − xy] + [xy − y(y)] (P1 - Add. Associative law)
= (x − y)x + (x − y)y (P9 - Distributive law)
= (x − y)(x + y) (P9 - Distributive law)

(iii) If x2 = y 2 , then x = y or x = −y

Démonstration.
x2 = y 2
√ q
x2 = y2
|x| = |y| (Absolute value definition)
 If x≥0 and y ≥ 0, then x = y
If x≤0 and y ≤ 0, we have −x = −y, then x = y
If x≥0 and y ≤ 0, then x = −y
If x≤0 and y ≥ 0, we have −x = y, then x = −y

(iv) x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 )

Démonstration.

x3 − y 3 = x(x2 ) − y(y 2 ) (P5)

= [x(x2 ) − 0] + [0 − y(y 2 )] (P2)
= [x(x2 ) − y(x2 ) + y(x2 )] + [−x(y 2 ) + x(y 2 ) − y(y 2 )] (P3)
= x(x2 ) − y(x2 ) + (x2 )y − x(y 2 ) + x(y 2 ) − y(y 2 ) (P1, P8)
= x(x2 ) − y(x2 ) + x(xy) − y(xy) + x(y 2 ) − y(y 2 ) (P5)
= (x − y)(x2 ) + (x − y)(xy) + (x − y)(y 2 ) (P9)
= (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) (P9)

(v) xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 )

Démonstration.

(x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 )

= x(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 )
− y(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + xy n−2 + y n−1 ) (P9)
= xn + (xn−1 y + · · · + x2 y n−2 + xy n−1 )
− (xn−1 y + xn−2 y 2 + · · · + xy n−1 ) − y n (P9, P8)
= xn + 0 − y n (P3)
= xn − y n (P2)

(vi) x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )

Démonstration.

x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) (Exercise 1-iv)

If we replace y by −y, we have y 2 = y 2 and y 3 = −y 3 . Therefore :

x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 )
2. If x = y, the following proof is wrong :

x2 = xy (Step 1)
x2 − y 2 = xy − y 2 (Step 2)
(x + y)(x − y) = y(x − y) (Step 3)
x+y =y (Step 4)
2y = y (Step 5)
2=1 (Step 6)

Since (x − y) = 0, we can get forward to Step 4, which implies a division by 0, that is

always undefined.
3. Proving the following :
a ac
(i) b
= bc
, if b, c 6= 0

Démonstration.
a a
= [1] (P6)
b b
a a
= [(c)(c−1 )] (P7)
b b
a a 1
= [(c)( )] (Definition of c−1 )
b b c
a a (c)(1)
= [ ] (P5)
b b (c)
a a (c1)
= [ ] (P5)
b b (c)
a a (c)
= [ ] (P6)
b b (c)
a ac
= (P5)
b bc

a c ad+bc
(ii) b
+ d
= bd
, if b, d 6= 0
 Démonstration.
a c a c
+ = (1)( + ) (P6)
b d b d
bd a c
= ( )( + ) (P7)
bd b d
bd a bd c
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) (P9)
bd b bd d
bda bdc
=( )+( ) (P5)
bdb bdd
bad dbc
=( )+( ) (P8)
bbd ddb
b ad d bc
= ( )( ) + ( )( ) (P9)
b bd d bd
ad bc
= (1)( ) + (1)( ) (P7)
bd bd
ad bc
=( )+( ) (P6)
bd bd
1
= ( )(ad + bc) (P9)
bd
ad + bc
= (P5)
bd

(iii) (ab)−1 = a−1 b−1 , if a, b 6= 0

Démonstration.
1
(ab)−1 = (Definition of (ab)−1 )
ab
1(1)
= (P6)
ab
(1)(1)
= (P5)
(a)(b)
1 1
  
= (P5)
a b
−1 −1
=a b (Definition of a−1 and b−1 )

ac ac
(iv) bd
= db
, if b, c, d 6= 0
 Démonstration.
ac
= (ab−1 )(cd−1 ) (Definition of b−1 and d−1 )
bd
= (a)(b−1 )(c)(d−1 ) (P5)
= (a)(c)(d−1 )(b−1 ) (P8)
= (ac)(db)−1 (P5 and Exercise 3-iii)
ac
= (Definition of (db)−1 )
db

a ad
(v) b/ dc = bc
if b, c, d 6= 0

Démonstration.
   −1
a a c  −1
c
/ =
b
c
d
(Definition of d
)
b d
!−1
a (1)c
 
= (P6)
b d
−1
a 1
 
= (c) (P5)
b d
   −1
a 1
= (c)−1 (Exercise 3-iii)
b d
a 1
     −1
= (d) (Definition of 1
d
and c−1 )
b c
(ad)(1)
= (P5)
(bc)
ad
= (P6)
bc

a c a
(vi) If b, d 6= 0, then b
= d
if and only if ad = bc. Also determine when b
= ab .
 Démonstration.
a c
=
b d
a c
(d) = (d) (d on both side)
b d !
(ad) d
=c (P5)
b d
!
(ad) d
(b) = (b)c (b on both side)
b d
! !
b d
(ad) = (bc) (P5)
b d
ad = bc (P7)

Démonstration.
a b
=
b a
a b
(a) = (a)
b a
a2 a
 
=b
b a
2
a
= b(1)
b
a2
=b
b
a2
(b) = (b)b
!b
b 2
a = b2
b
(1)a2 = b2
a2 = b 2
√ √
a2 = b 2
|a| = |b|

For a > 0, a < 0, b > 0 and b < 0.

4. Find all numbers x for which :

 (i)

4 − x < 3 − 2x
4 − x + 2x < 3 − 2x + 2x
4−4+x<3−4
x < −1

x ∈ (−∞, −1)
(ii)

5 − x2 < 8
5 − 5 − x2 + x2 < 8 − 5 + x2
0 < 3 + x2

True for all x.

(iii)

5 − x2 < −2
5 + 2 − x2 + x2 < −2 + 2 + x2
7 < x2
√
± 7<x
√ √
x ∈ (−∞, − 7) ∪ ( 7, +∞)
(iv)

(x − 1)(x − 3) > 0

The product is positive if (x − 1) > 0 and (x − 3) > 0 or (x − 1) < 0 and

(x − 3) < 0. Thus x > 1 and x > 3 or x < 1 and x < 3 : x ∈ (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, +∞).
(v)

x2 − 2x + 2 > 0
(x − 1)(x − 1) − 1 + 2 > 0 (Completing the square)
(x − 1)2 + 1 > 0

True for all x.