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The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics
Fourth Edition

edi tor in ch ie f
Roland Greene
Stanford University
gener al edi to r
Stephen Cushman
University of Virginia
as so ciat e e ditor s a ssista n t e d itors
Clare Cavanagh Harris Feinsod
Northwestern University Northwestern University
Jahan Ramazani David Marno
University of Virginia University of California, Berkeley

Paul Rouzer Alexandra Slessarev

University of Minnesota Stanford University

princeton university press

princeton and oxford
Copyright ©  by Princeton University Press
Published by Princeton University Press,  William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 
In the United Kingdom: Princeton University Press,  Oxford Street, Woodstock, Oxfordshire OX TW

All Rights Reserved

Based on the original edition. Alex Preminger, editor, Frank J. Warnke and O. B. Hardison, Jr., associate editors.

Cover art: Jiri Kolar, Love Poem, , collage. Photo: Jiri Lammel. Courtesy of the Museum Kampa / The
Jan and Meda Mládek Foundation Collection

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics / Roland Greene, editor in chief ; Stephen Cushman, general editor ;
Clare Cavanagh, Jahan Ramazani, Paul Rouzer, associate editors ; Harris Feinsod, David Marno, Alexandra Slessarev,
assistant editors.—th ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of : The Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics / Alex Preminger and T.V.F. Brogan, co-editors ;
Frank J. Warnke, O.B. Hardison, Jr., and Earl Miner, associate editors. .
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN ---- (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN ---- (pbk. : alk. paper) . Poetry—Dictionaries.
. Poetics—Dictionaries. . Poetry—History and criticism. I. Greene, Roland Arthur. II. Cushman, Stephen,
- III. Cavanagh, Clare. IV. Ramazani, Jahan, – V. Rouzer, Paul F. VI. Feinsod, Harris.
VII. Marno, David. VIII. Slessarev, Alexandra. IX. Princeton encyclopedia of poetry and poetics.
PN.N 
.'—dc 

British Library Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

This book has been composed in Adobe Garamond Pro with Myriad Display

Printed on acid-free paper. ∞

press.princeton.edu
Printed in the United States of America
         
Contents

Preface vii

Acknowledgments xi

Topical List of Entries xv

Bibliographical Abbreviations xxiii

General Abbreviations xxvii

Contributors xxviii

Entries A to Z 1

Index 1555
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Poetics, the theoretical and practical study of turn augmented by pieces on Guaraní, Inuit, and
poetry, is among the oldest disciplines in the West, Navajo poetries, among others. Asian poetry and
one of those founded by Aristotle along with eth- poetics receive substantial new investments in crit-
ics, logic, and political science. The Princeton Ency- ical discussion, notably in entries concerning the
clopedia of Poetry and Poetics is the comprehensive popular poetry of China, Chinese poetic drama,
guide to this rich field. This edition of the Ency- the influential tenth-century Japanese collection
clopedia significantly develops the past three edi- known as the Kokinshū, and the poetry of Cam-
tions of , , and . Of the more than bodia, among others. The coverage of India now
, articles, some incorporate and expand their involves not only a general entry on the poetry of
antecedents in those editions, bringing their top- the subcontinent but many more articles on the
ics into the present with fresh scholarship and new history and tradition of poetic forms and styles in
perspectives. Some  entries are entirely new, in various languages from Hindi to Gujarati to San-
response to the changes that poetry and poetics skrit. Africa and Eastern Europe see a new measure
have undergone in the last twenty years. Most ar- of attention to countries, languages, movements,
ticles on major topics have been not only made and styles.
current but reconceived, in most cases to accom- This wave of locality and specificity changes the
modate a closer attention to poetics. The scope of character of the Encyclopedia, and brings into the
the Encyclopedia has always been worldwide, con- book a wide-ranging cast of contributors, new ap-
cerning (as the original editors put it) the history, proaches, and topics of different dimensions. It
theory, technique, and criticism of poetry from permitted us to reduce the size and scope of many
earliest times to the present. of the larger entries on national poetries. Free of
the obligation to define every episode and move-
The Plan of the Encyclopedia ment, the authors of articles on topics such as the
poetry of England or the poetry of Spain have
The solid foundation of the previous editions been encouraged to delineate a literary history in
has offered us the opportunity to enhance cover- bold strokes; their narratives are complemented by
age without compromising the traditional atten- new items on the particular histories of such topics
tion to European and especially English-language as Georgianism and neo-Gongorism, respectively.
poetry and poetics. This edition expands coverage The perspectives of omnibus entries on the poetry
of international poetries, avant-gardes and move- of Spanish America or of India still have an impor-
ments, and the many phenomena, from cognitive tant place in this edition, offering the reader both
poetics to poetry slams to digital poetry that have a wide view and a close focus.
gained momentum since . Latin America, Moreover, we have challenged the tacit as-
East and South Asia, Africa, and Eastern Europe sumption of many handbooks that general poetic
are represented here by an infusion of new entries terms may be treated through English-language
and specialist contributors who present not only examples only. A large number of general entries
the broad canvas of national and regional literary here are written by scholars of poetries other than
history but the granular detail of informed schol- English—a Hispanist on pastoral, a scholar of the
arship. French Renaissance on epideixis, a Persianist on
For instance, to complement the general article panegyric.
on the poetry of the United States, new entries ad- The Encyclopedia includes five kinds of entries:
dress such topics as the Black Mountain school, terms and concepts; genres and forms; periods,
the Fireside poets, confessional poetry, and the schools, and movements; the poetries of nations,
San Francisco Renaissance. Spanish America is regions, and languages; and poetry in relation to
represented by a general essay on the hemispheric other cultural forms, disciplines, and social prac-
tradition in poetry as well as by discrete entries tices such as linguistics, religion, and science. It
on the poetries of Mexico, Peru, Argentina, Chile, does not contain entries on poets or works, but
and many other countries. And both sets of ar- discusses these in the context of the larger topics
ticles converse with an authoritative new entry on to which they are related. While the A-to-Z for-
the poetry of the indigenous Americas, which is in mat tends to obscure the integrity of these five

vii
viii PREFACE

categories, each one entails certain obligations and Finally, the articles concerned with poetry in
challenges. relation to disciplines, culture, and society—for
Terminology makes for one of the most tech- titles, such entries often take the form of “religion
nically exacting aspects of the project. The Ency- and poetry” or “science and poetry”—have been
clopedia remains the authoritative source for brief focused on the implications for the history of po-
definitions of particular terms or expansive treat- etry as opposed to history in a more general sense.
ments of broad topics, such as the exhaustive (Depending on the topic and the contributor’s ap-
treatment of rhyme. Entries on concepts such as proach, some conceptual entries draw a relation to
structuralism or speech act theory are designed to poetics rather than to poetry: thus “anthropology
engage with poetry over other kinds of literature and poetry” but “linguistics and poetics.”) From
or writing. This category is home to transhistorical these articles, one could build a history of poetry’s
terms such as cento, eclogue, and gai saber; fun- relations to the intellectual and cultural world at
damental topics in the history of criticism such as large.
emotion and imagination; and critical concepts of Of course, these five rubrics are provisional,
wide application such as ethnopoetics and organi- and many items could move among them. All of
cism. From its entries one could assemble a history the main categories now include entries that re-
of ideas in and about poetry. flect on category making, such as “colonial po-
The rubrics of genre and form often shade into etics” and “national poetry.” A longstanding ru-
one another, but at the same time they tend to fol- bric, “Western poetics,” has been answered not
low complementary logics of openness and limita- by a corresponding omnibus entry for the non-
tion, respectively. Most entries on genres, such as Western world but by new articles on Chinese,
those on the alba and the paraclausithyron, follow Japanese, Sanskrit, and other poetics. Many items
the evolution of their objects to the present day, are tacitly engaged with one another and might
while many entries on forms locate them in their be read in counterpoint (e.g., “criticism,” “inter-
original settings of language, epoch, and culture. pretation,” and “hermeneutics,” or “imitation,”
Nonetheless, the reader will encounter a number “mimesis,” and “representation”); some of these,
of entries that do both, as well as bracing new es- such as the new set called “poetry as artifact,” “po-
says on the concepts of genre and form. etry as fiction,” “poetry as information,” and “po-
Coverage of periods, schools, and movements has etry as knowledge,” make a sweeping overview of
been deepened for this edition, both as a category complementary approaches. (Several other entries
in itself and within the other categories. For ex- continue that overview under various titles: poetry
ample, postmodern poetry of the United States en- as commodity in “Frankfurt school” and as object
tails new entries on (among other topics) projective of faith in “belief and poetry,” and the several en-
verse, composition by field, Language poetry, and tries on terms such as “poem,” “text,” and “work.”)
absorption, some contributed by poet-critics in the And many important items, such as “politics and
tradition of William Carlos Williams’s entry on the poetry,” “postcolonial poetics,” and of course “po-
“variable foot” for the  edition. Again, the focus etry,” straddle the divisions of the book.
is on poetics. Our entry on naturalism, skewed to- As every reader will notice, this book has been
ward the poetic application of that concept, is very conceived to enable cross-coverages and contra-
different from an article of the same title in a hand- dictions insofar as these facts register the current
book of general literary criticism or theory. condition of poetry studies. The significance of
The fourth category, the poetries of nations, re- Whitman or H . āf iz., the idea of poetic genius, and
gions, and languages, is a customary strength of the continuing implications of the New Criticism
the Encyclopedia; many readers have found the are too multifarious to fit into one or two entries.
past editions a reliable source for introductions The reader will find these and many other topics
to unfamiliar literatures. In this edition we have in several articles, often from the perspectives of
tried to devise topics that accommodate the his- distinctive fields or interests. An index, the first in
tories of national poetries while taking account of the history of the Encyclopedia, makes such colla-
local or transnational differences, and that follow tions part of the experience of this book.
languages out of national borders. The results for As the fourth edition of a book that has been
our nomenclature are described below. Multiple in print since , this project carries its history
language traditions found within a nation or re- within itself; many entries include the names of
gion are treated as much as is practical, though past contributors whose entries have been aug-
never fully enough to trace the poetic complexity mented and brought up to date. Every item in the
of modern, multicultural societies.  edition was evaluated by the team of editors.
 PREFACE ix

Some were dropped, while many more were as- such as French-language, Chicana/o, and Asian
signed to readers and prospective contributors American poetry. An entry such as “German po-
who were invited to assess the received material. etry” takes a linguistic rather than a national ap-
In some cases an old entry stands on its substance proach, but is complemented by entries on Aus-
while requiring only a new bibliography, which tria, Switzerland, and the Low Countries that
the editors have provided. In others, we publish a follow geopolitical contours and discuss discrete
collaboration between past and present contribu- languages within those outlines. In many cases the
tors that could take place only between the covers contributors made the final determination of what
of this Encyclopedia. The majority of articles, and to call their entries, which no doubt produces
nearly all of the most prominent ones, have been some asymmetries that reflect the differences in
entirely reconceived by new contributors. the fields represented here.
Some six years in the making, this project is also For example, Walther von der Vogelweide, a
the portrait of a discipline—the worldwide field poet who wrote in Middle High German, is treated
of poetry studies—in the process of development. in “German poetry” as the first important political
It attempts to address the permanent questions in poet in the language, in “poetry of Austria” for his
the field, such as the nature of the poetic, while residence in Vienna and service to Duke Freder-
giving some attention to topics that seem to be- ick I, in “Minnesang” and “Spruchdichtung” for
long to the present and the near future, such as his generic affiliations, in “Meistersinger” for his
conceptual writing and documentary poetics; it influence—and in “biography and poetry” as the
also involves a decided effort on the editors’ part subject of one of the first biographies of a medieval
to devote resources to topics, such as exegetical poet. The result is a comprehensive, multivocal ac-
interpretation and archetypal criticism, that are count of many of the signal events in world poetry,
currently unfashionable but seem likely to be re- from the Occitan troubadours to the modernismo
vived in new manners. No doubt in twenty years of Rubén Darío to the visual and material poetries
the values of this fourth edition will appear in a of the past fifty years.
historical light, but in any case we have chosen Translations are generally given within pa-
both to acknowledge and to transcend the pres- rentheses, without quotation marks if no other
ent moment as far as possible. Finally, however, words appear in the parenthetical matter, but
such a project can be only what its population set off within quotation marks when some qual-
of authors—a cross-section of scholars of poetry ification is needed, as in the form of many ety-
around the world—want it to be. mologies: e.g., arsis and thesis (Gr., “raising and
lowering”). Translated titles generally appear in
The Conventions of the Fourth Edition the most comprehensive articles, such as those on
national poetries or important developments such
One of the longstanding strengths of the Ency- as “modernism”; entries of smaller scope often give
clopedia is its coverage of the poetries of the world. original titles without translation, although con-
The present edition attempts to make a distinc- tributors have the discretion to translate titles where
tion between poetries that are based in nations or it clarifies the argument to do so. (We tolerate in-
territories and those that are based in language, consistency that reflects to some degree the field at
international cultures, or diasporas—no doubt hand: thus some major entries, such as “baroque”
sometimes an ambiguous difference, but nonethe- or “Renaissance poetics,” do not translate titles at
less one that seems worth making. The entry on all; others such as “love poetry” give only translated
the poetry of France is discrete from those on the titles.) Translated titles of books are given in ital-
various francophone poetries of Africa, Canada, ics when the title refers to an actual English trans-
or the Caribbean, while Persian poetry is best ap- lation: e.g. the Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli’s
proached as a single topic with international rami- Vepkhis tqaosani (The Man in the Panther’s Skin).
fications. The “poetry of England” and the “poetry For poems, translated titles are given with quota-
of the United States” as topics are preferable to tion marks when the translation has been pub-
“English” or “American” poetry, with their uncer- lished under that title, but without quotation
tain but expansive outlines. In its coverage of the marks when the translated title is ad hoc.
British Isles, the former entry is complemented This convention sometimes entails reproducing
by articles on Welsh, Scottish, and Irish poetries, a non-literal rendering that appears in a published
while the latter is cross-referenced to companion translation, such as Boccaccio’s Trattatello in laude
pieces on U.S. poetries wholly or partly in other di Dante as Life of Dante, or the Guatemalan poet
languages that can claim their own fields of study, Otto René Castillo’s Vámonos patria a caminar as
x PREFACE

Let’s Go! We believe that the value of indicating an The deliberately limited standardization of the
extant translation outweighs the occasional infe- volume allows the reader to observe the condi-
licity. At the same time, it is likely we have over- tions and assumptions that are native to each na-
looked some published translations, and many tional literature, topic, or approach represented:
new ones will appear over the life of this book. something as fundamental as what “classical” or
Dates of the lives and works of poets and critics “hermeticism” means, or as technical as where
often appear in the most comprehensive entries on one finds an important essay by Roman Jakob-
a given topic (e.g. a regional entry such as “poetry of son, may appear differently at several places in the
the Low Countries” or a major movement such as book. One might learn a great deal by noticing
“poststructuralism”), showing up less often as topics these facts—in effect, by interpreting the Ency-
become narrower. Dates of works in the age of print clopedia itself as a living document of the dis-
refer to publication unless otherwise indicated. cipline that unites us across languages, periods,
Articles contain two types of cross-references: and methods, namely the study of poetry and
those that appear within the body of an entry (in- poetics.
dicated with asterisks or in parentheses with small
capitals), and those that follow an entry, just be- The State of the Field
fore the bibliographies. If the former are often top-
ics that extend the fabric of the definition at hand, As a discipline, poetics is undergoing a re-
the latter often indicate adjacent topics of broader newal. In the past it was sometimes conceived as
interest. Of course, both kinds of cross-reference an antiquarian field, a vehicle for broadly theo-
hold out the danger of infinite connection: nearly retical issues in literature, or a name for poets’
every entry could be linked to many others, and reflections on their practice. Recently, however,
the countless usages of terms such as line, meta- the discipline has turned more explicitly to-
phor, and poetics cannot all be linked to the entries ward historical and cross-cultural questions. In
concerned with those terms. Accordingly we have the United States, research groups on poetics
tried to apply cross-references judiciously, indicat- at several universities have contributed to this
ing where further reading in a related entry really momentum, as have digital projects that render
complements the argument at hand. the materials of historical and international po-
The bibliographies are intended as guides to rel- etries readily available and make new kinds of
evant scholarship of the distant and recent past, conversation possible. Ventures such as this En-
not only as lists of works cited in the entries. The cyclopedia, new and old at once, contribute to
bibliographies have been lightly standardized, but this conversation by introducing scholars to one
some entries—say, those that narrate the develop- another, by opening local topics to comparative
ment of a field—gain from citing works of schol- attention, and most of all by providing informa-
arship in their original iterations (John Crowe tion and perspective.
Ransom’s essay “Criticism, Inc.” in its first appear- For two generations The Princeton Encyclopedia
ance in the Virginia Quarterly Review of ) or of Poetry and Poetics has been the common prop-
in their original languages—while many others erty of the worldwide community of poetry schol-
choose to cite later editions or translations into ars. We are proud to bring it, renewed, to another
English as a convenience for the reader. generation.
Acknowledgments

The fourth edition of The Princeton Encyclope- Maynard, Natalie Melas, Farzaneh Milani, Ig-
dia of Poetry and Poetics has been a collective work nacio Navarrete, Patricia Parker, Michael Pred-
of the worldwide community of poetry scholars more, Phoebe Putnam, Margaret Reid, Joan
over several years. It began at the instigation of Ramon Resina, Alicia Rios, Hollis Robbins, Jan-
Anne Savarese, executive editor for reference at ice Ross, David Rubin, Susan Schultz, David
Princeton University Press, whose judgment and Shulman, Richard Sieburth, Barbara Herrnstein
taste have conditioned the project at every stage. Smith, Sidonie Smith, Ann Smock, Willard Spie-
At the Press, Claire Tillman-McTigue and Diana gelman, Susan Stephens, Marlene van Niekerk,
Goovaerts kept the assembly of authors in contact Susanne Woods, Kevin Young, Shu Yi Zhou, and
with the editors, and the editors in touch with one Jan Ziolkowski.
another. Ellen Foos, production editor for the vol- Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the follow-
ume, was unfailingly patient with wayward editors ing authors, publishers, and agents for granting us
and stretched deadlines. Mary Lou Bertucci copy- permission to use brief selections from the copy-
edited the text and is responsible for matters of righted material listed below. Great care has been
consistency. taken to trace all the owners of copyrighted mate-
The editors gratefully acknowledge the help of rial used in this book. Any inadvertent omissions
the research assistants who have been involved pointed out to us will be gladly acknowledged in
with the Encyclopedia over the years: Sarah Bishop, future printings.
Lauren Boehm, Maia Draper, Jaime Lynn Farrar, Alurista for five lines of his poem “Mis ojos
Suzanne Ashley King, Elizabeth Molmen, Frank hinchados.”
Rodriguez, Whitney Trump, and Daniel Veraldi. Arte Público Press for ten lines of “Guitarreros”
At Stanford University, R. Lucas Coe maintained by Américo Paredes, from Between Two Worlds,
communications with the Press. copyright ©  by Arte Público Press; and four
The heart of the book, its , articles, were lines of “Emily Dickinson” by Lucha Corpi, from
conceived, evaluated, and improved by the gath- Palabras de Mediodia/Noon Words, copyright ©
ering of contributors, whose names appear else-  by Arte Público Press. Both reprinted by per-
where in the front matter. Many of them read and mission of Arte Público Press.
commented anonymously on the work of oth- Gordon Brotherston for six lines of his transla-
ers. Some did much more, especially Walter G. tion of Preuss’s musings on the Witoto; six lines
Andrews, Yigal Bronner, Marisa Galvez, Joseph of his translation of a traditional Quechua hymn;
Lease, Marjorie Perloff, and Haun Saussy. and twelve lines of his translation from the Na-
The scholars, poets, and others who did not huatl of an excerpt from Cuauhtitlan Annals.
write articles for this edition but nonetheless ad- The University of California Press for five
vised the project are a distinguished roster, and lines of “The Box” by Robert Creeley, from The
this book belongs to them as well: Txetxu Aguado, Collected Poems of Robert Creeley, –,
Jaime Alazraki, David Atwell, Shahzad Bashir, Ste- copyright ©  by the Regents of the Univer-
phen C. Berkwitz, Paula Blank, Elisabeth Boyi, sity of California; and two lines of “Two Voices”
Dominic Parviz Brookshaw, Marina Brownlee, by Khalil Gibran from An Anthology of Modern
Ardis Butterfield, Melanie Conroy, Neil Corcoran, Arabic Poetry, edited by Hamid Algar and Mou-
Mary Thomas Crane, John Dagenais, Wai Chee nah Khouri, copyright ©  by the Regents
Dimock, Craig Dworkin, Lazar Fleishman, Bar- of the University of California. Both reprinted
bara Fuchs, Christina Galvez, Forrest Gander, by permission of the University of California
J. Neil Garcia, Simon Gaunt, Michael Gluzman, Press.
Fabian Goppelsröder, Margaret Greer, Timo- Cambridge University Press for three lines
thy Hampton, Benjamin Harshav, Waïl Hassan, of “Eulogy” by al-Mutanabbi, from Poems of al-
Héctor Hoyos, Jasmine Hu, Alex Hunt, Witi Mutanabbi, translated by A. J. Arberry, copyright
Ihimaera, Kate Jenckes, F. Sionil Jose, Smaro ©  by Cambridge University Press; and three
Kamboureli, Sarah Kay, Maurice Kilwein Gue- lines by al-Khansa, from Arabic Poetry: A Primer
vara, Seth Kimmel, Paul Kiparsky, Rachel Lee, for Students, translated by A. J. Arberry, copyright
Seth Lerer, Chris Mann, Annabel Martín, John ©  by Cambridge University Press. Both

xi
xii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

reprinted by the permission of Cambridge Uni- Bronislawa Wajs and four lines of “Roads of the
versity Press. Roma” by Leksa Manus, both published in The
Coach House Books for four lines from Eunoia, Roads of the Roma: A PEN Anthology of Gypsy Writ-
by Christian Bök (Coach House Books, , up- ers, copyright ©  by PEN American Center,
dated ). University of Hertfordshire Press.
Columbia University Press for six lines of “Tan- Henry Holt and Company for two lines of “The
sim ka, or, Song of a Loyal Heart” from Early Gift Outright” from The Poetry of Robert Frost, ed-
Korean Literature: Selections and Introductions, by ited by Edward Connery Lathem, copyright ©
David R. McCann, copyright ©  Columbia  by Henry Holt and Company, copyright ©
University Press; twelve lines of “Azaleas,” six lines  by Robert Frost, copyright ©  by Les-
of “Winter Sky,” and eighteen lines of “Grasses,” ley Frost Ballantine. Reprinted by permission of
each from The Columbia Anthology of Modern Ko- Henry Holt and Company, LLC.
rean Poetry, edited by David R. McCann, copy- Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Com-
right ©  Columbia University Press. All pany for excerpts from “The Hollow Men” from
reprinted by permission of the publisher. Collected Poems – by T. S. Eliot, copy-
Jayne Cortez for eight lines of “If the Drum Is a right ©  by Harcourt, Inc. and renewed by
Woman,” copyright ©  by Jayne Cortez. T. S. Eliot; and eight lines of “It Is Dangerous to
Faber and Faber Ltd. for two lines of “The Hol- Read Newspapers” from Selected Poems I, –
low Men” by T. S. Eliot from Collected Poems –  by Margaret Atwood, copyright ©  by
 by T. S. Eliot, copyright ©  by Faber Margaret Atwood. Both reprinted by permission
and Faber, Ltd.; three lines of “The Fragment” of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Com-
by Seamus Heaney, from Electric Light, copyright pany. All rights reserved.
©  by Seamus Heaney and reprinted by per- Robert Huey for permission to reprint five lines
mission of Faber and Faber, Ltd.; “In a Station of of his translation of “Shinkokinshū” by Fujiwara
the Metro” by Ezra Pound, from Personae, copy- Teika.
right ©  by Ezra Pound; and “Red Wheel Phoebe Larrimore Literary Agency for eight
Barrow” by William Carlos Williams, from The lines of “It Is Dangerous to Read Newspapers” by
Collected Poems: Volume I, –, copyright Margaret Atwood, used by permission of the au-
©  by William Carlos Williams. All reprinted thor. Available in the following collections: In the
by permission of Faber and Faber, Ltd. United States, Selected Poems I, –, pub-
Rafael Jesús González for eleven lines of his lished by Houghton Mifflin, copyright © Mar-
poem “The Coin (Ars Poetica)” from El hacedor garet Atwood ; in Canada, Selected Poems,
de juegos/The Maker of Games (San Francisco: Casa –, published by McClelland and Stew-
Editorial, ; nd edition, ), copyright © art, copyright © Margaret Atwood ; in the
 by Rafael Jesús González. Reprinted by per- UK, Eating Fire, published by Virago Books,
mission of the author. copyright © Margaret Atwood .
Graywolf Press for thirteen lines of “John Col” Ian Monk for excerpts from his poems “A
by Elizabeth Alexander from The Venus Hottentot, Threnodialist’s Dozen” and “Elementary Morality.”
copyright ©  by the Rector and Visitors of James T. Monroe for his translation of “Envoie
the University of Virginia. to a Love Poem” from Hispano-Arabic Poetry: A
Harvard University Press for five lines of “Ar- Student Anthology, published by the University of
tifice of Absorption” from A Poetics by Charles California Press, .
Bernstein, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer- José Montoya for six lines of his poem “El Louie.”
sity Press, copyright ©  by Charles Bernstein; New Directions Publishing Corporation for five
four lines of The Kalevala: Or, Poems of the Kalevala lines of “The Five Day Rain” by Denise Levertov,
District, compiled by Elias Lönnrot, translated by from Collected Earlier Poems –, copyright
Francis Peabody Magoun, Jr., Cambridge, Mass.: ©  by Denise Levertov; four lines of “Poems”
Harvard University Press, copyright ©  by the by Dylan Thomas, from Collected Poems, copyright
President and Fellows of Harvard College. Both ©  by Dylan Thomas; five lines of “Epigram
reprinted by permission of the publisher. (After the Greek)” by H. D. (Hilda Doolittle),
University of Hertfordshire Press for twelve from Collected Poems, –, copyright ©
lines from an untitled poem translated by Iren  by The Estate of Hilda Doolittle; “In a Sta-
Kertesz-Wilkinson, published in Romani Culture tion of the Metro” by Ezra Pound, from Personae,
and Gypsy Identity, edited by T. A. Acton and G. copyright ©  by Ezra Pound; and “Red Wheel
Mundy, University of Hertfordshire Press, ; Barrow” by William Carlos Williams, from The
nine lines of “O Land, I Am Your Daughter” by Collected Poems: Volume I, –, copyright
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii

©  by New Directions Publishing Corp. All Simon & Schuster, Inc., for three lines of “Leda
reprinted by permission of New Directions Pub- and the Swan,” reprinted by the permission of
lishing Corp. Scribner, a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc.,
Nightwood Editions for six lines of “language from The Collected Works of W. B. Yeats, Volume :
(in)habits” from Forage by Rita Wong, published The Poems, Revised by W. B. Yeats, edited by Rich-
by Nightwood Editions, ; http://www.night ard J. Finneran, copyright ©  by the Macmil-
woodeditions.com. lan Company, renewed  by Georgie Yeats. All
Oxford University Press for eight lines of “It Is rights reserved.
Dangerous to Read Newspapers” from Margaret Society of Biblical Literature for six lines of
Atwood, The Animals in that Country, copyright © “Kirta,” from Ugaritic Narrative Poetry, edited by
 Oxford University Press Canada. Reprinted Simon B. Parker, copyright © . Reprinted by
by permission of the publisher. permission of the Society of Biblical Literature.
Burton Raffel for his translation of a pantun, Talon Books for twenty-one lines of “Naked
the traditional Malay four-line verse. Poems” from Selected Poems: The Vision Tree
Random House for four lines of “River Snow” copyright ©  Phyllis Webb, Talon Books,
from The Anchor Book of Chinese Poetry, edited Vancouver, B.C. Reprinted by permission of the
by Tony Barnstone and Chou Ping, copyright © publisher.
 by Tony Barnstone and Chou Ping. Used by University of Virginia Press for four lines of “A
permission of Anchor Books, a division of Ran- Warm Day in Winter” by Paul Laurence Dunbar
dom House, Inc. from The Collected Poetry of Paul Laurence Dunbar,
Lynne Rienner Publications for five lines of edited by Joanne M. Braxton, copyright © 
“Lazarus ” by Khalil Hawi from Naked in Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia.
Exile: The Threshing Floors of Hunger, translated by Reprinted by permission of the University of Vir-
Adnan Haydar and Michael Beard, © . Re- ginia Press.
printed by permission of Lynne Rienner Publica- Wesleyan University Press for eight lines of
tions. “Spring Images” by James Wright from Collected
Sonia Sanchez for four lines of her poem “a / Poems, copyright ©  by James Wright; eleven
coltrane / poem.” lines of “Altazor” by Vincente Huidobro, trans-
Maekawa Sajuro for five lines of an untitled lated by Eliot Weinberger, copyright ©  by
poem from Shokubutsusai by Maekawa Samio, Eliot Weinberger. Both reprinted by permission of
translated by Leith Morton. Wesleyan University Press.
This page intentionally left blank
Topical List of Entries

Terms and Concepts aposiopesis carpe diem

Genres and Forms apostrophe catachresis
Periods, Schools, and Movements appreciation catalexis
National, Regional, and Diasporic archaism catalog
Poetries archetype catharsis
Poetry in Culture and Society archilochian cauda
argument caudate sonnet
Terms and Concepts arsis and thesis cento
absorption arte mayor chain rhyme
accent arte menor character, Theophrastan
accentual-syllabic verse artifice, poetic chastushka
accentual verse Arzamas chiasmus
acephalous asclepiad choliambus
address assonance choriamb
adonic asynarteton chorus
adynaton asyndeton Christabel meter
aeolic attention Chuci
aestheticism audience. See PERFORMANCE; READER; classical meters in modern languages
affect READER RESPONSE; RHETORIC AND POETRY classical poetics
affective fallacy aureate diction classicism
afflatus autonomy clavis
agudeza auto sacramental cliché
alam . kāra autotelic climax
alcaic auxesis close reading
alcmanic verse bacchius close rhyme
aleatory poetics ballad meter, hymn meter closure
alexandrine bard cobla
allaeostropha barzelletta. See FROTTOLA AND codework
alliteration BARZELLETTA cognitive poetics
allusion bathos colon
ambiguity beat colonial poetics
amphibrach binary and ternary commonplace
amplification bob and wheel composition. See ORAL-FORMULAIC
anaclasis book, poetic THEORY; POET; RHETORIC AND POETRY;
anacoluthon boustrophedon VERSIFICATION
anacreontic bouts-rimés composition by field
anacrusis bridge concatenation
anadiplosis broken rhyme conceit
anagram burden conceptismo
analogy. See METAPHOR; SIMILE; SYMBOL Burns stanza concision
anapest bylina concrete universal
anaphora caccia connotation and denotation
anceps cacophony consonance
anthimeria cadence constraint
anthology caesura conte dévot
anticlimax cancionero/cancioneiro contests, poetic. See POETIC CONTESTS;
antimetabole canon POETRY SLAM
antispast cante jondo contrafactum
antistrophe canticum and diverbium convention
antithesis canto copla
antonomasia canzone coq-à-l’âne
antropofagia canzoniere corona
aphaeresis capitolo coronach
apocope carmen correlative verse
aporia carmina figurata cossante

xv
xvi TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES

counterpoint en(h)oplian hendiadys

counterpoint rhythm enjambment heptameter
coupe envelope heptasyllable
couplet envoi hermeneutics
courtly love epanalepsis hermeticism
cretic epenthesis heroic couplet
criticism epiploke heterogram
cross rhyme epitrite heterometric
cuaderna vía epode heteronym
cueca chilena equivalence hexameter
cultural criticism estilística hiatus
curtal sonnet estribillo hieroglyph
cybertext ethnopoetics historicism
cynghanedd ethos homodyne and heterodyne
cywydd euphony homoeoteleuton
dactyl evaluation hovering accent
dactylo-epitrite exegesis hudibrastic verse
dansa exemplum huitain
dead metaphor exoticism humors
decadence explication hypallage
decasyllable explication de texte hyperbaton
décima expression hyperbole
decir eye rhyme hypermetric
decorum fancy hypogram
defamiliarization fatras hypometric
deixis feigning hyporchema
demotion figura hypotaxis and parataxis
descort figuration hysteron proteron
dhvani fili iambe
diaeresis flyting iambic
dialogue folia iambic shortening
diction foot iconicity
difficulty formalism iconology
dimeter formula ictus
dindshenchas fourteener identical rhyme
dipodism, dipodic verse fractal verse ideogram
discordia concors fragment idyll
dissociation of sensibility Frankfurt school image
dissonance frottola and barzelletta imagery
distich furor poeticus imagination
dithyramb gai saber imitation
ditty gaita gallega incantation
divan galliamb(us) incremental repetition
dizer generative metrics indeterminacy
dochmiac generic rhyme influence
dol’nik Geneva school in medias res
double dactyl genius In Memoriam stanza
dozens Gesellschaftslied inscape and instress
duration glosa inspiration
dyfalu glossolalia intensity
eclogue glyconic intention
écriture grammatical rhyme intentional fallacy
eisteddfod Greek Anthology internal rhyme
elegiac distich greguería interpretation
elegiac stanza Guslar intertextuality
elision haibun intuition
ellipsis Hebraism invective
emotion Hellenism. See GREEK POETRY; HEBRAISM invention
empathy and sympathy hemiepes ionic
enargeia hemistich irony
end-stopped hendecasyllable isochronism or isochrony
 TERMS AND CONCEPTS xvii

isocolon and parison novas (rimadas) point of view. See PERSONA; PLOT; VOICE
isometric number(s) polyptoton
ithyphallic numerology polysemy
je ne sais quoi objective correlative polysyndeton
jitanjáfora obscurity postcolonial poetics
jongleur octave poststructuralism
kenning octonarius poulter’s measure
kharja octosyllable préciosité
Kokinshū odl pregunta
laisse Omar Khayyám quatrain presence
lauda Onegin stanza priamel
laureate. See POET LAUREATE onomatopoeia priapea
leich open form proceleusmatic
leonine rhyme, verse oral-formulaic theory promotion
letrilla oral poetry pronunciation
line organicism prose rhythm
lipogram originality prosimetrum
lira ornament prosodic feature analysis of verse
litotes ottava rima prosody
logaoedic oxymoron prosopopoeia
mal mariée paeon pseudo-statement
Man’yōshū palindrome pun. See PARONOMASIA
masculine and feminine parabasis punctuation
matrix paraclausithyron pure poetry
measure paradox pyrrhic
meiosis paralipsis pythiambic
melopoeia, phanopoeia, parallelism qit. a¶
logopoeia paraphrase, heresy of quantity
metalepsis or parenthesis quatrain
transumption paroemiac querelle des anciens et des
metaphor paronomasia modernes
meter partimen quintain
metonymy pathetic fallacy reader
metrici and rhythmici pathos reader response
metron patronage reception theory. See READER RESPONSE
mime pause recitation
mimesis pentameter refrain
minstrel penthemimer refrán
molossus performance refrein
monk’s tale stanza period rejet
monody periphrasis relative stress principle
monometer persona remate
monorhyme personification renga
monostich phalaecean repetition
mora phonestheme representation
mosaic rhyme pie quebrado resolution
mote pitch responsion
motif plain style reversed consonance
muse ploce reverse rhyme
myth plot rhapsode
naïve-sentimental poet rhopalic verse
narrator. See PERSONA; VOICE poète maudit rhyme
national poetry poetess rhyme counterpoint
nature poetic contests rhyme-prose
Natureingang poetic function rhyme royal
near rhyme poetic license rhyme scheme
negative capability poetic madness rhythm
neoterics poetics, Western rhythmic figures
New Criticism poet laureate rich rhyme
New Historicism poetry reading rime riche. See IDENTICAL RHYME;
Nibelungenstrophe poiēsis RHYME; RICH RHYME
xviii TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES

rising and falling rhythm symbol versi sciolti

ritornello synaeresis vers libéré
rota virgiliana synaesthesia vers mesurés à l’antique
rune synaloepha verso piano
running rhythm synapheia verso sdrucciolo
Saturnian syncopation verso tronco
saudosismo syncope vida
scansion synecdoche villancico
scheme system visual rhyme. See EYE RHYME
Schüttelreim syzygy voice
scop tail rhyme volta
seguidilla taste Wartburgkrieg
senarius technopaegnion wheel. See BOB AND WHEEL
senhal telesilleum wit
sensibility tenor and vehicle word-count
sentimentality tercet work
septenarius tetrameter wrenched accent
septet tétramètre xenoglossia
serial form text yuefu
serranilla textual criticism zaum’
sestet textuality zeugma
sexain texture
Shijing thematics Genres and Forms
Shinkokinshū timbre abecedarius
Sicilian octave tlacuilolli acrostic
sign, signified, signifier tmesis air
signifying tone alba
simile topos allegory
sincerity tornada anecdote
slang. See DICTION Tottel’s Miscellany anthem, national
śles.a touchstones aphorism. See EPIGRAM
songbook tradition balada
sound translation balagtasan
space, poetic tribrach ballad
spatial form trilogy ballade
speaker. See PERSONA; VOICE trimeter beast epic
speech act theory trimètre bestiary
Spenserian stanza triple rhyme Biblical poetry. See HEBREW POETRY;
split lines triplet HEBREW PROSODY AND POETICS; HYMN;
spoken word. See PERFORMANCE trobairitz PSALM
spondee trobar clus, trobar leu blank verse
spontaneity trochaic blason
Spruchdichtung trope blues
sprung rhythm troubadour broadside ballad
stances trouvère bucolic
stanza typography burlesque. See CONTRAFACTUM;
stave unity PARODY; PASTICHE
stichomythia upamā calendrical poetry
stichos ut pictura poesis calligramme
stock utpreks.ā canción
stornello variable foot canso
strambotto variation cantar
strophe vates cantiga
structure Venus and Adonis stanza carol
style verisimilitude. See MIMESIS chanso, chanson. See FRANCE, POETRY
stylistics vers OF; OCCITAN POETRY; SONGBOOK;
sublime verse and prose TROUBADOUR; TROUVÈRE
substitution verse paragraph chanson de geste
syllabic verse verse systems. See METER chanson de toile
syllable verset chant
syllepsis versification chante-fable
 GENRES AND FORMS xix

chant royal form pastourelle

charm found poetry pattern poetry. See CALLIGRAMME;
ci free verse CONCRETE POETRY; TECHNOPAEGNION;
clerihew freie rhythmen VISUAL POETRY
closet drama freie verse payada
collage fu penitential psalms
comedy gaucho poetry planctus
comma poem genre planh
companion poems georgic poem
complaint ghazal poetry
computational poetry gnomic poetry poetry slam
conceptual poetry Goliardic verse political verse
concrete poetry haikai proem
conversation poem haiku, Western prophetic poetry
corrido. See CHICANA/O POETRY; heroic verse prose poem
ROMANCE hybrid poetry proverb
country house poem hymn psalm
cowboy poetry jingle psalms, metrical
descriptive poetry kind qas.īda
devotional poetry Knittelvers quatorzain
dialect poetry lai quintilla
didactic poetry lament rap. See HIP-HOP POETICS
Dinggedicht landscape poem razo
dirge letter, verse. See VERSE EPISTLE recusatio
dit lied redondilla
dizain light verse reverdie
doggerel limerick riddle
dramatic monologue. See MONOLOGUE liturgical poetry rímur
dramatic poetry long poem ring composition
dream vision love poetry rispetto
dub poetry. See CARIBBEAN, POETRY lullaby romance
OF THE lyric rondeau
echo verse lyric sequence rondel
ecstatic poetry macaronic verse rotrouenge
edda madrigal roundel
ekphrasis manifesto rubā ī¶
electronic poetry masnavī saga
elegy masque sapphic
emblem medieval romance satire
encomium melic poetry sestina
endecha micropoetries sextilla
englyn Minnesang shi
ensalada mock epic, mock heroic silloi
ensenhamen monologue silva
epic morale élémentaire sirventes
epicedium muwashshah.. See AL-ANDALUS, POETRY Skeltonic
epideictic poetry OF; ARABIC POETRY; HEBREW POETRY skolion
epigram narrative poetry slam, poetry. See POETRY SLAM
epinikion nativity poem song
epitaph Nō sonnet
epithalamium nonsense verse sonnet sequence
epithet nursery rhymes sotadean
epyllion occasional verse sound poetry
erotic poetry ode spiritual
espinela paean stasimon
estampida palinode tagelied
fable panegyric tenso
fabliau pantun terza rima
fescennine verses parody terza rima sonnet
finida pastiche toast
folk poetry. See ORAL POETRY pastoral tragedy
xx TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES

tragicomedy imagism seconde rhétorique

triolet impressionism Sicilian school
tumbling verse jazz poetry smithy poets
verse drama. See DRAMATIC POETRY Jindyworobak spasmodic school
verse epistle Kootenay school structuralism
verse novel. See NARRATIVE POETRY Lake school Sturm und Drang
vers libre Language poetry surrealism
villanelle lesbian poetry symbolism
virelai lettrisme Tachtigers
visual poetry mannerism Tel Quel
waka Marinism TISH
war poetry medieval poetics Transcendentalists
ymryson medieval poetry ultraism
zéjel Meistersinger vorticism
metaphysical poetry XUL
Periods, Schools, and Movements minimalism
acmeism modernism National, Regional, and Diasporic
Agrarians modernismo Poetries
Alexandrianism Moscow-Tartu school. See STRUCTURALISM Africa, poetry of
Areopagus Movement, the African American poetry
avant-garde poetics naturalism Afrikaans poetry. See SOUTH AFRICA,
baroque Negritude POETRY OF
Beat poetry neobaroque Akkadian poetry. See ASSYRIA AND
Biedermeier neoclassical poetics BABYLONIA, POETRY OF
Black Arts movement neo-Gongorism Al-Andalus, poetry of
Black Mountain school New Formalism Albania, poetry of
Cavalier poets New York school American Indian poetry. See
Chicago school Nil Volentibus Arduum INDIGENOUS AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE;
Ciceronianism Noigandres INUIT POETRY; NAVAJO POETRY
classical poetics Norske Selskab American poetry. See UNITED STATES,
classical prosody Nuyorican Poets Café POETRY OF THE
Cockney school of poetry objectivism American Sign Language poetry
confessional poetry Oulipo Amerind poetry. See INDIGENOUS
Connecticut wits Parnassianism AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE
constructivism Petrarchism Amharic poetry. See ETHIOPIA, POETRY OF
courtly makers Pléiade Arabic poetics
creationism postmodernism Arabic poetry
cubism Prague school. See STRUCTURALISM Arabic prosody
Dada Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood Araucanian poetry. See INDIGENOUS
Dark Room Collective Pre-Raphaelitism AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE
Deep Image preromanticism Argentina, poetry of
Dolce stil nuovo primitivism Armenian poetry and poetics
ecopoetry. See ENVIRONMENT AND procedural poetry. See ALEATORY Asian American poetry
POETRY POETICS; CONCEPTUAL POETRY; OULIPO Assamese poetry
Évora critics projective verse Assyria and Babylonia, poetry of
expressionism protest poetry Australia, poetry of
Félibrige queer poetry Austria, poetry of
Finland-Swedish modernists realism Aztec poetry. See INDIGENOUS
Fireside poets rederijkers AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE
Flarf Renaissance poetics Basque Country, poetry of the
fleshly school of poetry Renaissance poetry Belarus, poetry of. See RUSSIA, POETRY OF
Fugitives rhétoriqueurs, grands Belgium, poetry of
futurism Rhymers’ Club Bengali poetry
Fyrtiotalisterna rococo Bhakti poetry. See INDIA, POETRY OF
gay poetry romantic and postromantic poetry Bolivia, poetry of
Georgianism and poetics Bosnian poetry
graveyard poetry romanticism Brazil, poetry of
Harlem Renaissance Russian formalism Breton poetry
Hellenistic poetics. See San Francisco Renaissance Bulgaria, poetry of
ALEXANDRIANISM; CLASSICAL POETICS Satanic school Byzantine poetry
Hellenistic poetry. See GREEK POETRY school of Spenser Cambodia, poetry of
hip-hop poetics Scottish Chaucerians or Makars Canada, poetry of
 NATIONAL, REGIONAL, AND DIASPORIC POETRIES xxi

Caribbean, poetry of the Iceland, poetry of Nahuatl, poetry of. See INDIGENOUS
Catalan poetry Inca poetry. See INDIGENOUS AMERICAS, AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE
Celtic prosody POETRY OF THE Native American poetry. See
Chicana/o poetry India, English poetry of INDIGENOUS AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE;
Chile, poetry of India, poetry of INUIT POETRY; NAVAJO POETRY
China, modern poetry of Indian prosody Navajo poetry
China, poetry of indigenous Americas, poetry of the Nepāl Bhās.a. See NEWAR POETRY
China, popular poetry of Indonesian poetry Nepali and Pahari poetry
Chinese poetic drama Inuit poetry Netherlands, poetry of the. See LOW
Chinese poetics Iranian poetry. See PERSIAN POETRY COUNTRIES, POETRY OF THE
Chinese poetry in English translation Ireland, poetry of Newar poetry
Chinese poetry in Japan Italian prosody New Norse (Nynorsk)
Colombia, poetry of Italy, poetry of New Zealand, poetry of
Cornish poetry Japan, modern poetry of Nicaragua, poetry of
Croatian poetry Japan, poetry of Norse poetry
Cuba, poetry of. See CARIBBEAN, Japanese linked verse. See RENGA Norway, poetry of
POETRY OF THE Japanese poetic diaries Nuyorican poetry
Czech poetry Japanese poetics Occitan poetry
Danish poetry. See DENMARK, Java, poetry of. See INDONESIAN POETRY Oriya poetry
POETRY OF Judeo-Spanish poetry Persian poetry
Denmark, poetry of Kannada poetry Peru, poetry of
Dutch poetry. See LOW COUNTRIES, Kashmiri poetry Philippines, poetry of the
POETRY OF THE Korea, poetry of Poland, poetry of
Ecuador, poetry of Ladino poetry. See JUDEO-SPANISH Polynesian poetry
Egypt, poetry of POETRY Portugal, poetry of
El Salvador, poetry of Latin America, poetry of. See Prakrit poetry
England, poetry of ARGENTINA, POETRY OF; BOLIVIA, POETRY Provençal poetry. See OCCITAN POETRY
English prosody OF; BRAZIL, POETRY OF; CHILE, POETRY Puerto Rico, poetry of. See CARIBBEAN,
Esperanto poetry OF; COLOMBIA, POETRY OF; ECUADOR, POETRY OF THE
Estonia, poetry of POETRY OF; EL SALVADOR, POETRY OF; Punjabi poetry
Ethiopia, poetry of GAUCHO POETRY; GUARANÍ POETRY; Rāmāyana. poetry
Finland, poetry of GUATEMALA, POETRY OF; INDIGENOUS Romania, poetry of
Flemish poetry. See LOW COUNTRIES, AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE; MAPUCHE Romani poetry
POETRY OF THE POETRY; MEXICO, POETRY OF; NICARAGUA, Romansh poetry. See SWITZERLAND,
France, poetry of POETRY OF; PERU, POETRY OF; SPANISH POETRY OF
francophone poets of the U.S. AMERICA, POETRY OF; URUGUAY, POETRY Russia, poetry of
French poetry. See FRANCE, POETRY OF OF; VENEZUELA, POETRY OF Sanskrit poetics
French prosody Latin poetics. See CLASSICAL POETICS; Sanskrit poetry
Frisian poetry CLASSICISM; MEDIEVAL POETICS Scotland, poetry of
Gaelic poetry. See IRELAND, POETRY OF; Latin poetry Scottish Gaelic poetry. See SCOTLAND,
SCOTLAND, POETRY OF Latin prosody. See CLASSICAL PROSODY POETRY OF
Galicia, poetry of Latvia, poetry of Sephardic poetry. See JUDEO-SPANISH
Georgia, poetry of Lithuania, poetry of POETRY
Germanic prosody Low Countries, poetry of the Serbian poetry
German poetry Macedonian poetry Siamese poetry. See THAILAND, POETRY
Greek poetics. See ALEXANDRIANISM; Magyar poetry. See HUNGARY, POETRY OF
BYZANTINE POETRY; CLASSICAL POETICS OF Sindhi poetry. See INDIA, POETRY OF
Greek poetry Malayalam poetry Sinhalese poetry. See SRI LANKA,
Guaraní poetry Malay poetry POETRY OF
Guatemala, poetry of Maori poetry. See NEW ZEALAND, Slavic poetics. See BOSNIAN POETRY;
Gujarati poetry POETRY OF CROATIAN POETRY; CZECH POETRY;
Gypsy poetry. See ROMANI POETRY Mapuche poetry POLAND, POETRY OF; RUSSIA, POETRY OF;
Haiti, poetry of. See CARIBBEAN, POETRY Marathi poetry SERBIAN POETRY; SLOVENIAN POETRY
OF THE Mayan poetry. See INDIGENOUS Slovakia, poetry of
Hausa poetry AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE Slovenian poetry
Hebrew poetry Mesoamerica, poetry of. See Somali poetry
Hebrew prosody and poetics INDIGENOUS AMERICAS, POETRY OF THE South Africa, poetry of
Hindi poetry Mexican American poetry. See South America, poetry of. See
Hispano-Arabic poetry. See CHICANA/O POETRY ARGENTINA, POETRY OF; BOLIVIA, POETRY
AL-ANDALUS, POETRY OF Mexico, poetry of OF; BRAZIL, POETRY OF; CHILE, POETRY
Hittite poetry Mongolia, poetry of OF; COLOMBIA, POETRY OF; ECUADOR,
Hungary, poetry of Mozarabic poetry. See SPAIN, POETRY OF POETRY OF; GAUCHO POETRY; GUARANÍ
xxii TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES

POETRY; INDIGENOUS AMERICAS, POETRY Vedic poetry. See INDIA, POETRY OF history and poetry
OF THE; MAPUCHE POETRY; PERU, POETRY Venezuela, poetry of information, poetry as
OF; URUGUAY, POETRY OF; VENEZUELA, Vietnam, poetry of knowledge, poetry as
POETRY OF Welsh poetry linguistics and poetics
Spain, poetry of Welsh prosody. See CELTIC PROSODY music and poetry
Spanish America, poetry of West Indian poetry. See CARIBBEAN, novel, poetry in the
Spanish prosody POETRY OF THE painting and poetry
Sri Lanka, poetry of Xhosa poetry philosophy and poetry
Sumerian poetry Yiddish poetry poetry therapy. See THERAPY
Swahili poetry Yoruba poetry. See AFRICA, POETRY OF AND POETRY
Sweden, poetry of Zulu poetry politics and poetry
Switzerland, poetry of psychology and poetry
Tamil poetry and poetics Poetry in Culture and Society religion and poetry
Telugu poetry anthropology and poetry rhetoric and poetry
Thailand, poetry of artifact, poetry as science and poetry
Tibet, contemporary poetry of belief and poetry semantics and poetry
Tibet, traditional poetry and biography and poetry semiotics and poetry
poetics of cultural studies and poetry syntax, poetic
Turkic poetry dance and poetry technology and poetry
Turkish poetry documentary poetics therapy and poetry
Ukraine, poetry of environment and poetry visual arts and poetry. See CARMINA
United States, poetry of the feminist approaches to poetry FIGURATA; CONCRETE POETRY; EKPHRASIS;
Urdu poetry fiction, poetry as PAINTING AND POETRY; UT PICTURA
Uruguay, poetry of gender and poetry POESIS; VISUAL POETRY
Bibliographical Abbreviations

Abrams M. H. Abrams, The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic CHEL Cambridge History of English Literature, ed. A. W. Ward
Theory and the Critical Tradition,  and A. R. Waller,  v., –
AION-SL Annali dell’Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli: CHLC Cambridge History of Literary Criticism,  v., –
sezione filologico-letteraria 
AJP American Journal of Philology Chomsky and Halle N. Chomsky and M. Halle, The Sound
AJS American Journal of Semiotics Pattern of English, 
AL American Literature CJ Classical Journal
Allen W. S. Allen, Accent and Rhythm,  CL Comparative Literature
Analecta hymnica Analecta hymnica medii aevi, ed. G. M. CML Classical and Modern Literature
Dreves, C. Blume, and H. M. Bannister,  v., – Corbett E.P.J. Corbett, Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Stu-
Attridge, Poetic Rhythm D. Attridge, Poetic Rhythm: An dent, d ed., 
Introduction,  CP Classical Philology
Attridge, Rhythms D. Attridge, The Rhythms of English Po- CQ Classical Quarterly
etry,  Crane Critics and Criticism, Ancient and Modern, ed. R. S.
Auerbach E. Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality Crane, 
in Western Literature, trans. W. R. Trask,  CritI Critical Inquiry
Crusius F. Crusius, Römische Metrik: ein Einführung, th ed.,
Beare W. Beare, Latin Verse and European Song,  rev. H. Rubenbauer, 
Bec P. Bec, La Lyrique Française au moyen âge (XIIe–XIIIe Culler J. Culler, Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics,
siècles): Contribution à une typologie des genres poétiques and the Study of Literature, 
médiévaux,  v., – Cureton R. D. Cureton, Rhythmic Phrasing in English Verse,
Benjamin W. Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of 
Mechanical Reproduction,” Illuminations, trans. H. Zohn, Curtius E. Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle
 Ages, trans. W. R. Trask, 
BGDSL (H) Beiträge zur Geschichte de deutschen Sprache und CW Classical World
Literatur (Halle)
BGDSL (T) Beiträge zur Geschichte de deutschen Sprache und
DAI Dissertation Abstracts International
Literatur (Tübingen)
Dale A. M. Dale, The Lyric Meters of Greek Drama, d ed.,
BHS Bulletin of Hispanic Studies

BJA British Journal of Aesthetics
DDJ Deutsches Dante-Jahrbuch
Bowra C. M. Bowra, Greek Lyric Poetry from Alcman to Simon-
de Man P. de Man, Blindness and Insight: Essays in the Rheto-
ides, d ed., 
ric of Contemporary Criticism, d ed., 
Bridges R. Bridges, Milton’s Prosody, rev. ed., 
Derrida J. Derrida, Of Grammatology, trans. G. C. Spivak,
Brogan T.V.F. Brogan, English Versification, –: A
d ed., 
Reference Guide with a Global Appendix, 
DHI Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. P. P. Weiner,  v.,
Brooks C. Brooks, The Well Wrought Urn, 
–
Brooks and Warren C. Brooks and W. P. Warren, Under-
Dronke P. Dronke, Medieval Latin and the Rise of European
standing Poetry, d ed., 
Love Lyric, d ed.,  v., 
Duffell M. J. Duffell, A New History of English Metre, 
Carper and Attridge T. Carper and D. Attridge, Meter and
Meaning: An Introduction to Rhythm, 
CBEL Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, ed. F. E&S Essays and Studies of the English Association
W. Bateson,  v., ; v. , Supplement, ed. G. Watson, ELH ELH (formerly English Literary History)
 Eliot, Essays T. S. Eliot, Selected Essays, rev. ed., 
CBFL A Critical Bibliography of French Literature, gen. ed. D. Elwert W. T. Elwert, Französische Metrik, th ed., 
C. Cabeen and R. A. Brooks,  v., – Elwert, Italienische W. T. Elwert, Italienische Metrik, d ed.,
CE College English 
Chambers F. M. Chambers, An Introduction to Old Provençal Empson W. Empson, Seven Types of Ambiguity, d ed., 
Versification,  ENLL English Language and Linguistics
Chatman S. Chatman, A Theory of Meter, 
CHCL Cambridge History of Classical Literature, v. , Greek Fabb et al. N. Fabb, D. Atridge, A. Durant, and C.
Literature, ed. P. E. Easterling and B.M.W. Knox, ; MacCabe, The Linguistics of Writing, 
v. , Latin Literature, ed. E. J. Kenney and W. V. Clausen, Faral E. Faral, Les arts poétique du XIIe et du XIIIe siècles,
 

xxiii
xxiv BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

Finch and Varnes An Exaltation of Forms: Contemporary Keil Grammatici Latini, ed. H. Keil,  v., –; v. , Anec-
Poets Celebrate the Diversity of Their Art, ed. A. Finch and dota helvitica: Supplementum, ed. H. Hagen, 
K. Varnes,  Koster W.J.W. Koster, Traité de métrique greque suivi d'un
Fish S. Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of In- précis de métrique latine, th ed., 
terpretive Communities,  KSMB Keats-Shelley Journal
Fisher The Medieval Literature of Western Europe: A KR Kenyon Review
Review of Research, Mainly –, ed. J. H. Fisher,
 L&S Language and Speech
FMLS Forum for Modern Language Studies Lang Language
Fontanier P. Fontanier, Les figures du discourse,  Lang&S Language and Style
Fowler A. Fowler, Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Lanham R. A. Lanham, A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms, d
Theory of Genres and Modes,  ed., 
Frye N. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays,  Lausberg H. Lausberg, Handbook of Literary Rhetoric: A
FS French Studies Foundation for Literary Study, trans. M. T. Bliss, A. Jansen,
and D. E. Orton, 
Gasparov M. L. Gasparov, Sovremennyj russkij stix: Metrika Le Gentil P. Le Gentil, La Poésie lyrique espagnole et portugaise
i ritmika,  à la fin du moyen âge,  v., –
Gasparov, History M. L. Gasparov, A History of European Lewis C. S. Lewis, The Allegory of Love, 
Versification, trans. G. S. Smith and M. Tarlinskaja,  LingI Linguistic Inquiry
GRLMA Grundriss der romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters, Lord A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales, d ed., 
ed. H. R. Jauss and E. Köhler,  v., – Lote G. Lote, Histoire du vers française,  v., 
Group μ Group μ (J. Dubois, F. Edeline, J.-M. Klinkenberg, M&H Medievalia et Humanistica: Studies in Medieval and Re-
P. Minguet, F. Pire, H. Trinon), A General Rhetoric, trans. naissance Culture
P. B. Burrell and E. M. Slotkin,  Maas P. Maas, Greek Metre, trans. H. Lloyd-Jones, d ed., 
Manitius M. Manitius, Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur
Halporn et al. J. W. Halporn, M. Ostwald, and T. G. Rosen- des Mittelalters,  v., –
meyer, The Meters of Greek and Latin Poetry, d ed.,  Mazaleyrat J. Mazaleyrat, Éléments de métrique française, d
Hardie W. R. Hardie, Res Metrica,  ed., 
HJAS Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies Meyer W. Meyer, Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur mittelatein-
Hollander J. Hollander, Vision and Resonance: Two Senses of ischen Rhythmik,  v., –
Poetic Form, d ed.,  MGG Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart: Allegemeine En-
Hollier A New History of French Literature, ed. D. Hollier, zyklopaedia der Musik, ed. F. Blume,  v., –
 MGH Monumenta germaniae historica
HQ Hopkins Quarterly MHRA Modern Humanities Research Association
HR Hispanic Review Michaelides S. Michaelides, The Music of Ancient Greece: An
HudR Hudson Review Encyclopaedia, 
MidwestQ Midwest Quarterly
ICPhS International Congress of Phonetic Sciences (journal) Migne, PG Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca, ed. J. P.
IJCT International Journal of Classical Tradition Migne,  v., –
Migne, PL Patrologiae cursus completus, series latina, ed. J. P.
JAAC Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism Migne,  v., –
JAC JAC: A Journal of Rhetoric, Culture, and Politics Miner et al. E. Miner, H. Odagiri, and R. E. Morrell, The
JAF Journal of American Folklore Princeton Companion to Classical Japanese Literature, 
Jakobson R. Jakobson, Selected Writings,  v., – MLN Modern Language Notes
Jakobson and Halle R. Jakobson and M. Halle, Fundamen- MLQ Modern Language Quarterly
tals of Language,  MLQ (London) Modern Language Quarterly (London)
JAOS Journal of American Oriental Society MLR Modern Language Review
Jarman and Hughes A Guide to Welsh Literature, ed. A. O. Morier H. Morier, Dictionnaire de poétique et de rhétorique,
H. Jarman and G. R. Hughes,  v., – th ed., rev. and exp., 
Jeanroy A. Jeanroy, La Poésie lyrique des Troubadours,  v.,  Morris-Jones J. Morris-Jones, Cerdd Dafod, , rpt. with
Jeanroy, Origines A. Jeanroy, Les origines de la poésie lyrique index, 
en France au moyen âge, th ed.,  MP Modern Philology
JEGP Journal of English and Germanic Philology Murphy J. J. Murphy, Rhetoric in the Middle Ages: A History of
JFLS Journal of French Language Studies Rhetorical Theory from St. Augustine to the Renaissance, 
JHS Journal of Hellenic Studies
JL Journal of Linguistics N&Q Notes & Queries
Jour. P. Society Journal of Polynesian Society Navarro T. Navarro, Métrica española: Reseña histórica y de-
JPhon Journal of Phonetics scriptiva, th ed., 
NER/BLQ New England Review / Bread Loaf Quarterly
Kastner L. E. Kastner, A History of French Versification, New CBEL New Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature,
 ed. G. Watson and I. R. Willison,  v., –
 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS xxv

New Grove New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Richards I. A. Richards, Principles of Literary Criticism, 
S. Sadie,  v.,  RLC Revue de littérature compareé
Nienhauser et al. W. H. Nienhauser, Jr., C. Hartman, Y. RPh Romance Philology
W. Ma, and S. H. West, The Indiana Companion to Tradi- RQ Renaissance Quarterly
tional Chinese Literature,  RR Romanic Review
NLH New Literary History
NM Neuphilologische Mitteilungen (Bulletin of the Modern SAC Studies in the Age of Chaucer
Language Society) Saintsbury, Prose G. Saintsbury, A History of English Prose
Norberg D. Norberg, Introduction a l’étude de la versification Rhythm, 
latine médiévale,  Saintsbury, Prosody G. Saintsbury, A History of English
Norden E. Norden, Die antike Kunstprosa, th ed.,  v., Prosody, from the Twelfth Century to the Present Day, d
 ed.,  v., 
Saisselin R. G. Saisselin, The Rule of Reason and the Ruses of
OED Oxford English Dictionary the Heart: A Philosophical Dictionary of Classical French
OL Orbis Litterarum: International Review of Literary Studies Criticism, Critics, and Aesthetic Issues, 
Olson C. Olson, “Projective Verse,” Collected Prose, ed. D. Sayce O. Sayce, The Medieval German Lyric, –: The
Allen and B. Friedlander,  Development of Its Themes and Forms in Their European
Omond T. S. Omond, English Metrists,  Context, 
Scherr B. P. Scherr, Russian Poetry: Meter, Rhythm, and
P&R Philosophy and Rhetoric Rhyme, 
Parry M. Parry, The Making of Homeric Verse, ed. A. Parry, Schipper J. M. Schipper, Englische Metrik,  v., –
 Schipper, History J. M. Schipper, A History of English Versi-
Parry, History T. Parry, A History of Welsh Literature, trans. fication, 
H. I. Bell,  Schmid and Stählin W. Schmid and O. Stählin, Geschichte
Patterson W. F. Patterson, Three Centuries of French Poetic der griechischen Literatur,  v., –
Theory: A Critical History of the Chief Arts of Poetry in Scott C. Scott, French Verse-Art: A Study, 
France (–),  v.,  Sebeok Style in Language, ed. T. Sebeok, 
Pauly-Wissowa Paulys Realencyclopädie der classischen Al- SEL Studies in English Literature –
terumswissenschaft, ed. A. Pauly, G. Wissowa, W. Kroll, ShQ Shakespeare Quarterly
and K. Mittelhaus,  v. (A–Q),  v. (R–Z, Series ), and Sievers E. Sievers, Altergermanische Metrik, 
 v. (Supplements), – SIR Studies in Romanticism
PBA Proceedings of the British Academy Smith Elizabethan Critical Essays, ed. G. G. Smith,  v.,
Pearsall D. Pearsall, Old English and Middle English Poetry, 
 Snell B. Snell, Griechesche Metrik, th ed., 
PMLA Publications of the Modern Language Association of SP Studies in Philology
America Spongano R. Spongano, Nozioni ed esempi di metric itali-
PoT Poetics Today ana, d ed., 
PQ Philological Quarterly SR Sewanee Review
PsychologR Psychological Review Stephens The Oxford Companion to the Literature of Wales,
Puttenham G. Puttenham, The Arte of English Poesie, ed. M. Stephens, 
ed. F. Whigham and W. A. Rebhorn, 
TAPA Transactions of the American Philological Association
QJS Quarterly Journal of Speech Tarlinskaja M. Tarlinskaja, English Verse: Theory and History,

Raby, Christian F.J.E. Raby, A History of Christian-Latin Terras Handbook of Russian Literature, ed. V. Terras, 
Poetry From the Beginnings to the Close of the Middle Ages, Thieme H. P. Thieme, Essai sur l’histoire du vers française, 
d ed.,  Thompson J. Thompson, The Founding of English Metre, d
Raby, Secular F.J.E. Raby, A History of Secular Latin Poetry ed., 
in the Middle Ages, d ed.,  v.,  Trypanis C. A. Trypanis, Greek Poetry from Homer to Seferis, 
Ransom Selected Essays of John Crowe Ransom, ed. T. D. TPS Transactions of the Philological Society
Young and J. Hindle,  TSL Tennessee Studies in Literature
Reallexikon I Reallexikon der deutschen Literaturgeschichte, st TSLL Texas Studies in Literature and Language
ed., ed. P. Merker and W. Stammler,  v., –
Reallexikon II Reallexikon der deutschen Literaturgeschichte, Vickers B. Vickers, Classical Rhetoric in English
d ed., ed. W. Kohlschmidt and W. Mohr (v. –), K. Poetry, d ed., 
Kanzog and A. Masser (v. ), – Vickers, Defence B. Vickers, In Defence of Rhetoric, 
Reallexikon III Reallexikon der deutschen Literaturwissenschaft, VP Victorian Poetry
d ed, ed. H. Fricke, K. Frubmüller, J.-D. Müller, and K. VQR Virginia Quarterly Review
Weimar,  v., –
REL Review of English Literature Weinberg B. Weinberg, A History of Literary Criticism in the
RES Review of English Studies Italian Renaissance,  v., 
xxvi BIBLIOGRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS

Wellek R. Wellek, A History of Modern Criticism, –, Wimsatt and Beardsley W. K. Wimsatt and M. C.
 v., – Beardsley, “The Concept of Meter: An Exercise in Ab-
Wellek and Warren R. Wellek and A. Warren, Theory of Lit- straction,” PMLA  (); rpt. in Hateful Contraries,
erature, d ed.,  W. K. Wimsatt, 
Welsh A. Welsh, Roots of Lyric,  Wimsatt and Brooks W. K. Wimsatt and C. Brooks, Literary
West M. L. West, Greek Metre,  Criticism: A Short History, 
WHB Wiener Humanistische Blätter
YFS Yale French Studies
Wilamowitz U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Griechesche
YLS Yearbook of Langland Studies
Verkunst, 
Wilkins E. H. Wilkins, A History of Italian Literature, rev. ZCP Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie
T. G. Bergin,  ZDA Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum
Williams and Ford J.E.C. Williams and P. K. Ford, The Irish ZFSL Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und
Literary Tradition,  Literatur
Wimsatt Versification: Major Language Types, ed. W. K. Wim- ZRP Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie
satt,  ZVS Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung
General Abbreviations

The abbreviations below are used throughout the volume to conserve space. General abbreviations may also show plural
forms, e.g., “cs.” for “centuries.”

Af. African jour./jours. journal

Af. Am. African American
Am. American lang./langs. language
anthol. anthology Lat. Latin
Ar. Arabic ling. linguistics, linguistic
Assoc. Association lit./lits. literature
lit. crit. literary criticism
b. born lit. hist. literary history
bibl. bibliography
Brit. British ME Middle English
med. medieval
c./cs. century MHG Middle High German
ca. circa, about mod. modern
cf. confer, compare ms./mss. manuscript
ch. chapter
cl. classical NT New Testament
contemp. contemporary
crit. criticism OE Old English
OF Old French
d. died OHG Old High German
devel./devels. development ON Old Norse
dict. dictionary OT Old Testament
diss. dissertation
p./pp. page
ed./eds. edition, editor, edited by pl. plural
e.g. exempla gratia, for example Port. Portuguese
Eng. English postmod. postmodern
esp. especially premod. premodern
et al. et alii, and others pseud. pseudonym
Eur. European pub. published

r. reigned
ff. following
Ren. Renaissance
fl. floruit, flourished
rev. revised
Fr. French
Rev. Review
rhet./rhets. rhetoric
Ger. German
rpt. reprinted
Gr. Greek
Rus. Russian
Heb. Hebrew sing. singular
hist./hists. history Sp. Spanish
supp. supplement(ed)
IE Indo-Euopean
i.e. id est, that is temp. temporary
incl. including trad./trads. tradition
intro./intros. introduction trans. translation, translated
Ir. Irish
It. Italian v. volume(s)

xxvii
Contributors

This list includes all contributors credited in this edition of the encyclopedia, including some whose articles from the
previous edition have been updated by the editors or other contributors. Those with names preceded by a dagger (†)
are deceased.

Gémino H. Abad, English (emeritus), University of the Guinn Batten, English, Washington University in Saint
Philippines Louis
Hazard Adams, English and Comparative Literature Gary Beckman, Hittite and Mesopotamian Studies,
(emeritus), University of Washington University of Michigan
†Percy G. Adams, English, University of Tennessee †Ernst H. Behler, Germanics and Comparative Literature,
Cécile Alduy, French, Stanford University University of Washington
†Fernando Alegría, Spanish and Portuguese, Stanford Margaret H. Beissinger, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
University Princeton University
Joseph Allen, Asian Languages and Literatures, University Esther G. Belin, Writing, Fort Lewis College
of Minnesota Alexandra G. Bennett, English, Northern Illinois University
Roger M. A. Allen, Arabic Languages and Literatures Sandra L. Bermann, Comparative Literature, Princeton
(emeritus), University of Pennsylvania University
Robert Alter, Hebrew and Comparative Literature, Charles Bernstein, English, University of Pennsylvania
University of California, Berkeley Eleanor Berry, independent scholar
Charles Altieri, English, University of California, Berkeley †Jess B. Bessinger, English, New York University
Hélio J. S. Alves, Portuguese and Comparative Literature, Krzysztof Biedrzycki, Polish Literature, Jagiellonian
University of Evora University
Walter Andrews, Ottoman and Turkish Literature, Stanley S. Bill, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
University of Washington Northwestern University
†Robert P. apRoberts, English, California State University, Lloyd Bishop, French (emeritus), Virginia Polytechnic
Northridge Institute and State University
Francesco Marco Aresu, Italian, Stanford University Jenny Björklund, Center for Gender Research, Uppsala
Samuel G. Armistead, Spanish (emeritus), University of University
California, Davis Josiah Blackmore, Spanish and Portuguese, University of
†John Arthos, English, University of Michigan Toronto
Robert Ashmore, East Asian Languages and Cultures, Kirstie Blair, English Literature, University of Glasgow
University of California, Berkeley C. D. Blanton, English, University of California, Berkeley
Paul S. Atkins, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Mutlu Konuk Blasing, English, Brown University
Washington †Morton W. Bloomfield, English, Harvard University
†Stuart Atkins, German and Comparative Literature, Frederick L. Blumberg, Comparative Literature, Stanford
University of California, Santa Barbara University
Derek Attridge, English and Related Literature, University Lev Blumenfeld, Linguistics, Carleton University
of York Fredric Bogel, English, Cornell University
Harry Aveling, Asian Studies, La Trobe University Willard Bohn, Foreign Languages (emeritus), Illinois State
Jan Baetens, Cultural Studies, University of Leuven University
Timothy Bahti, German and Comparative Literature Roy C. Boland, Spanish and Latin American Studies,
(emeritus), University of Michigan University of Sydney
James O. Bailey, Slavic Languages and Literature (emeritus), Annika Bostelmann, German, Institute of Rostock
University of Wisconsin– Madison Enric Bou, Linguistics and Comparative Cultures, Ca’Foscari
Peter S. Baker, English, University of Virginia University of Venice
Henryk Baran, Slavic Studies, University at Albany, State Betsy Bowden, English, Rutgers University, Camden
University of New York Claire Bowen, English, Dickinson College
Alessandro Barchiesi, Classics, Stanford University Katherine Bowers, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
Vincent Barletta, Iberian and Latin American Cultures, Northwestern University
Stanford University Matthieu Boyd, Literature, Fairleigh Dickinson University
Jeffrey Barnouw, English (emeritus), University of Texas Jeremy Braddock, English, Cornell University
Henry J. Baron, English, Calvin College Gordon Braden, English, University of Virginia
Mark Barr, English, St. Mary’s University Anthony Bradley, English (emeritus), University of Vermont
Shadi Bartsch, Classics, University of Chicago Ross Brann, Near Eastern Studies, Cornell University
Catherine Bates, English and Comparative Literature, Laurence A. Breiner, English, Boston University
University of Warwick Karen Britland, English, University of Wisconsin–Madison

xxviii
 CONTRIBUTORS xxix

Claudia Brodsky, Comparative Literature, Princeton Odile Cisneros, Spanish, Portuguese, and Latin American
University Studies, University of Alberta
Jacqueline Vaught Brogan, English, University of Notre Michael P. Clark, English, University of California, Irvine
Dame †Dorothy Clotelle Clarke, Spanish and Portuguese,
†T.V.F. Brogan, independent scholar University of California, Berkeley
Yigal Bronner, South Asian Languages and Civilizations, Albrecht Classen, German Studies, University of Arizona
University of Chicago Michelle Clayton, Comparative Literature, Spanish and
Gordon Brotherston, Languages, Linguistics, and Cultures, Portuguese, University of California, Los Angeles
University of Manchester Katharine Cleland, English, Pennsylvania State University
Kristina Vise Browder, English, Troy University James M. Cocola, English, Worcester Polytechnic Institute
Catherine Brown, Spanish, University of Michigan Michael C. Cohen, English, University of California, Los
†Huntington Brown, English, University of Minnesota Angeles
Katherine A. Brown, French, Skidmore College Ann Baynes Coiro, English, Rutgers University
†Merle E. Brown, English, University of Iowa A. Thomas Cole, English (emeritus), Yale University
†Juan Bruce-Novoa, Spanish and Portuguese, University of Claire Colebrook, English, Pennsylvania State University
California, Irvine Stephen Collis, English, Simon Fraser University
Benjamin Bruch, Celtic Languages and Literature, Celtic Gregory G. Colomb, English, University of Virginia
Institute of North America David A. Colón, English, Texas Christian University
Matilda Tomaryn Bruckner, French, Boston College Anne E. Commons, East Asian Studies, University of Alberta
Horst Brunner, German Philology, University of J. E. Congleton, Humanities and Sciences (emeritus),
Wuerzburg University of Findlay
Gerald L. Bruns, English (emeritus), University of Notre Eleanor Cook, English (emerita), University of Toronto
Dame †Robert Cook, English, University of Iceland
Patrick Buckridge, Humanities, Griffith University G. Burns Cooper, English, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
Sidney Burris, English, University of Arkansas Rita Copeland, Classical Studies, English and Comparative
John Burt, English, Brandeis University Literature, University of Pennsylvania
Stephen Burt, English, Harvard University Ian D. Copestake, British Culture, University of Bamberg
Christopher Bush, French and Comparative Literary François Cornilliat, French, Rutgers University
Studies, Northwestern University †Procope S. Costas, Classical Studies, Brooklyn College,
Michel Byrne, Celtic and Gaelic, University of Glasgow City University of New York
Lorraine Byrne Bodley, Music, National University of Bonnie Costello, English, Boston University
Ireland, Maynooth †Ronald S. Crane, English Language and Literature,
Thomas Cable, English (emeritus), University of Texas University of Chicago
Kolter M. Campbell, Slavic Languages and Literatures, Johaina Crisostomo, independent scholar
Northwestern University Holly Crocker, English Language and Literature, University
Marta Ortiz Canseco, Philology, University of Alcalá of South Carolina
David Caplan, English, Ohio Wesleyan University Jennifer Croft, Comparative Literary Studies, Northwestern
Thomas Carper, English (emeritus), University of Southern University
Maine Joanna Crow, School of Modern Languages, Bristol
Antonio Carreño, Hispanic Studies, Brown University University
Meredith Walker Castile, English, Stanford University Cheryl A. Crowley, Russian and East Asian Languages and
Clare Cavanagh, Slavic Languages and Literatures, Cultures, Emory University
Northwestern University Isagani R. Cruz, Literature and Philippine Languages
Max Cavitch, English, University of Pennsylvania (emeritus), De La Salle University
Mary Ann Caws, Comparative Literature, English, and Jonathan Culler, English, Cornell University
French, Graduate Center, City University of New York Stephen Cushman, English, University of Virginia
Natalia Cecire, Fox Center for Humanistic Inquiry, Emory Maria Damon, English, University of Minnesota
University †Phillip Damon, English and Comparative Literature,
Seeta Chaganti, English, University of California, Davis University of California, Berkeley
†Frank M. Chambers, French, University of Arizona Michael Dash, French, Social and Cultural Analysis, New
Jennifer Chang, English, University of Virginia York University
Kang-i-Sun Chang, East Asian Languages and Literatures, Ian Davidson, English and Comparative Literature,
Yale University Northumbria University
Jack Chen, Asian Languages and Cultures, University of Michael Davidson, English, University of California, San Diego
California, Los Angeles Kathleen Davis, English, University of Rhode Island
Patrick Cheney, English and Comparative Literature, Dirk de Geest, Literary Theory, University of Leiden
Pennsylvania State University Jonathan Decter, Sephardic Studies, Brandeis University
David H. Chisholm, German Studies (emeritus), University Andrew M. Devine, Classics, Stanford University
of Arizona Jeroen Dewulf, German, University of California, Berkeley
Elżbieta Chrzanowska-Kluczewska, English Philology, Vinay Dharwadker, Languages and Cultures of Asia,
Jagiellonian University University of Wisconsin–Madison
xxx CONTRIBUTORS

Thibaut d’Hubert, South Asian Languages and Civilizations, Jordan Finkin, Oriental Studies (Hebrew), University of
University of Chicago College Oxford
Joanne Diaz, English, Illinois Wesleyan University †Harold Fisch, English, Bar-Ilan University
Terence Diggory, English, Skidmore College †Solomon Fishman, English, University of California, Davis
Connor Doak, Slavic Languages and Literatures, †Wolfgang Bernhard Fleischman, Comparative Literature,
Northwestern University Montclair State College
Jeffrey Dolven, English, Princeton University †Robert Harter Fogle, English, University of North
Daniel G. Donaghue, Old English Studies, Harvard Carolina, Chapel Hill
University †Stephen F. Fogle, English, Adelphi Suffolk College
Neil H. Donahue, German and Comparative Literature, †John Miles Foley, Classical Studies, University of Missouri
Hofstra University Stephen Foley, English and Comparative Literature, Brown
Christopher Donaldson, Comparative Literature, Stanford University
University Patrick K. Ford, Celtic Languages and Literatures, Harvard
David F. Dorsey, independent scholar University
Edward Doughtie, English (emeritus), Rice University Benjamin Foster, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations,
Johanna Drucker, Information Studies, University of Yale University
California, Los Angeles Alastair Fowler, Rhetoric and English Literature (emeritus),
Andrew Dubois, English, University of Toronto University of Edinburgh
Heather Dubrow, English, Fordham University Elizabeth Fowler, English, University of Virginia
Martin J. Duffell, Iberian and Latin American Studies, Queen Nicholas Frankel, English, Virginia Commonwealth
Mary, University of London University
Dianne Dugaw, English, University of Oregon Lisa Freinkel, Comparative Literature, University of Oregon
Francois Dumont, Literature, University of Laval Amanda L. French, Center for History and New Media,
†Charles W. Dunn, Celtic Languages and Literatures George Mason University
(emeritus), Harvard University †Bernard J. Fridsma, Germanic Languages (emeritus),
Rachel Blau DuPlessis, English, Temple University Calvin College
Sascha Ebeling, South Asian Languages and Civilizations, Debra Fried, English, Cornell University
University of Chicago Nila Friedberg, Russian, Portland State University
Jonathan P. Eburne, Comparative Literature and English, †Albert B. Friedman, English, Claremont Graduate
Pennsylvania State University University
Robert R. Edwards, English, Pennsylvania State University Norman Friedman, English (emeritus), Queens College,
Sveinn Yngvi Egilsson, Icelandic and Comparative Cultural City University of New York
Studies, University of Iceland Dmitry Frolov, Arabic Philology, Moscow State University
Robert G. Eisenhauer, independent scholar Paul H. Fry, English, Yale University
Helen Regueiro Elam, English, University at Albany, State †Joseph G. Fucilla, Romance Languages, Northwestern
University of New York University
Jonathan Elmer, English, Indiana University Robert Dennis Fulk, English, Indiana University
†Gerald F. Else, Classical Studies, University of Michigan Graham Furniss, Languages and Cultures of Africa,
Robert Elsie, independent scholar University of London
Lori Emerson, English, University of Colorado Thomas Furniss, English, University of Strathclyde
James Engell, English and Comparative Literature, Harvard René Galand, French (emeritus), Wellesley College
University Miguel Ángel Garrido Gallardo, Literary Theory, Spanish
†Alfred Garvin Engstrom, French, University of North National Research Council, Madrid
Carolina, Chapel Hill Marisa Galvez, French, Stanford University
†Alan W. Entwistle, Hindi, University of Washington Linda Garber, Women’s and Gender Studies, Santa Clara
†Alvin A. Eustis, French, University of California, Berkeley University
David Evans, Modern Languages, University of St. Andrews Ariadna García-Bryce, Spanish, Reed College
†Robert O. Evans, English and Comparative Literature Leonardo García-Pabón, Romance Languages, University
(emeritus), University of New Mexico of Oregon
Raphael Falco, English, University of Maryland, Baltimore Thomas Gardner, English, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
County Boris Gasparov, Slavic Languages and Literature, Columbia
Walter Farber, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University
University of Chicago Mary Malcolm Gaylord, Romance Languages and
Ibrahim Fathy, independent scholar Literatures, Harvard University
Harris Feinsod, English, Northwestern University Sophie Gee, English, Princeton University
Frances Ferguson, English, Johns Hopkins University Stephen A. Geller, Bible, Jewish Theological Seminary
Margaret W. Ferguson, English, University of California, Natalie Gerber, English, State University of New York,
Davis Fredonia
Patrick ffrench, French, King’s College London E. Michael Gerli, Spanish, University of Virginia
Annie Finch, Creative Writing, University of Southern Edwin Gerow, Religion and Humanities (emeritus), Reed
Maine College
 CONTRIBUTORS xxxi

†Robert J. Getty, Classics, University of North Carolina Ernst Haüblein, independent scholar
Denise Gigante, English, Stanford University Edward R. Haymes, German, Cleveland State University
Brian Glavey, English Language and Literature, University of Kenneth Haynes, Comparative Literature and Classics,
South Carolina Brown University
Leon Golden, Classics (emeritus), Florida State University Gregory Hays, Classics, University of Virginia
Lorrie Goldensohn, independent scholar Wade Heaton, English, Southeastern Louisiana University
Alan Golding, English, University of Louisville Ulf Hedetoft, Nationality and Migration Studies, University
Robert P. Goldman, South and Southeast Asian Studies, of Copenhagen
University of California, Berkeley Wolfhart Heinrichs, Arabic, Harvard University
†Ulrich K. Goldsmith, German, University of Colorado Ursula K. Heise, English, Stanford University
David Goldstein, English, York University Gustav Heldt, East Asian Languages, Literatures, and
Kevis Goodman, English, University of California, Berkeley Cultures, University of Virginia
Sverker Göransson, Literature, University of Gothenburg James S. Helgeson, French and Francophone Studies,
†Lewis H. Gordon, Italian and French, Brown University University of Nottingham
Rüdiger Görner, Germanic Studies, Queen Mary, University Benjamin A. Heller, Spanish, University of Notre Dame
of London Sarah-Grace Heller, French, Ohio State University
Stathis Gourgouris, Classics, Columbia University Elizabeth K. Helsinger, Art History, University of Chicago
George G. Grabowicz, Ukranian Literature, Harvard Omaar Hena, English, Wake Forest University
University †Stephen E. Henderson, Afro-American Studies and
Kenneth J. E. Graham, English Language and Literature, English, Howard University
University of Waterloo †C. John Herington, Classics, Yale University
Phyllis Granoff, Religious Studies, Yale University Brenda Hillman, English, Saint Mary’s College of California
Erik Gray, English, Columbia University Kenneth Hiltner, English, University of California, Santa
Stephen Gray, independent scholar Barbara
Roland Greene, Comparative Literature, Stanford University Daniel Hoffman, English (emeritus), University of
Edward L. Greenstein, Bible, Bar-Ilan University Pennsylvania
Tobias B. Gregory, English, Catholic University of America Tyler Hoffman, English, Rutgers University, Camden
†Michelle Grimaud, French, Wellesley College Norman N. Holland, English (emeritus), University of
Anne Marie Guglielmo, Comparative Literature, Stanford Florida
University John Holmes, English Language and Literature, University
Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht, Comparative Literature, Stanford of Reading
University †Urban T. Holmes, Romance Languages, University of
Kathryn Gutzwiller, Classics, University of Cincinnati North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Janet Hadda, English (emerita), University of California, Bruce Holsinger, English, University of Virginia
Los Angeles Marianne Hopman, Classics, Northwestern University
†Vernon Hall, Comparative Literature, University of †Roger A. Hornsby, Classics, University of Iowa
Wisconsin–Madison H. Mack Horton, East Asian Languages and Cultures,
Charles Hallisey, Buddhist Literatures, Harvard Divinity School University of California, Berkeley
Stephen Halliwell, Greek, University of St. Andrews Vittorio Hösle, German and Russian Languages and
James W. Halporn, Classical Studies, Indiana University Literatures, University of Notre Dame
†Albert W. Halsall, French, Carleton University Peter Howarth, School of English and Drama, Queen Mary,
Russell G. Hamilton, Portuguese, Brazilian, and Lusophone University of London
African Literatures, Vanderbilt University Laura L. Howes, English, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Hannibal Hamlin, English, Ohio State University Thomas John Hudak, Linguistics, Arizona State University
William L. Hanaway, Near Eastern Languages and Robert Huey, Japanese Literature, University of Hawai‘i,
Civilizations (emeritus), University of Pennsylvania Manoa
Kristin Hanson, English, Universitiy of California, Berkeley Shaun F. D. Hughes, Comparative Literature, Purdue University
†O. B. Hardison, English, Georgetown University Kathryn Hume, Comparative Literature, Stanford University
David Hargreaves, Linguistics, Western Oregon University Jerry Hunter, Welsh, Bangor University
William E. Harkins, Slavic Languages, Columbia University Walter Hunter, English, University of Virginia
William Harmon, English and Comparative Literature Linda Hutcheon, English and Comparative Literature,
(emeritus), University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill University of Toronto
Joseph Harris, English, Harvard University Wilt L. Idema, Chinese Literature, Harvard University
Robert L. Harrison, independent scholar Luis Miguel Isava, Literature, Universidad Simón Bolívar
Henry Hart, English, College of William and Mary Fernando Iturburu, Spanish, State University of New York,
Kevin Hart, Religious Studies, University of Virginia Plattsburgh
Lauran Hartley, Tibetan Studies Librarian, Columbia Linda Ivanits, Russian and Comparative Literature,
University Pennsylvania State University
Charles O. Hartman, English, Connecticut College †Ivar Ivask, Modern Languages, University of Oklahoma
Ruth Harvey, Modern Languages, Literatures, and Cultures, Oren Izenberg, English, University of Illinois, Chicago
Royal Holloway, University of London Virginia Jackson, English, University of California, Irvine
xxxii CONTRIBUTORS

Alessandro Michelangelo Jaker, Linguistics, Stanford Peter Kirkpatrick, English, University of Sydney
University Matthew G. Kirschenbaum, English, University of
Alison James, Romance Languages and Literatures, Maryland
University of Chicago Dodona Kiziria, Slavic Languages and Literatures (emeritus),
Gerald J. Janecek, Russian and Eastern Studies (emeritus), Indiana University
University of Kentucky Conor Klamann, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
Hanna Janiszewska, English, Stanford University Northwestern University
Nicholas Jenkins, English, Stanford University Christopher Kleinhenz, French and Italian, University of
D. B. S. Jeyaraj, independent scholar Wisconsin–Madison
Ramya Chamalie Jirasinghe, independent scholar Peter Kline, English, James Madison University
Christopher Johnson, Comparative Literature, Harvard David Knechtges, Asian Languages and Literature,
University University of Washington
Eleanor Johnson, English and Comparative Literature, Nisha Kommattam, South Asian Languages and
Columbia University Civilizations, University of Chicago
Jeffrey Johnson, English Language and Literature, Daito Alireza Korangy Isfahani, Department of Middle Eastern
Bunka University and South Asian Languages and Cultures, University of
Eileen Tess Johnston, English, United States Naval Virginia
Academy David Kovacs, Classics, University of Virginia
Aled Llion Jones, Department of Celtic Languages and Christina Kramer, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
Literatures, Harvard University University of Toronto
†Charles W. Jones, English, University of California, Berkeley Christopher Krentz, English, University of Virginia
Meta DuEwa Jones, English, University of Texas †Murray Krieger, English, University of California, Irvine
William R. Jones, English and Philosophy, Murray State Theresa Krier, English, Macalester College
University Efraín Kristal, Comparative Literature, University of
Elise Bickford Jorgens, English (emerita), College of California, Los Angeles
Charleston Jelle Krol, Tresoar Friesland Historical and Literary Center
Walter Jost, English, University of Virginia Dean Krouk, Languages and Literatures, St. Olaf College
Cathy L. Jrade, Spanish and Portuguese, Vanderbilt Paul K. Kugler, Inter-regional Society of Jungian Analysis
University Jill Kuhnheim, Spanish and Portuguese, University
Gregory Jusdanis, Greek and Latin, Ohio State University of Kansas
Steven Justice, English, University of California, Berkeley Aaron Kunin, English, Pomona College
Ananya Jahanara Kabir, Humanities, University of Leeds Christoph Küper, English Linguistics, University of Vechta
Andrew Kahn, Russian Literature, University of Oxford Leslie Kurke, Classics and Comparative Literature,
†Sholom J. Kahn, English, Hebrew University of Jerusalem University of California, Berkeley
Rayna Kalas, English, Cornell University William Kuskin, English, University of Colorado
Julie Kane, English, Northwestern State University of David Kutzko, Classics, Western Michigan University
Louisiana Catherine Labio, English, University of Colorado
Paul Kane, English, Vassar College Dov Landau, Hebrew and Comparative Literature, Bar-Ilan
Ruth Kaplan, English, Quinnipiac University University
Matthew T. Kapstein, Philosophy of Religions and History George Lang, French, University of Ottawa
of Religions, University of Chicago Divinity School Susan S. Lanser, English, Brandeis University
Robert Kaufman, Comparative Literature, University of Ilse Laude-Cirtautas, Russian, East European and Central
California, Berkeley Asian Studies, University of Washington
Nanor Kebranian, Armenian Literature, Columbia Marc D. Lauxtermann, Byzantine and Modern Greek
University Language and Literature, University of Oxford
Edmund Keeley, English (emeritus), Princeton University Sarah Lawall, Comparative Literature (emerita), University
Eric Keenaghan, English, University at Albany, State of Massachusetts
University of New York Joseph Lease, Writing and Literature, California College of
Jennifer Keith, English, University of North Carolina, the Arts
Greensboro John Leavitt, Anthropology, University of Montreal
Lynn Keller, English, University of Wisconsin–Madison Meredith Lee, German (emerita), University of California,
William J. Kennedy, Comparative Literature, Cornell Irvine
University Young-Jun Lee, Korean Literature, Kyung Hee University
Dov-Ber Kerler, Jewish Studies, Indiana University Catherine Léglu, Medieval Studies, University of Reading
Martin Kern, East Asian Studies, Princeton University †Ilse Lehiste, Linguistics, Ohio State University
Sachin C. Ketkar, English, Maharaja Sayajrao University of Vincent B. Leitch, English, University of Oklahoma
Baroda Keith D. Leonard, Literature, American University
Arthur F. Kinney, English, University of Massachusetts, Laurence D. Lerner, English, Vanderbilt University
Amherst Rolf Lessenich, English, American, and Celtic Studies
Clare R. Kinney, English, University of Virginia (emeritus), University of Bonn
Gwen Kirkpatrick, Spanish and Portuguese, Georgetown Gayle Levy, French, University of Missouri, Kansas City
University Jennifer Lewin, Writing, Boston University
 CONTRIBUTORS xxxiii

Franklin D. Lewis, Persian Language and Literature, Kevin McFadden, Virginia Foundation for the Humanities
University of Chicago Jerome McGann, English, University of Virginia
Rhiannon Lewis, English, Stanford University Meredith McGill, English, Rutgers University
Tracy K. Lewis, Portuguese, State University of New York, Robin McGrath, independent scholar
Oswego Arvind Krishna Mehrotra, independent scholar
Joel Lidov, Classics, Graduate Center, City University of Julie S. Meisami, Persian, University of Oxford
New York Louis Menand, English, Harvard University
Eva Lilja, Comparative Literature, University of Gothenburg Edward Mendelson, English and Comparative Literature,
Ian K. Lilly, European Languages and Literatures, University Columbia University
of Auckland †Lore Metzger, English, Emory University
John Lindow, Scandinavian, University of California, Talya Meyers, English, Stanford University
Berkeley Leah Middlebrook, Comparative Literature and Spanish,
Ursula Lindqvist, Scandinavian, Harvard University University of Oregon
Lawrence Lipking, English, Northwestern University Peter Middleton, English, University of Southampton
Rene Felix Lissens, Dutch and German Literature †Rigo Mignani, Romance Languages, Binghamton
(emeritus), St. Ignatius University University, State University of New York
Daiva Litvinskaitė, Slavic and Baltic Languages and Laurent Mignon, Turkish, University of Oxford
Literatures, University of Illinois, Chicago Cristianne Miller, English, University at Buffalo, State
Ernesto Livon-Grosman, Hispanic Studies, Boston College University of New York
Ernesto Livorni, Comparative Literature, University of John F. Miller, Classics, University of Virginia
Wisconsin–Madison Tyrus Miller, Literature, University of California, Santa Cruz
†D. Myrddin Lloyd, National Library of Scotland †Earl Miner, English and Comparative Literature, Princeton
Jonathan Loesberg, Literature, American University University
Yelena Lorman, Comparative Literary Studies, Northwestern W. J. T. Mitchell, English and Art History, University of
University Chicago
Paul Losensky, Comparative Literature, Indiana University Ivan Mladenov, Literature, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
Tina Lu, East Asian Languages and Literatures, Yale K. Silem Mohammad, English and Writing, Southern
University Oregon University
†Katharine Luomala, Anthropology, University of Hawai‘i Reidulf K. Molvaer, independent scholar
David B. Lurie, Japanese History and Literature, Columbia Steven Monte, English, College of Staten Island, City
University University of New York
Sverre Lyngstad, English (emeritus), New Jersey Institute of Robert L. Montgomery, English (emeritus), University of
Technology California, Irvine
John MacInnes, School of Scottish Studies (emeritus), Colin H. Moore, Comparative Literature, Stanford University
University of Edinburgh Anna H. More, Spanish and Portuguese, University of
Armando Maggi, Italian Literature, University of Chicago California, Los Angeles
John L. Mahoney, English (emeritus), Boston College Adelaide Morris, English, University of Iowa
Lawrence Manley, English, Yale University Saundra Morris, English, Bucknell University
Jenny C. Mann, English, Cornell University Gary Saul Morson, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
Joshua K. Mann, English, Stanford University Northwestern University
Michael L. Manson, Literature, American University Leith Morton, English, Tokyo Institute of Technology
Abednego M. Maphumulo, Modern and Oral Literature, Ian Frederick Moulton, Interdisciplinary Humanities and
University of Kwa-Zulu Communication, Arizona State University
Kathleen N. March, Spanish, University of Maine Paula M. L. Moya, English, Stanford University
Samuel Mareel, Dutch Literature, Ghent University Jan-Dirk Müller, German Philology, Ludwig Maximilians
David Marno, English, University of California, Berkeley University of Munich
John Henry Marshall, Romance Philology (emeritus), H. Adlai Murdoch, French, University of Illinois, Urbana-
University of London Champaign
Keavy Martin, English, University of Alberta Walton Muyumba, English, University of North Texas
Meredith Martin, English, Princeton University C. M. Naim, South Asian Languages and Civilizations
†Wallace Martin, English, University of Toledo (emeritus), University of Chicago
Timothy J. Materer, English, University of Missouri James Naughton, Czech and Slovak, University of Oxford
Timothy Mathews, French and Comparative Criticism, Sharon Diane Nell, Modern Languages and Literatures,
University College London Loyola University Maryland
Jonathan Mayhew, Spanish and Portuguese, University of Barbara Barney Nelson, Languages and Literature, Sul Ross
Kansas State University
Krystyna Mazur, American Studies, University of Warsaw Virgil P. Nemoianu, English and Philosophy, Catholic
Nicholas F. Mazza, Social Work, Florida State University University of America
Pamela McCallum, English, University of Calgary Carole E. Newlands, Classics, University of Colorado
David R. McCann, Korean Literature, Harvard University J. K. Newman, Classics (emeritus), University of Illinois
Russ McDonald, English and Comparative Literature, Peter Nicholls, English, New York University
Goldsmiths, University of London B. Ashton Nichols, English, Dickinson College
xxxiv CONTRIBUTORS

Jan Krogh Nielsen, Danish, University of Washington Yopie Prins, English, University of Michigan
James Nohrnberg, English, University of Virginia Joseph Pucci, Classics and Comparative Literature, Brown
Carrie Noland, French and Italian, University of California, University
Irvine Marc Quaghebeur, Archives and Museum of Literature,
Barnaby Norman, French, King’s College London Brussels
Michael North, English, University of California, Los William H. Race, Classics, University of North Carolina,
Angeles Chapel Hill
Ranjini Obeyesekere, Anthropology (emerita), Princeton Burton Raffel, English (emeritus), University of Louisiana,
University Lafayette
†Michael Patrick O’Connor, Semitics, Catholic University Jahan Ramazani, English, University of Virginia
of America Esperanza Ramirez-Christensen, Japanese Literature,
Mari Jose Olaziregi, Basque Studies, University of the University of Michigan
Basque Country Virginia Ramos, Comparative Literature, Stanford
Jeff Opland, Languages and Cultures of Africa, University University
of London Arnold Rampersad, English (emeritus), Stanford University
†Ants Oras, English, University of Florida Velcheru Narayana Rao, Languages and Cultures of Asia
Martin Orwin, Somali and Amharic School of Oriental and (emeritus), University of Wisconsin–Madison
African Studies, University of London Suresh Raval, English, University of Arizona
†Richard H. Osberg, English, Santa Clara University Mohit K. Ray, English (emeritus), Bardwan University
Andrew L. Osborn, English, University of Dallas Brian M. Reed, English, University of Washington
Iztok Osojnik, independent scholar †Erica Reiner, Eastern Languages, University of Chicago
Stephen Owen, Comparative Literature, Harvard University Timothy J. Reiss, Comparative Literature (emeritus), New
William D. Paden, French (emeritus), Northwestern York University
University Elizabeth Renker, English, Ohio State University
Kirsten Blythe Painter, independent scholar Eric J. Rettberg, English Language and Literature, University
Lucy B. Palache, independent scholar of Virginia
Anne Paolucci, Council on National Literature Alena Rettová, Swahili Literature and Culture, School of
†Henry Paolucci, Government and Politics (emeritus), St. Oriental and African Studies, University of London
John’s University Maria G. Rewakowicz, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
†Douglass S. Parker, Classics, University of Texas, Austin University of Washington
Walter Ward Parks, independent scholar Eliza Richards, English and Comparative Literature,
James Parsons, Music, Missouri State University University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Deven M. Patel, South Asia Studies, University of Alan Richardson, English, Boston College
Pennsylvania Hallie Smith Richmond, English, University of Virginia
Dipti R. Pattanaik, English, Ravenshaw University Francois Rigolot, French and Italian, Princeton University
Mark Payne, Classics, University of Chicago Tulku Thondup Rinpoche, Buddhayana Foundation
Victoria Pedrick, Classics, Georgetown University Elias L. Rivers, Spanish, Stony Brook University
Stephen Penn, English, University of Stirling Hugh Roberts, English, University of California, Irvine
Jeffrey M. Perl, Humanities, Bar-Ilan University Françoise Robin, independent scholar
Marjorie Perloff, English (emerita), Stanford University Jenefer Robinson, Philosophy, University of Cincinnati
†Laurence Perrine, English, Southern Methodist University Peter Robinson, English Language and Literature,
Charles A. Perrone, Portuguese and Luso-Brazilian Culture University of Reading
and Literatures, University of Florida Emily Rohrbach, English, Northwestern University
Curtis Perry, English, University of Illinois, Chicago Philip Rollinson, English, University of South Carolina
†Erskine A. Peters, English, University of Notre Dame Armando Romero, Romance Languages and Literatures,
Guillaume Peureux, French, University of California, Davis University of Cincinnati
Ineke Phaf-Rheinberger, African Literature and Culture, Susan Rosenbaum, English, University of Georgia
Humboldt University, Berlin Jason Rosenblatt, English, Georgetown University
Chantal Phan, French, University of British Columbia Patricia A. Rosenmeyer, Classics, University of Wisconsin–
Allen W. Phillips, Spanish (emeritus), University of Madison
California, Santa Barbara Sven H. Rossel, Comparative Literature, University of
Natalie Phillips, English, Stanford University Washington
Noam Pines, Comparative Literature, Stanford University David J. Rothman, Creative Writing, Western State College
†Arshi Pipa, Italian and Albanian, University of Minnesota of Colorado
William Bowman Piper, English (emeritus), Rice University Phillip Rothwell, Spanish and Portuguese, Rutgers
Elizabeth W. Poe, French, Tulane University University
Jean-Jacques Poucel, French, Southern Connecticut State Paul Rouzer, Asian Languages and Literatures, University of
University Minnesota
†Alex Preminger, independent scholar Christopher Rovee, English, Stanford University
Jenifer Presto, Comparative Literature and Russian, †Beryl Rowland, English, University of Victoria
University of Oregon David Lee Rubin, French (emeritus), University of Virginia
 CONTRIBUTORS xxxv

Charles Russell, American Studies, Rutgers University, Thomas O. Sloane, Rhetoric (emeritus), University of
Newark California, Berkeley
Elizabeth Sagaser, English, Colby College Edgar Slotkin, English and Comparative Literature,
Ramon Saldivar, English, Stanford University University of Cincinnati
David Salter, English Literature, University of Edinburgh James Smethurst, Afro-American Studies, University of
Graham Sanders, Classical Chinese Literature, University Massachusetts, Amherst
of Toronto Guntis Šmidchens, Scandinavian Studies, University of
Stephanie Sandler, Slavic Languages and Literatures, Washington
Harvard University †A. J. M. Smith, English, Michigan State University
Rosa Sarabia, Spanish and Portuguese, University of Toronto Barbara Herrnstein Smith, Comparative and English
Edith Sarra, East Asian Languages and Cultures, Indiana Literature, Duke University and Brown University
University Ivo Smits, Area Studies (Japan), Leiden University
Haun Saussy, Comparative Literature, University of Chicago Rupert Snell, Asian Studies, University of Texas, Austin
Olive L. Sayce, Modern Languages, University of Oxford Angela Sorby, English, Marquette University
Jennifer Scappettone, English Language and Literature, Tamar Sovran, Hebrew Language, Tel Aviv University
University of Chicago Lisa Russ Spaar, English, University of Virginia
Raymond P. Scheindlin, Medieval Hebrew Literature, Ezra Spicehandler, Hebrew Literature (emeritus), Hebrew
Jewish Theological Seminary Union College
†Bernard N. Schilling, English and Comparative Literature, Willard Spiegelman, English, Southern Methodist
University of Rochester University
Stephanie Schmidt, Iberian and Latin American Cultures, G. Gabrielle Starr, English, New York University
Stanford University Timothy Steele, English, California State University, Los
Michael Schoenfeldt, English, University of Michigan Angeles
Richard Scholar, Modern Languages, University of Oxford Peter Steiner, Slavic Languages and Literatures, University
Stephen Schryer, English, University of New Brunswick of Pennsylvania
Russell G. Schuh, Linguistics, University of California, Los †Martin Steinmann, English, University of Illinois, Chicago
Angeles Laurence D. Stephens, Classics, University of North
Joshua Scodel, English and Comparative Literature, Carolina, Chapel Hill
University of Chicago Malynne Sternstein, Slavic Languages and Literatures,
Clive Scott, European Literature (emeritus), University of University of Chicago
East Anglia Robert S. Stilling, English, University of Virginia
Matthew Scott, English Language and Literature, University Richard P. Sugg, English, Florida International University
of Reading Robert Sullivan, English, University of Hawai‘i
Andrew Seal, American Studies, Yale University Luke Sunderland, French, University of Cambridge
Jacobo Sefami, Spanish and Portuguese, University of Tae-kyung T. E. Sung, English, University of California,
California, Irvine Irvine
†A. Lytton Sells, French and Italian, Indiana University †Roy Arthur Swanson, Classics, University of Wisconsin
Alexander Sens, Classics, Georgetown University Jeffrey S. Sychterz, English, Fayetteville State University
Shafiq Shamel, English, Stanford University Meredith Ramirez Talusan, Comparative Literature,
†Marianne Shapiro, Comparative Literature, Brown Cornell University
University G. Thomas Tanselle, English and Comparative Literature
Robert B. Shaw, English, Mount Holyoke College (emeritus), Columbia University
Vered Karti Shemtov, Hebrew Language and Literature, Bronwen Tate, Comparative Literature, Stanford University
Stanford University Miles Taylor, English, Le Moyne College
Charles P. Shepherdson, English, University at Albany, Frances Teague, English, University of Georgia
State University of New York Gordon Teskey, English and American Literature, Harvard
Anna Shields, Chinese Literature, University of Maryland, University
Baltimore County †Robert Donald Thornton, English, State University of
Rimvydas Silbajoris, Slavic (emeritus), Ohio State New York, New Paltz
University Galin Tihanov, Comparative Literature, Queen Mary,
Juris Silenieks, French (emeritus), Carnegie Mellon University of London
University Francisco Tomsich, independent scholar
†Isidore Silver, Humanities, Washington University in Saint Humphrey Tonkin, Humanities (emeritus), University of
Louis Hartford
†Joseph H. Silverman, Spanish, University of California, Chandrakant Topiwala, independent scholar
Santa Cruz Steven C. Tracy, Afro-American Studies, University of
Kirsti K. Simonsuuri, Comparative Literature, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
Helsinki Wesley Trimpi, English (emeritus), Stanford University
James Simpson, French, University of Glasgow Reuven Tsur, Hebrew Literature, Tel Aviv University
Amardeep Singh, English, Lehigh University Gary Tubb, South Asian Languages and Civilizations,
Alexandra Slessarev, English, Stanford University University of Chicago
xxxvi CONTRIBUTORS

Herbert F. Tucker, English, University of Virginia Philip Weller, Music, University of Nottingham
Leslie Ullman, Creative Writing (emerita), University of Colin Wells, English, St. Olaf College
Texas, El Paso Andrew Welsh, English, Rutgers University
Michael Ursell, Literature, University of California, Santa William Wenthe, English, Texas Tech University
Cruz Winthrop Wetherbee, Humanities (emeritus), Cornell
Quang Phu Van, Vietnamese, Yale University University
W. J. van Bekkum, Semitic Languages and Cultures, †Rachel Wetzsteon, English, William Paterson University
University of Groningen Bridget Whearty, English, Stanford University
John Van Sickle, Classics, Brooklyn College, City University Philip White, English, Centre College
of New York Steven F. White, Spanish and Portuguese, St. Lawrence
Anton Vander Zee, English, Stanford University University
Valeria Varga, Central Eurasian Studies, Indiana University Simon Wickham-Smith, Russian, East European, and
Daniel Veraldi, independent scholar Central Asian Studies, University of Washington
Aida Vidan, Slavic Languages and Literatures, Harvard †John Ellis Caerwyn Williams, Welsh and Celtic University,
University College of Wales
Robert Vilain, German, University of Bristol Rhian Williams, English and Scottish Language and
Louise Viljoen, Afrikaans and Dutch, University of Literature, University of Glasgow
Stellensbosch James I. Wimsatt, English (emeritus), University of Texas,
Robert von Hallberg, English and Comparative Literature, Austin
University of Chicago Michael Winkler, German Studies (emeritus), Rice
Michael Wachtel, Slavic Languages and Literatures, University
Princeton University James A. Winn, English, Boston University
David A. Wacks, Spanish, University of Oregon Rosemary (Gates) Winslow, English, Catholic University
Mara R. Wade, Germanic Languages and Literatures, of America
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Steven Winspur, French and Italian, University of
Amanda Walling, English, University of Hartford Wisconsin–Madison
Christopher Warley, English, University of Toronto †Tibor Wlassics, Italian, University of Virginia
†Frank J. Warnke, Comparative Literature, University of Susan J. Wolfson, English, Princeton University
Georgia Allen G. Wood, French and Comparative Literature, Purdue
James Perrin Warren, English, Washington and Lee University
University Dafydd Wood, Comparative Literature, University of Texas
William Waters, Modern Languages and Comparative James Robert Wood, English, Stanford University
Literature, Boston University Malcolm Woodland, English, University of Toronto
Amanda Watson, Research and Instruction Librarian, W. B. Worthen, Theatre, Barnard College
Connecticut College George T. Wright, English (emeritus), University of
Roderick Watson, English (emeritus), University of Minnesota
Stirling Teri Shaffer Yamada, Asian Studies, California State
Jessica Weare, English, Stanford University University, Long Beach
Ruth Helen Webb, History, Classics, and Archaeology, Michelle Yeh, Chinese, University of California, Davis
Birkbeck College, University of London Timothy Yu, English, University of Toronto
Anthony K. Webster, Anthropology, Southern Illinois †Lawrence J. Zillman, English, University of Washington
University Marc Zimmerman, Modern and Classical Languages,
†Uriel Weinrich, Yiddish, Columbia University University of Houston
Madeline Weinstein, English, Harvard University Eliza Zingesser, French, Princeton University
†Edward R. Weismiller, English, George Washington Robert Zydenbos, Institute of Indiology, Ludwig
University Maximilian University of Munich
The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics
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 A
ABECEDARIUS, abecedarian (med. Lat. term for an S. T. Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan,” but the condition is
ABC primer). An alphabetic *acrostic, a poem in which also achieved by a range of representational and mate-
each line or stanza begins with a successive letter of the rial devices that pull the reader into a poem. Absorp-
alphabet. The abecedarius was often a spiritual or med- tion typically works by unifying the sound, form, and
itative device in the ancient world, used for prayers, theme of a poem into a construct that the reader per-
hymns, and prophecies, but it also has an inveterate ceives as seamless. Absorption may extend to such ef-
role as a tool for teaching children language. In divine fects as a heightened sense of the poem as fiction and
poetry, not only the word but even letters and sounds, an identification with the *persona.
given pattern, bear mystical significance and incanta- Various modernist modes, incl. *collage, parataxis,
tory power—as do numbers (see numerology). The and *cacophony, are often understood as disrupting
abecedarius, only one of several such forms, has had the readability of poems. Such modes may seem to
a special appeal as a literalization of the alpha-omega make the reader self-conscious about negotiating the
trope. compositional structures of the poem and, by so doing,
The earliest attested examples are Semitic, and abe- theatricalize (in Fried’s term) the experience of read-
cedarii held an esp. important place in Heb. religious ing. Bertolt Brecht’s “alienation effect” (verfremdungsef-
poetry, to judge from the dozen-odd examples in the fekt), a term he first used in the s, provides a useful
OT. The best known of these is Psalm , which is model for breaking the identification of the spectator
made of  octave stanzas, one for each letter of the with the spectacle under *modernism, esp. as this term
Heb. alphabet, all lines of each octave beginning with relates to the Rus. Formalist Viktor Shklovsky’s 
the same letter. The more common stanzaic type, how- discussion of ostranenie or *defamiliarization. Both
ever, is that used by Chaucer for his “ABC,” where only verfremdungseffekt and ostranenie are antiabsorptive
the first line of the stanza bears the letter (cf. the or- devices.
nate initials of illuminated mss.). Psalms – rep- Neither absorption nor its converses—impermeabil-
resent the astrophic type, wherein the initials of each ity, unreadability, disruption—are inherent poetic
successive line form the alphabet. In the comparable values; rather, they suggest approaches to reading and
Japanese form, Iroha mojigusari, the first line must listening. The difference is not as much an essence as
begin with the first and end with the second character a direction: a centrifugal (projective) poetic field ver-
of the alphabet, the second with the second and third, sus a centripetal (introjective) one. Poems that attempt
and so on. A number of abecedarii are extant in cl. and to be conventionally absorbing in form and content
Alexandrian Gr., but they were also popular in Byzan- run the risk of becoming tedious and boring—that is,
tine Gr. and are copious in med. Lat.: St. Augustine’s highly unabsorbing—esp. when they rely on traditional
well-known abecedarian psalm against the Donatists forms and themes that may seem outmoded to histori-
(Migne, PL . ff.) is the earliest known example of cally conscious readers. In contrast, many seemingly
med. rhythmical verse. antiabsorptive gestures, incl. discontinuity, cut-ups,
As a mod. instructive device for children, the abe- and opacity, may create rhythmically charged, hyper-
cedarius has seen many familiar forms. In Eng., the engaging poems. Moreover, the active use of linguistic
best-known abecedarius is the song “‘A’—You’re Ador- materiality—the reader’s or listener’s acute awareness of
able,” by Buddy Kaye, Fred Wise, and Sidney Lippman the verbal materials and structures of the poem—may
(). contribute to multilevel, supercharged poetic absorp-
 K. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen lit- tion. It seems evident that absorption is historically
teratur, d ed. (); C. Daux, Le Chant abécédaire conditioned: for some readers and listeners, depending
de St. Augustin (); H. Leclercq, “Abécédaire,” Dic- on the period and particular poems, *dissonance will be
tionnaire d’archéologie chrétienne, ed. F. Cabrol (); more absorbing than *consonance or *euphony. Indeed,
Meyer, v. , ch. ; F. Dornseiff, Das Alphabet in Mystik lit. hist. might be seen as incl. cycles of change in read-
und Magie, d ed. (), sect. ; R. Marcus, “Alpha- ers’ affective responses to emerging acoustic, structural,
betic Acrostics in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods,” and thematic dimensions of poetry. The shock of the
Journal of Near Eastern Studies  (); Raby, Secular. new for some is the invigorating tonic of the contem-
T.V.F. Brogan; D. A. Colón porary for others. Modernist and avant-garde poetics
that emphasize fragmentation, discontinuity, visual
ABSORPTION. A term for the process of a reader’s materiality, incompleteness, boredom, or noise often do
deep engagement with a poem, marked by a lack of so in order to open new possibilities for “verbivocovi-
self-consciousness about the materiality of the read- sual” ( James Joyce’s word from Finnegans Wake) engage-
ing process. Poetic rhythm is often used to enhance ment of all the senses. Such poetics often explore the
the experience of deep absorption in a poem; this is chordal possibilities that result from incommensurabil-
most marked in such hypnotically rhythmic poems as ity, rather than unity, among the levels of form, rhythm,

1
2 ACCENT

and content; under the sign of overlay and palimpsest, the variable rather than the fixed element that receives
discrepant and impermeable elements of a poem can be the accent. Consequently, the question “Are you a fan of
recognized as pleats and folds. Temporal, thematic, and the Chicago Cubs?” accords with what we know
stylistic disjunction may form, dissolve, and reform into about the world of baseball, while “Are you a fan of
shifting constellations (to use Benjamin’s term) that are the Chicago Cubs?” implies a Cubs team from some
open possibilities for a reader’s or a listener’s absorption other city. This kind of contrastive stress, so dynamic in
into the newly emerging force field of the poem. Eng. speech, also plays a variety of important roles in
See avant-garde poetics, difficulty, language the poetic manipulation of lang., perhaps esp. in how
poetry, presence. written poetry contrives to convey the rhetorical and
 B. Brecht, “Brecht on Theater,” trans. J. Willett intonational contours of speech. When a line break, for
(); C. Bernstein, “Artifice of Absorption,” in A instance, encourages the reader to place an accent on
Poetics (); V. Shklovsky, “Art as Device” () in some word where it would not normally be expected,
Theory of Prose, trans. B. Sher (); Michael Fried, “Art the emphasis may suggest an unanticipated logical con-
and Objecthood” in Art and Objecthood (); W. Ben- trast. This foregrounding of accent may have rhetorical
jamin, “The Doctrine of the Similar” (), trans. R. implications: “The art of losing isn’t hard to master; / so
Livingstone, Selected Writings, ed. M. W. Jennings et al., many things seem filled with the intent / to be lost that
v. , (); R. Tsur, “Kubla Khan”—Poetic Structure, their loss is no disaster” (emphasis inferred; Elizabeth
Hypnotic Quality, and Cognitive Style (). Bishop, “One Art”); “The sound of horns and motors,
C. Bernstein which shall bring / Sweeney to Mrs. Porter [not Ac-
taeon to Diana] in the spring” (T. S. Eliot, The Waste
ACCENT. In Eng., accent is the auditory prominence Land ).
perceived in one syllable as compared with others in Within the specific realm of traditional Eng. metri-
its vicinity. Accent and stress are often treated as syn- cal verse, words are treated as bearing an accent if they
onymous, though some literary scholars and linguists are short polysyllables (whose stress can be looked up
distinguish the two terms according to a variety of in a dict.) or monosyllables that belong to an open
criteria. Disagreements persist about the source and class (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, interjection).
acoustical nature of syllabic prominence—loudness, Other syllables tend to be unstressed. Yet several fac-
volume, *pitch, *duration, or some combination of tors can alter this perception. One is the kind of rhe-
factors—but they are arguably of peripheral relevance torical force created by contrastive stress, esp. in the
to the understanding of accent within Eng. poetics. volatile case of pronouns. Another, more pervasive
The phenomena of accent vary among langs. and influence arises from the complex interaction between
the poetics associated with them. The Eng. lexical the abstract, narrowly constrained pattern of meter and
contrast between convict as noun and as verb has no the concrete, highly contingent *rhythm of the spo-
parallel in Fr. (Sp. resembles Eng. in this regard, while ken words. This fundamental distinction—meter and
Finnish resembles Fr.) For Fr. speakers, stress contours rhythm are related similarly to “the human face” and “a
are perceived on the level of the phrase or clause, and human’s face”—crucially conditions how we perceive
learning Eng. entails acquiring the ability to hear con- accent; it accounts for some difficulties that an unprac-
trastive accent in words, just as a Japanese speaker ticed reader of metrical verse, though a native of Eng.
learning Eng. must acquire the distinction between speech, may have in locating the accents in a line.
the liquids l and r. A consequence is that, while Fr. Some of the confusion surrounding the term may
*meters count only *syllables, Eng. meters conven- be reduced if we recognize that accent names phenom-
tionally also govern the number and distribution of ena on two different levels of abstraction, the acoustical
accents. and the metrical. There is an analogy with phonemes.
In Eng. speech, accent operates in various ways on Speakers of Eng. unconsciously insert a puff of air after
scales from the word (convict) through the sentence. the p in pan, but not in span. The difference can be
As the units grow larger, accent becomes increasingly detected by using acoustic instruments or by holding
available to choice and conscious use for rhetorical em- a palm in front of the mouth, yet is not detected by
phasis. One step beyond the accents recorded in dicts. speakers in the absence of exceptional attention. The p
is the difference between “Spanish teacher” as a com- in both cases represents the same phoneme, the same
pound (a person who teaches Sp.) and as a phrase (a distinctive feature in the Eng. phonetic system—a sys-
teacher from Spain). Eng. phonology enjoins stronger tem that does not merely divide the continuous acous-
accent on “Spanish” in the compound and “teacher” in tic stream of speech but abstracts from it a small set of
the phrase. three or four dozen discrete items. Similarly, various
These lexical accents and differences in accent be- acoustical phenomena (pitch, loudness, etc.) give rise
tween compounds and phrases are “hardwired” into to an indefinitely large number of degrees and perhaps
the Eng. lang. Beyond those, speakers exercise more even kinds of accent; yet within a metrical context, the
deliberate choice when they employ contrasting ac- accustomed reader—analogous to a native speaker—
cent to create rhetorical or logical emphases that are reduces this continuum to an abstraction of (usually)
intimately entwined with semantic context. In the op- two opposed values, stressed vs. unstressed. (The anal-
position Chicago White Sox vs. Chicago Cubs, it is ogy fails to capture how the reader is simultaneously
 ACCENTUAL-SYLLABIC VERSE 3

aware of a continuum of stress weights in the speech that love and ignorance are not at odds as one might
rhythm and a binary feature in the metrical pattern, think, but inextricable—is an effect or another kind of
both embodied in a single set of words.) cause would be difficult to decide.
Differences of accent between compounds and The phonological and metrical understandings of
phrases, or introduced for the sake of rhetorical con- accent can sometimes even be directly at odds. In a
trast, which operate prominently within the larger compound word like townsman, the second syllable
manifold of rhythm, make no difference on the level is not unstressed (its vowel is not reduced to schwa).
of meter. “Spanish teacher” in either sense would be Phonologically, then, the syllable sequence “towns-
scanned as two *trochees, and the stronger stress on man of ” presents three descending levels of stress.
one word or the other has no specifically metrical ef- In A. E. Housman’s line, however, “Townsman of a
fect. The four degrees of stress adopted by Chatman stiller town,” the reader hears “of ” with an accent cre-
and others from Trager and Smith, while useful in ated or promoted by the underlying metrical pattern
the phonological analysis of Eng. and in the poetic of iambic *tetrameter; and in comparison, the syl-
understanding of rhythm, are unnecessary in the lable “-man” is heard as unstressed. The case is com-
specifically metrical treatment of accent. The “four plicated by the copresence of other details: because
levels” represent an intermediate abstraction, as does the line is headless, e.g., we know not to scan the
the more traditional compromise of secondary stress initial compound word as a spondee only once we
or the hovering accent of Brooks and Warren. “Trager get the following syllables (“a still-”); the unambigu-
and Smith . . . demonstrated that stress and pitch are ous accent on the last of those syllables (confirmed by
much more complex and variable phenomena than the final alternation, “-er town”) anchors the whole
could be accounted for by the binary unstress-stress iambic matrix and retrospectively clarifies the met-
relation of traditional prosody” (Bradford )—but rical role of “Townsman of.” Complications of this
this important truth should not mislead us into try- kind are typical in the interaction between metrical
ing to weld speech rhythm and metrical pattern into pattern and speech rhythms and constitute a primary
an unwieldy whole, rather than hearing their interplay. reason for apparent ambiguities of accent in lines of
Readers are sensitive to a far wider range of rhyth- Eng. verse.
mic phenomena in poetry than those that are encoded See demotion, promotion.
within a metrical system. The nuanced stress patterns  G. L. Trager and H. L. Smith Jr., An Outline of
of speech, though they are foregrounded in nonmetri- English Structure (); W. K. Wimsatt and M. C.
cal or *free verse, do not disappear from the reader’s Beardsley, “The Concept of Meter: An Exercise in
awareness in metrical verse with its two-valued feature Abstraction,” PMLA  (), Brooks and Warren;
of accent. Rather, the give and take between the claims Chatman, chaps. , , appendix; N. Chomsky and
of meter and rhythm become a major source of audi- M. Halle, The Sound Pattern of English (); M. Halle
tory richness. Syllables may be heard as stressed either and S. J. Keyser, English Stress (); R. Vanderslice
because of their prominence in speech or because of and P. Ladefoged, “Binary Suprasegmental Features and
their position within the metrical line. Transformational Word-Accentuation Rules,” Lang 
Any of the kinds of speech accent—lexical, phrasal, (); P. Kiparsky, “Stress, Syntax, and Meter,” Lang
rhetorical—may coincide with a stressed position  (); M. Liberman and A. S. Prince, “On Stress
within the metrical line (as in the even-numbered po- and Linguistic Rhythm,” LingI  (); E. O. Selkirk,
sitions within an *iambic *pentameter); or the speech Phonology and Syntax (); B. Hayes, “The Prosodic
and metrical accents may be momentarily out of phase. Hierarchy in Meter,” Phonetics and Phonology, ed.
Within the accentual-syllabic system of Eng. metrics, P. Kiparsky and G. Youmans (); R. Bradford,
these possibilities give rise to a repertoire of more or less Roman Jakobson ().
common or striking variations. When speech accents C. O. Hartman
occur in metrically unstressed positions, they give rise
to metrical *substitutions of one foot for another, such
as the trochee or the *spondee for the iamb: ACCENTUAL-SYLLABIC VERSE. In Eng. poetry
that is not written in *free verse, the most common
/ x / /
and traditional metrical system is called “accentual-
Singest of summer in full-throated ease
syllabic” because it combines a count of *syllables per
When metrical accents occur where no speech ac- line with rules for the number and position of *accents
cent is available to embody them, the syllable receives in the line.
“promoted” stress. The conjunction in the middle of Metrical systems in different langs. measure lines by
W. B. Yeats’s line, “We loved each other and were ig- various linguistic elements and combinations of ele-
norant,” which might pass unstressed in speech, ex- ments. Some systems are based on counting a single
hibits this kind of promoted accent. It may render the kind of element (syllables in Fr., monosyllabic words
verse line different from and semantically richer than in Chinese). Others—such as the Lat. quantitative
its speech equivalent. The metrical expectation of ac- meters and the accentual-syllabic system used in mod.
cent in this position in the line is presumably the initial Eng., mod. Gr., Ger., and many other langs.—coordi-
cause of the promotion; whether the rhetorical point— nate two different measures, such as syllables and their
4 ACCENTUAL VERSE

length or syllables and their stress. Cl. theorists pro- line; () popular *song—an extremely large class;
vided a method of analyzing these meters by dividing () literary imitations of genuine ballad meter such as
them into feet, small units defined by various permu- the *Christabel meter; () genuine *oral poetry, which
tations of the two kinds of elements. Thus, the iamb indeed seems to show a fixed number of stresses per
orders a slack syllable and a stressed one (in Eng.) or a line but, in fact, is constructed by lexico-metrical for-
short syllable and a long one (in Lat.), while the *tro- mulaic phrases (see formula); () simple *doggerel,
chee reverses the iamb’s order and the *anapest extends i.e., lines that hardly scan at all except for stress count,
the iamb by doubling the initial weak syllable position. whether because of authorial ineptitude, scribal mis-
Two-element *meters tend to maintain the stability prision, textual corruption, or reader misperception—
of the lines’ measure without as much rigidity in ad- there are many scraps of late med. verse that seem to
herence to the meter’s defining rules as single-element be so; () literary verse (often stichic) that is less regular
meters require. Consequently, much of the richness of than accentual-syllabic principles would demand but
variation in a two-element meter such as the accentual- clearly not entirely free, e.g., the four-stress lines that
syllabic can be captured at least crudely by analysis of Helen Gardner has pointed out in T. S. Eliot’s Four
substituted feet, metrical inversions, promoted stresses, Quartets; () Ger. *knittelvers, both in a freer, late med.
and similar concepts that build on the notion of the variety subsequently revived for literary and dramatic
*foot. This variety can be sketched or roughly dia- purposes by J. W. Goethe and Bertholt Brecht, and in
grammed by *scansion of the lines. a stricter, th-c. variety (Hans-Sachs verse) in octosyl-
Particular meters in such a two-element system are labic couplets; and () Rus. *dol’nik verse, a th-c.
conventionally named by combining an adjectival form meter popularized by Alexander Blok, mainly in three-
of the name of the base foot (iambic, dactylic, trochaic, stress lines (interestingly, this form devolved from liter-
etc.) with a noun made of a Lat. number word plus ary verse, not folk verse as in Eng. and Ger.). In all the
“-meter”: trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter, preceding, there has been an assumption that accentual
and so on. verse is isoaccentual; if one defines it more broadly (or-
See demotion, promotion, prosody, substitution. ganized only on stresses but not always the same num-
C. O. Hartman ber per line), one would then admit Ger. *freie Rhyth-
men and *freie Verse and possibly Fr. th-c. *vers libéré.
But these verge on *free verse.
ACCENTUAL VERSE. Verse organized by count of When Robert Bridges, the Eng. poet and prosodist,
stresses, not by count of *syllables. Many prosodists studied accentual verse at the turn of the th c., he
of the th, th, and early th cs. looked upon believed he discovered a paradox in claims that accen-
most med. verse, a large amount of Ren. verse, and all tual verse works by counting the natural stresses in the
popular verse down to the present as loose, rough, or line. For example, despite S. T. Coleridge’s claims that
irregular in number of syllables and in placement of “Christabel” is in a “new” meter and that every line in it
stresses; from this assumption (not demonstration), will be found to have exactly four stresses, the poem
they concluded that regulated count of stresses was actually contains a number of problematic lines, like
the only criterion of the *meter. Schipper, e.g., effectu- “How drowsily it crew,” which cannot by any reason-
ally views most ME and mod. Eng. four-stress verse as able standard carry four natural accents. Of this line
descended from OE alliterative verse. But in this, he Bridges remarks: “In stress-verse this line can have
misconceived the nature of OE prosody (see english only two accents . . . but judging from other lines in
prosody, germanic prosody). Other prosodists, too, the poem, it was almost certainly meant to have three,
have lumped together verse of very different rhythmic and if so, the second of these is a conventional accent;
textures drawn from widely different social registers and it does not occur in the speech but in the metre, and
textual contexts, treating all of them under the general has to be imagined because the metre suggests or re-
rubric of accentual verse. This generalization masks dif- quires it; and it is plain that if the stress is to be the rule
ferences that should probably be characterized in met- of the metre, the metre cannot be called on to provide the
rical (and not merely more broadly rhythmic) terms. stress” (italics added). For Bridges, the definition of
Ideally, we would isolate the similarities among species true “accentual verse” is that it operates on only two
of accentual verse and then identify either features or principles: “the stress governs the rhythm” and “the
gradations in strictness of form that differentiate them. stresses must all be true speech-stresses” (Bridges set these
No clear theoretical foundation has been established to sentences in all capitals). This two-part definition,
accomplish this. he asserts, strictly distinguishes accentual verse from
Several varieties of accentual verse have been pro- *accentual-syllabic verse, in which it is the function of
posed in the Western langs.: () folk verse as opposed the meter to establish and preserve in the mind’s ear
to art verse, i.e., the large class of popular (e.g., greet- a paradigm, an abstract pattern, such that, if the line
ing card) verse, *nursery rhymes, college cheers and itself does not supply the requisite number of accents,
chants, slogans, logos, and *jingles—both Malof and the pattern shall supply them mentally. But Bridges’s
Attridge rightly insist on the centrality of the four- view is complicated by the dominance of accentual-
stress line here; () *ballad and *hymn meter, specifi- syllabism in so much mod. Eng. verse that poets and
cally the meter of the Eng. and Scottish popular ballads readers may hear promoted stresses even in a mostly
and of the metrical psalters in the Sternhold-Hopkins accentual context. In many poems by Elizabeth
 ACMEISM 5

Bishop, such as “The Fish” (three-stress), e.g., the near final syllables, is very well attested; but this may, in fact,
regularity of accent counts encourages us to fill out be unrelated.
some shorter lines with stresses that, while strong rela-  Schipper; Brogan, K, K, K, K; Dale,
tive to surrounding syllables, would not be heard in  ff.; G. T. Wright, Shakespeare’s Metrical Art ().
the speech rhythm of the line (see relative stress T.V.F. Brogan
principle); analyzing the verse as either strictly accen-
tual or as consistently but roughly accentual-syllabic ACMEISM. A Rus. poetic circle formed in  in
requires acknowledging exceptions, but calling the reaction against mystical *symbolism, the reigning
result “free verse” ignores important gestures toward movement of the prior decade. Founded by Nikolai
regularity. Gumilev and Sergei Gorodetsky, the acmeist coterie
In Eng. as in other Teutonic langs., accentual included Anna Akhmatova, Osip Mandelstam, Vladi-
verse has some claim to being fundamental; it is mir Narbut, and Mikhail Zenkevich, all of whom
“the simplest, oldest, and most natural poetic mea- produced poems of a widely divergent nature. The
sure in English” (Gioia). It lies near the root of po- Gr. term akmē denotes not only “apex” but “point”
etry, as it were, and near the point where poetry and and “edge,” evoking the group’s interest in precision
music diverge (and reconverge in song). It comes and sharpness. Eschewing the symbolist notion of the
closer than accentual-syllabic meters to manifesting poet as an inward-looking dreamer, the acmeists saw
the *beat that defines the term meter in the musi- poetry as a craft and the poet as an artisan who carves
cal sense of that word. Perhaps partly for this rea- out exact meanings of words with his “hammer.” For
son, versions of accentual verse (measuring lines in this reason, they advocated architectural “equilibrium”
four, three, or even two stresses) have been popular rather than the musical “vagueness” of symbolism.
alongside mod. free verse, sometimes only notionally The notion of equilibrium informed their entire pro-
distinct from it. gram: the acmeists aimed for a balance between past
See alliteration, ballad meter, equivalence, ver- and present, between the poet’s inner world and the
sification. See also number(s). external, tangible world. They proposed evolutionary
 Schipper; Bridges, “Appendix on Accentual Verse”; rather than revolutionary change, positioning them-
G. Saintsbury, History of English Prosody (–); W. selves against their radical contemporaries, the Rus.
Kayser, Kleine deutsche Versschule (); H. Gardner, futurists. In contrast to the futurist rejection of the
The Art of T. S. Eliot (); J. Bailey, “The Stress- past, Mandelstam later defined acmeism as a “yearning
Meter of Goethe’s Der Erlkönig,” Lang&S  (); for world culture.” While *futurism discarded mimetic
J. Malof, A Manual of English Meters (), chaps. representation in favor of fragmentation and wordplay,
–; M. G. Tarlinskaja, “Meter and Rhythm of Pre- and symbolism depicted objects as vehicles to a higher
Chaucerian Rhymed Verse,” Linguistics  () and sphere, acmeism espoused a poetics of palpability and
English Verse: Theory and History (); Scott; Brogan, precision: the acmeist poet depicts the earthly object
–; Attridge; Scherr; D. Gioia, “Accentual Verse,” with heightened clarity, attempting to view it as if for
http://www.danagioia.net/essays/eaccentual.htm. the first time, like Adam. (This idea was underscored
T.V.F. Brogan; C. O. Hartman by acmeism’s alternate name, “Adamism.”) Acmeism
thus embodied a broader international phenomenon
ACEPHALOUS (Gr., “headless”). A term used for of the s: a tempered *modernism that forged a
lines of verse that are missing an initial syllable (Ger. middle ground between poetic trad. and avant-garde
fehlende Auftakt, suppression of the *anacrusis). radicalism. The strongest exemplars of this, Rus. ac-
Though it is undeniable that, in some runs of regu- meism and Anglo-Am. *imagism, both sought inspira-
lar *accentual-syllabic verse, occasional lines will be tion in Chinese poetry, Gr. and Roman imagery, the
found that are simply missing their first syllables, *Parnassians, and the Fr. poet Théophile Gautier. Both
whether from design or defect of textual transmission, groups adopted the metaphor of “hardness” to imply
the claims that have most often been made about the their twin goals of restrained self-expression and rig-
concept of acephaly have been made on more sweep- orous technique. The movements’ leaders, the acmeist
ing grounds, involving metrical phenomena that are, Gumilev and the imagist Ezra Pound, both modeled
in fact, capable of varying interpretation. It used to be at least some of their principles on the spare, chiseled
held, e.g., that there are some eight or nine acepha- verse of their female companions: Anna Akhmatova
lous lines in Chaucer, incl.—depending on how one and H.D. (Hilda Doolittle). The outbreak of World
treats final e, hence, how one scans—the first line of War I effectively put an end to acmeism, although
the “General Prologue” in the Canterbury Tales. It was attempts were later made to resurrect it. Its most sig-
also claimed that a missing first syllable changes rising nificant members, Akhmatova and Mandelstam, never
rhythm to falling—see Schipper (see also rising and repudiated the movement, yet their late work differs
falling rhythm). Many temporal and musical theo- greatly from their acmeist poems of the s.
ries of *meter are congenial to the notion of acepha- See Avant-garde poetics; Russia, poetry of.
lous lines as important variants rather than simply  B. Eikhenbaum, Anna Akhmatova (); R. Timen-
defects, but such theories are not now widely accepted. chik, “Zametki ob akmeizme” (Notes on Acmeism),
If, however, acephaly, as foreclipping, is disputed, the Russian Literature – (); D. Mickiewicz, “The
converse phenomenon, *catalexis, the cutting off of Acmeist Conception of the Poetic Word,” Russian Lan-
6 ACROSTIC

guage Journal, suppl. issue (); E. Rusinko, “Russian anagram from his sweeping dismissal of med. Fr. verse
Acmeism and Anglo-American Imagism,” Ulbandus forms. Sir John Davies wrote a posy of  acrostics to
Review  (); V. Zhirmunsky, “Symbolism’s Suc- Queen Elizabeth (Hymnes of Astraea, ). The mod.
cessors” (), The Noise of Change, ed. S. Rabinowitz disparagement begins as early as Joseph Addison (Spec-
(); R. Eshelman, Nikolaj Gumilev and Neoclassical tator no. ), but the acrostic was very popular among the
Modernism (); C. Cavanagh, Osip Mandelstam and Victorians, appearing in the last chapter of Lewis Car-
the Modernist Creation of Tradition (); J. Doherty, roll’s Through the Looking Glass. In E. A. Poe’s valentine
The Acmeist Movement in Russian Poetry (); poem to Frances Sargent Osgood, her name is spelled
O. Lekmanov, Kniga ob akmeizme (Book about Ac- by the first letter of the first line, the second letter of
meism, ); K. Painter, Flint on a Bright Stone: Pre- the second line, and so on in a diagonal pattern across
cision and Restraint in American, Russian, and German the page.
Modernism (). In vernacular conversation, this process of elevating
K. Painter initials into a higher script to produce acronyms (snafu,
gulag )—now especially common with the prolifera-
ACROSTIC (Gr., “at the tip of the verse”). A poem in tion of instant messaging and online chat—has evolved
which the first letter of each line or stanza spells out a growing shorthand vocabulary. But even in the early
either the alphabet (an *abecedarius); a name, usually Christian Church, the symbol of the fish is such an
of the author or the addressee (a patron, a beloved, a acronym: the initials of the five Gr. words in the phrase
saint); or the title of the work (e.g., Plautus; Ben Jon- “Jesus Christ, God’s Son, Savior” spell out the Gr. word
son’s The Alchemist). On occasion, the initials spell out a for fish, ichthys.
whole sentence—the oldest extant examples of this sort See anagram.
are seven Babylonian texts dating from ca.  bce,  A. Kopp, “Das Akrostichon als kritische Hilfsmittel,”
which use the first syllable of each ideogram. By far the Zeitschrift für deutsche Philologie  (); Kastner;
most common form reveals, while it purports to con- K. Krumbacher, “Die Acrostichis in der griechischen
ceal, the author’s name, as in the acrostic Cicero claims Kirchenpoesie,” Sitzungsberichte der königlichbayer-
Ennius wrote or François Villon’s acrostic to his mother ische Akad. der Wiss., philos.-philol.-hist. Klasse ();
that spells “Villone.” The spelling is usually straightfor- H. Leclercq, “Acrostiche,” Dictionnaire d’archéologie
ward but may be in anagram for the sake of conceal- chrétienne, ed. F. Cabrol (); E. Graf, “Akrostichis,”
ment. If the medial letter of each line spells out a name, Pauly-Wissowa; R. A. Knox, Book of Acrostics ();
the poem is a mesostich; if the final letter, a telestich; if F. Dornseiff, Das Alphabet in Mystik un Magie, d
both initials and finals are used, a double acrostic (two ed. (); Lote, .; Reallexikon II; W. G. Lambert,
of the Babylonian acrostics are such); if all three, a triple Babylonian Wisdom Literature, ch.  (); R.F.G.
acrostic. Finals may also be in reverse order. In any case, Sweet, “A Pair of Double Acrostics in Akkadian,” Ori-
the aesthetic of the acrostic is clandestine, as its signs entalia  (); T. Augarde, Oxford Guide to Word
are virtually invisible to rhythm and sense, and is meant Games (); Miner et al., pt. ; W. Stephenson, “The
to be received by seeing the text on the page. Acrostic ‘fictio’ in Robert Henryson’s ‘The Testament
The visual aesthetic of acrostics relates to other clever of Cresseid’ (–),” Chaucer Review . ();
forms, including carmina quadrata; the deft word- M.A.S. Carter, “Vergilium Vestigare: Aeneid .–
square intexti of Hrabanus Maurus (ca. –), such ,” CQ . (); D. L. Norberg, An Introduction
as the grid that bears “Magnentius Rhabanus Maurus to the Study of Medieval Latin Versification (); J.
hoc opus fecit” (Magnentius Rhabanus Maurus made Danielewicz, “Further Hellenistic Acrostics: Aratus
this work)—with a mod. analogue in Edward Taylor’s and Others,” Mnemosyne . (); E. Assis, “The
poem to Elizabeth Fitch—and *carmina figurata or Alphabetic Acrostic in the Book of Lamentations,”
pattern poetry, alongside which acrostics are commonly Catholic Biblical Quarterly . (); J. Partner, “Sa-
found in ancient texts (e.g., the *Greek Anthology). tanic Visions and Acrostics in Paradise Lost,” Essays in
In Asia, acrostics are found in both Chinese poetry Criticism . ().
(ring poems, wherein one can begin reading at any T.V.F. Brogan; D. A. Colón
character) and Japanese poetry (kakushidai and mono
no na). ADDRESS. Under the heading of address in poetry
Acrostics are the kind of mannered *artifice that will come not only the listeners a poem invokes or implies
be popular in any silver-age poetry; they flourished in and the inanimate things or dead people to whom it
Alexandria and in the Middle Ages, being written by may speak, but the entire communicative context that
Boniface, Bede, Fortunatus, Giovanni Boccaccio, Eu- such a work projects. The contextual embeddedness of
stache Deschamps, and Clément Marot among many. address includes its reference to a situation of utterance
Commodian has a book of  acrostics, the Instruc- (called *deixis) but also the ways in which that situation
tiones; not only is Aldhelm’s De laudibus virginitatis a participates in artistic *convention; the poem’s own
double acrostic made out of its first line, but the last hist. and fate as a text; and social practices governing
line is the first line read backward, forming a box. The literary production and circulation.
longest acrostic is apparently Boccaccio’s Amorosa vi- Most written poems do not acknowledge that they
sione, which spells out three entire sonnets. In the Ren., are written rather than sung or spoken, but only a
Joachim du Bellay excepted the ingenious acrostic and minority adhere throughout to a representation of
 ADDRESS 7

one-to-one, face-to-face address. A poem may say “lyric I.” This slipperiness, in turn, has consequences
“you” (or use the vocative) to more than one addressee; for understanding poetic address, since, without such
allude to auditors overhearing; call on objects or ab- distinct levels, it can be difficult even to be sure what
stractions in an *apostrophe; convey that its ostensible counts as being addressed in a poem or who if anyone
target is not paying *attention; or leave doubt as to may be covertly or explicitly included as a bystander
who is meant by “you.” Poems may also show no ling. or in any of various oblique ways “meant.”) Influential
markers of address whatever and yet point to their re- though Shelley’s and Mill’s romantic view of the sing-
ception in ways that show resemblance to the explicit ing or soliloquizing poet has been (also through later
hailing of a reader (e.g., in Shakespeare’s sonnet , “in inflections of it by T. S. Eliot and Northrop Frye), this
black ink my love may still shine bright”). model does not account well for poems addressing a
Most sentences in conversation or in a letter do not patron, friend, beloved, or the reader. Poems addressed
include the word you but are pragmatically indistin- to a contemporary of the poet predominate in Gr. and
guishable from those that do: context, not a pronoun, Lat. poetry and are plentiful in other trads.; they might
makes it clear to all who is speaking to whom in what also be thought closest to quotidian speech or writing.
situation. Short written poems usually lack this kind But, in fact, writing a poem to someone (like singing a
of disambiguating context, leaving them often strik- song to him or her), even when—as in W. C. Williams’s
ingly underspecified for address. In ling. terminology, “This Is Just to Say”—the poem seems to approximate
the person meant to hear or read is the target, whereas daily communication, actually brings that communica-
addressee means only the person designated by the pro- tion to a temporary halt; poetry suspends relationship
noun you. These need not coincide: thus, a parent may in order to present it. Poems addressing contemporaries
say “you” to an infant while expecting uptake chiefly are marked by this fact. Moreover, insofar as a poem is
from an overhearing, targeted spouse; or a criticism not only a message but also a thing (see artifact), it by
of John can be made more provoking by taking the its nature looks beyond any single hearer. Eliot’s poem
sham form of address to Mary while John, the target, “A Dedication to My Wife” formulates the double fact:
is standing by; but in lit. crit., the term address often “These are private words addressed to you in public.” It
serves for both. To avoid an overtechnical idiom, the is not that the one-to-one address is mere pretense; the
present entry continues to use address in this double words of an intimate poem are private, even as their ar-
sense; the term target is not established in poetry crit., ticulation as poetry binds and ritualizes them in more-
and the sense intended should be clear in the examples than-private ways.
that follow. (For this and other helpful distinctions, see The vast corpus of Eur. poetry in the *courtly love
Goffman ; Levinson , ; Clark .) and Petrarchan trads. (see petrarchism) makes vivid
Consideration of address in poetry takes place against illustration of another, related dimension of address:
the background of a critical trad. that could seem to the intertextual one. Here the stylized appeal to (e.g.)
deny that poetic addresses are in any sense effectual. a hard-hearted mistress is first of all an element of
P. B. Shelley’s Defence of Poetry () styles the poet the trad. and only secondarily—if at all—an address
as “a nightingale, who sits in darkness and sings to to a genuine hearer. The effect of the sometimes self-
cheer its own solitude with sweet sounds; his audi- conscious conventionality is to produce a you whose
tors are as men entranced by the melody of an unseen function is at least as much display as it is communica-
musician, who feel that they are moved and softened, tion. Where we posit or know of a historical person
yet know not whence or why.” John Stuart Mill’s cel- who may have been meant, that person will have found
ebrated  remark in “What Is Poetry?” that “poetry herself in one or another relation to the textual and
is overheard. . . . [T]he peculiarity of poetry appears intertextual you that is a version of her. Each such poem
to us to lie in the poet’s utter unconsciousness of a lis- will “mean” a real person or generate a fictive one to a
tener” likewise seems to rule out the possibility of po- different degree and in its own ways.
etic address to any real audience beyond the self, since The character of each poem’s individual address has
“poetry is feeling confessing itself to itself, in moments an effect, in turn, on the extent to which it is appropri-
of solitude.” (A few sentences later in the same essay, ate to emphasize the notion of the reader as an over-
Mill shifts his image slightly, writing now not of the hearer. A poem whose explicit addressee cannot hear
“utter unconsciousness” that an audience is present might be assumed to be targeting theatrically some
but of the poet’s success in “excluding . . . every ves- other audience of eavesdroppers instead. Address to
tige” of such consciousness from the poem: “The actor absent or dead persons is, presumably for this reason,
knows that there is an audience present; but if he acts traditionally grouped with apostrophes to objects and
as though he knew it, he acts ill.” The ease with which abstractions. But, in fact, poetic address to the absent
Mill moves between these apparently contradictory and dead varies greatly in tone and effect, from the
models can be taken to point not to a muddle but to customary pomp of public-sounding addresses to great
an insight: the kind of distinction we make in theater men of past ages, to Constantine Cavafy’s surprisingly
between, say, Hamlet, who does not and cannot share intimate addresses to them (as in “Ides of March”), to
the theater audience’s ontological space, and the actor Sylvia Plath’s riddling whimsy in addressing her unborn
playing Hamlet, who does but works to make it seem child (“You’re”), to the deep longing of some poems of
as though he does not, is often elusive in poetry, not- address to a deserting lover or the beloved dead. Poems
withstanding critical postulates of the poetic speaker or of this last sort that are convincing in the intensity of
Other documents randomly have
different content
 XII.
SOME ENGLISH WRITERS BEFORE LOCKE.

§ 1. The beginning of the 17th century brought with it a change in

the main direction of thought and interest. As we have seen, the
16th century adored literature and was thrown back on the remote
past. Some of the great scholars like Sturm had indeed visions of
literary works to be written, that would rival the old models on which
they were fashioned; but whether they hoped or not to bring back
the Golden Age all the scholars of the Renascence thought of it as
having been. With the change of century, however, a new conception
came into men’s minds. Might not this worship of the old writers
after all be somewhat of a superstition? The languages in which they
wrote were beautiful languages, no doubt, but they were ill adapted
to express the ideas and wants of the modern world. As for the
substance of these old writings, this did not satisfy the cravings of
men’s minds. It left unsolved all the main problems of existence, and
offered for knowledge mere speculations or poetic fancies or
polished rhetoric. Man needed to understand his position with regard
to God and to Nature; but on both of these topics the classics were
either silent or misleading. Revelation had supplied what the classics
could not give concerning man’s relation to God; but nothing had as
yet thrown light on his relation to Nature. And yet with his material
body and animal life he could not but see how close that relation
was, and could not but wish that something about it might be
known, not simply guessed or feigned. Hence the demand for real
knowledge, that is, a knowledge of the facts of the universe as
distinct from the knowledge of what men have thought and said. We
have heard of the mathematician who put down Paradise Lost with
the remark that it seemed to him a poor book, for it did not prove
anything; and it was just in this spirit that the new school of
thinkers, the Realists, looked upon the classics. They wanted to
know Nature’s laws: and words which did not convey such
knowledge seemed to them of little value.
§ 2. Here was a tremendous revolution from the mode of thought
prevalent in the Renascence. No longer was the Golden Age in the
past. In science the Golden Age must always be in the future.
Scientific men start with what has been discovered and add to it.
Every discovery passes into the common stock of knowledge, and
becomes the property of everyone who knows it just as much as of
the discoverer. Harvey had no more property in the circulation of the
blood, Newton and Leibnitz no more property in the Differential
Calculus than Columbus in the Continent of America; indeed not so
much, for Columbus gained some exclusive rights in America, but
Harvey gained none over the blood.
So we see that whereas the literary spirit made the dominant
minds reverence the past, the scientific spirit led them to despise the
past; and whereas the literary spirit raised the value of words and
led to the study of celebrated writings, the scientific spirit was totally
careless about words and prized only physical truths which were
entirely independent of words. Again, the literary spirit naturally
favoured the principle of authority, for its oracles had already
spoken: the scientific spirit set aside all authority and accepted
nothing that did not of itself satisfy the reason. (Compare Comenius,
supra p. 152.)
§ 3. The first great leader in this revolution was an Englishman,
Francis Bacon. But the school-room felt his influence only through
those who learnt from him; and among educational reformers, the
chief advocates of realism have been found on the Continent, e.g.,
Ratke and Comenius.[99] But the desire to learn by “things, not
words” affected the minds of many English writers on education, and
we find this spirit showing itself even in Milton and Locke, and far
more clearly in some writers less known to fame.
§ 4. There is a wide distinction in educational writers between
those who were schoolmasters and those who were not.
Schoolmasters have to come to terms with what exists and to make
a livelihood by it. So they are conservatives by position, and rarely
get beyond an attempt at showing how that which is now done
badly might be done well. Suggestions of radical change usually
come from those who never belonged to the class of teachers, or
who, not without disgust, have left it.
Among English schoolmasters of the olden times the chief writers
I have met with besides Mulcaster are John Brinsley the elder, and
Charles Hoole.
§ 5. John Brinsley the elder, a Puritan schoolmaster at Ashby-de-
la-Zouch, a brother-in-law of Bishop Hall’s, and father of John
Brinsley the younger who became a leading Puritan minister and
author, was a veritable reformer, but only with reference to methods.
His most interesting books are Ludus Literarius or the Grammar
Schoole, 1612 (written after 20 years’ experience in teaching, as we
learn from the Consolation, p. 45), and A Consolation for our
Grammar Schooles: or a faithfull and most comfortable
incouragement for laying of a sure foundation of all good learning in
our schooles and for prosperous building thereupon, 1622. The first
of these, when reprinted, as it is sure to be, will always secure for its
author the notice and the gratitude of students of the history of our
education; for in this book he tells us not only what should be done
in the school-room, but also what was done. In a dialogue with the
ordinary schoolmaster the reformer draws to light the usual practice,
criticizes it, and suggests improvements.
§ 6. In Brinsley we get no hint of realism; but by the middle of the
sixteen hundreds we find the realistic spirit is felt even by a
schoolmaster, Charles Hoole,[100] who was a kinsman of Bishop
Sanderson, the Casuist, and was master first of the Grammar School
at Rotherham, then of a private Grammar School in London,
published besides a number of school books, a translation of the
Orbis Pictus (date of preface, January, 1658), and also “A New
Discovery of the old art of teaching schoole ... published for the
general profit, especially of young Schoolemasters” (date of preface,
December, 1659). In these books we find that Hoole succeeded even
in the school-room in keeping his mind open. He complains of the
neglect of English, and evidently in theory at least went a long way
with the realistic reformers. “Comenius,” he says, “hath proceeded
(as Nature itself doth) in an orderly way, first to exercise the senses
well by presenting their objects to them, and then to fasten upon
the intellect by impressing the first notions of things upon it and
linking them one to another by a rational discourse; whereas indeed
we generally, missing this way, do teach children as we do parrots to
speak they know not what, nay, which is worse, we taking the way
of teaching little ones by grammar only, at the first do puzzle their
imaginations with abstractive terms and secondary intentions, which,
till they be somewhat acquainted with things, and the words
belonging to them in the language which they learn, they cannot
apprehend what they mean. And this I guess to be the reason why
many greater persons do resolve sometimes not to put a child to
school till he be at least eleven or twelve years of age.... You then,
that have the care of little children, do not too much trouble their
thoughts and clog their memories with bare grammar rudiments,
which to them are harsh in getting, and fluid in retaining; because
indeed to them they signifie nothing but a meer swimming notion of
a general term, which they know not what it meaneth till they
comprehend all particulars: but by this [i.e., the Orbis P.] or the like
subsidiarie inform them first with some knowledge of things and
words wherewith to express them; and then their rules of speaking
will be better understood and more firmly kept in mind. Else how
should a child conceive what a rule meaneth when he neither
knoweth what the Latine word importeth, nor what manner of thing
it is which is signified to him in his own native language which is
given him thereby to understand the rule? for rules consisting of
generalities are delivered (as I may say) at a third hand, presuming
first the things and then the words to be already apprehended
touching which they are made.” This subject Hoole wisely commends
to the consideration of teachers, “it being the very basis of our
profession to search into the way of children’s taking hold by little
and little of what we teach them, that so we may apply ourselves to
their reach.” (Preface to trans. of Orbis Pictus.)
§ 7. “Good Lord! how many good and clear wits of children be
now-a-days perished by ignorant schoolmasters!” So said Sir Thomas
Elyot in his Governor in 1531, and the complaint would not have
been out of date in the 17th century, possibly not in the 19th. In the
sixteen hundreds we certainly find little advance in practice, though
in theory many bold projects were advanced, some of which pointed
to the study of things, to the training of the hand, and even to
observation of the “educands.”
§ 8. The poet Cowley’s “proposition for the advancement of
experimental philosophy” is a scheme of a college near London to
which is to be attached a school of 200 boys. “And because it is
deplorable to consider the loss which children make of their time at
most schools, employing or rather casting away six or seven years in
the learning of words only, and that too very imperfectly; that a
method be here established for the infusing knowledge and
language at the same time, [Is this an echo of Comenius?] and that
this may be their apprenticeship in Natural Philosophy.”[101]
§ 9. Rarely indeed have those who either theoretically or
practically have made a study of education ever acquired sufficient
literary skill to catch the ear of the public or (what is at least as
difficult) the ear of the teaching body. And among the eminent
writers who have spoken on education, as Rabelais, Montaigne,
Milton, Locke, Rousseau, Herbert Spencer, we cannot find one who
has given to it more than passing, if not accidental, attention.
Schoolmasters are, as I said, conservative, at least in the school-
room; and moreover, they seldom find the necessary time, money, or
inclination for publishing on the work of their calling. The current
thought at any period must then be gathered from books only to be
found in our great libraries, books in which writers now long
forgotten give hints of what was wanted out of the school-room and
grumble at what went on in it.
 § 10. One of the most original of these writers that have come in
my way is John Dury, a Puritan, who was at one time Chaplain to the
English Company of Merchants at Elbing, and laboured with
Comenius and Hartlib to promote unity among the various Christian
bodies of the reformed faith (see Masson’s Life of Milton, vol. iii).
About 1649 Dury published The Reformed Schoole which gives the
scheme of an association for the purpose of educating a number of
boys and girls “in a Christian way.”
§ 11. That Dury was not himself a schoolmaster is plain from the
first of his “rules of education.” “The chief rule of the whole work is
that nothing be made tedious and grievous to the children, but all
the toilsomeness of their business the Governor and Ushers are to
take upon themselves; that by diligence and industry all things may
be so prepared, methodized and ordered for their apprehension, that
this work may unto them be as a delightful recreation by the variety
and easiness thereof.”
§ 12. “The things to be looked unto in the care of their education,”
he enumerates in the order of importance: “1. Their advancement in
piety; 2. The preservation of their health; 3. The forming of their
manners; 4. Their proficiency in learning” (p. 24). “Godliness and
bodily health are absolutely necessary,” says Dury; “the one for
spiritual and the other for their temporal felicitie” (p. 31): so great
care is to be taken in “exercising their bodies in husbandry or
manufactures or military employments.”[102]
§ 13. About instruction we find the usual complaints which like
“mother’s truth keep constant youth.” “Children,” says Dury, “are
taught to read authors and learn words and sentences before they
can have any notion of the things signified by those words and
sentences or of the author’s strain and wit in setting them together;
and they are made to learn by heart the generall rules, sentences
and precepts of Arts before they are furnished with any matter
whereunto to apply those rules and precepts” (p. 38). Dury would
entirely sweep away the old routine, and in all instruction he would
keep in view the following end: “the true end of all human learning
is to supply in ourselves and others the defects which proceed from
our ignorance of the nature and use of the creatures, and the
disorderliness of our natural faculties in using them and reflecting
upon them” (p. 41).
§ 14. “Our natural faculties”—here Dury struck a new note, which
has now become the keynote in the science of education. He
enforces his point with the following ingenious illustration:—“As in a
watch one wheel rightly set doth with its teeth take hold of another
and sets that a-work towards a third; and so all move one by
another when they are in their right places for the end for which the
watch is made; so is it with the faculties of the human nature being
rightly ordered to the ends for which God hath created them. But
contrariwise, if the wheels be not rightly set, or the watch not duly
wound up, it is useless to him that hath it. And so it is with the
faculties of Man; if his wheels be not rightly ordered and wound up
by the ends of sciences in their subordination leading him to employ
the same according to his capacity to make use of the creatures for
that whereunto God hath made them, he becomes not only useless,
but even a burthen and hurtful unto himself and others by the
misusing of them” (p. 43).
§ 15. “As in Nature sense is the servant of imagination;
imagination of memory; memory of reason; so in teaching arts and
sciences we must set these faculties a-work in this order towards
their proper objects in everything which is to be taught. Whence this
will follow, that as the faculties of Man’s soul naturally perfect each
other by their mutual subordination; so the Arts which perfect those
faculties should be gradually suggested: and the objects wherewith
the faculties are to be conversant according to the rules of Art
should be offered in that order which is answerable to their proper
ends and uses and not otherwise.”
§ 16. In this and much else that Dury says we see a firm grasp of
the principle that the instruction given should be regulated by the
gradual development of the learner’s faculties. The three sources of
our knowledge, says he, are—1. Sense; 2. Tradition; 3. Reason; and
Sense comes first. “Art or sciences which may be learnt by mere
sense should not be learnt any other way.” “As children’s faculties
break forth in them by degrees to be vigorous with their years and
the growth of their bodies, so they are to be filled with objects
whereof they are capable, and plied with arts; whence followeth that
while children are not capable of the acts of reasoning, the method
of filling their senses and imaginations with outward objects should
be plied. Nor is their memory at this time to be charged further with
any objects than their imagination rightly ordered and fixed doth of
itself impress the same upon them.” After speaking of the common
abuse of general rules, he says: “So far as those faculties (viz.,
sense, imagination, and memory) are started with matters of
observation, so far rules may be given to direct the mind in the use
of the same, and no further.” “The arts and sciences which lead us to
reflect upon the use of our own faculties are not to be taught till we
are fully acquainted with their proper objects, and the direct acts of
the faculties about them.” So “it is a very absurd and preposterous
course to teach Logick and Metaphysicks before or with other
Humane Sciences which depend more upon Sense and Imagination
than reasoning” (p. 46).
§ 17. In all this it seems to me that the worthy Puritan, of whom
nobody but Dr. Barnard and Professor Masson has ever heard, has
truly done more to lay a foundation for the art of teaching than his
famous contemporaries Milton and Locke.
§ 18. Another writer of that day better known than Dury and with
far more power of expression was Sir William Petty. He is the “W.P.,”
who in an Epistle “to his honoured friend Master Samuel Hartlib,” set
down his “thoughts concerning the advancement of real learning”
(1647). This letter is to be shown only “to those few that are Reall
Friends to the Designe of Realities.”[103]
§ 19. Petty sees the need of intercommunication of those who
wish to advance any art or science. He complains that “the wits and
endeavours of the world are as so many scattered coals or fire-
brands, which for want of union are soon quenched, whereas being
but laid together they would yield a comfortable light and heat.” This
is a thought which may well be applied to the bringing up of the
young; and the following passage might have been written to secure
a training for teachers: “Methinks the present condition of men is
like a field where a battle hath been lately fought, where we may
see many legs and arms and eyes lying here and there, which for
want of a union and a soul to quicken and enliven them are good for
nothing but to feed ravens and infect the air. So we see many wits
and ingenuities lying scattered up and down the world, whereof
some are now labouring to do what is already done, and puzzling
themselves to re-invent what is already invented. Others we see
quite stuck fast in difficulties for want of a few directions which
some other man (might he be met withal) both could and would
most easily give him.” I wonder how many young teachers are now
wasting their own and their pupils’ time in this awkward
predicament.
§ 20. “As for ... education,” says Petty, “we cannot but hope that
those who make it their trade will supply it and render the idea
thereof much more perfect.” His own contributions to the more
perfect idea consist mainly in making the study of “realities” precede
literature, and thus announcing the principle which in later times has
led to the introduction of “object lessons.” The Baconians thought
that the good time was at hand, and that they had found the right
road at last. By experiments they would learn to interpret Nature.
After scheming a “Gymnasium, Mechanicum, or College of
Tradesmen,” Petty says, “What experiments and stuff would all those
shops and operations afford to active and philosophical heads, out of
which to extract that interpretation of nature whereof there is so
little, and that so bad, as yet extant in the world!”[104] And this
study of things was to affect the work of the school-room, and
redeem it from the dismal state into which it was fallen. “As for the
studies to which children are now-a-days put,” says Petty, “they are
altogether unfit for want of judgment which is but weak in them,
and also for want of will, which is sufficiently seen ... by the difficulty
of keeping them at schools and the punishment they will endure
rather than be altogether debarred from the pleasure which they
take in things.”
§ 21. The grand reform required is thus set forth; “Since few
children have need of reading before they know or can be
acquainted with the things they read of; or of writing before their
thoughts are worth the recording or they are able to put them into
any form (which we call inditing); much less of learning languages
when there be books enough for their present use in their own
mother-tongue; our opinion is that those things being withal
somewhat above their capacity (as being to be attained by judgment
which is weakest in children) be deferred awhile, and others more
needful for them, such as are in the order of Nature before those
afore-mentioned, and are attainable by the help of memory which is
either most strong or unpreoccupied in children, be studied before
them. We wish, therefore, that the educands be taught to observe
and remember all sensible objects and actions, whether they be
natural or artificial, which the educators must upon all occasions
expound unto them.”
§ 22. In proposing this great change Petty was influenced not
merely by his own delight in the study of things but by something
far more important for education, by observation of the children
themselves. This study of things instead of “a rabble of words”
would be “more easy and pleasant to the young as the more suitable
to the natural propensions we observe in them. For we see children
do delight in drums, pipes, fiddles, guns made of elder sticks, and
bellows’ noses, piped keys, &c., painting flags and ensigns with
elderberries and cornpoppy, making ships with paper, and setting
even nut-shells a-swimming, handling the tools of workmen as soon
as they turn their backs and trying to work themselves; fishing,
fowling, hunting, setting springes and traps for birds and other
animals, making pictures in their writing-books, making tops, gigs
and whirligigs, gilting balls, practising divers juggling tricks upon the
cards, &c., with a million more besides. And for the females they will
be making pies with clay, making their babies’ clothes and dressing
them therewith; they will spit leaves on sticks as if they were
roasting meat; they will imitate all the talk and actions which they
observe in their mother and her gossips, and punctually act the
comedy or the tragedy (I know not whether to call it) of a woman’s
lying-in. By all which it is most evident that children do most
naturally delight in things and are most capable of learning them,
having quick senses to receive them and unpreoccupied memories to
retain them” (ad f.).
§ 23. In these writers, Dury and Petty, we find a wonderful
advance in the theory of instruction. Children are to be taught about
things and this because their inward constitution determines them
towards things. Moreover the subjects of instruction are to be
graduated to accord with the development of the learner’s faculties.
The giving of rules and incomprehensible statements that will come
in useful at a future stage is entirely forbidden. All this is excellent,
and greatly have children suffered, greatly do they suffer still, from
their teachers’ neglect of it. There seems to me to have been no
important advance on the thought of these men till Pestalozzi and
Froebel fixed their attention on the mind of the child, and valued
things not in themselves but simply as the means best fitted for
drawing out the child’s self-activity.
§ 24. In several other matters we find Sir William Petty’s
recommendations in advance of the practice of his own time and
ours. He advises “that the business of education be not (as now)
committed to the worst and unworthiest of men [here at least we
have improved] but that it be seriously studied and practised by the
best and abler persons.” To this standard we have not yet attained.
§ 25. Handwork is to be practised, but its educational value is not
clearly perceived. “All children, though of the highest rank, are to be
taught some gentle manufacture in their minority.” Ergastula
Literaria, literary workhouses, are to be instituted where children
may be taught as well to do something towards their living as to
read and write.[105]
§ 26. Education was to be universal, but chiefly with the object of
bringing to the front the clever sons of poor parents. The rule he
would lay down is “that all children of above seven years old may be
presented to this kind of education, none being to be excluded by
reason of the poverty and unability of their parents, for hereby it
hath come to pass that many are now holding the plough which
might have been made fit to steer the state.”[106]
§ 27. From these enthusiasts for realities we find a change when
we turn to their contemporary, a schoolmaster and author of a Latin
Accidence, who was perhaps the most notable Englishman who ever
kept a school or published a school-book.
§ 28. Milton was not only a great poet: he was also a great
scholar. Everything he said or wrote bore traces of his learning. The
world of books then rather than the world of the senses is his world.
He has benefited as he says “among old renowned authors” and “his
inclination leads him not” to read modern Januas and Didactics, or
apparently the writings of any of his contemporaries including those
of his great countryman, Bacon. But, as Professor Laurie reminds us,
no man, not even a Milton, however he may ignore the originators of
ideas can keep himself outside the influence of the ideas themselves
when they are in the air; and so we find Milton using his
incomparable power of expression in the service of the Realists.
§ 29. But brief he endeavours to be, and paying the Horatian
penalty he becomes obscure. In the “few observations which
flowered off and were the burnishing of many studious and
contemplative years,” Milton touches only on the bringing up of
gentlemen’s sons between the ages of 12 and 21, and his
suggestions do not, like those of Comenius, deal with the education
of the people, or of both sexes.[107] This limit of age, sex, and
station deprives Milton’s plan of much of its interest, as the absence
of detail deprives it of much of its value.
§ 30. Still, we find in the Tractate a very great advance on the
ideas current at the Renascence. Learning is no longer the aim of
education but is regarded simply as a means. No finer expression
has been given in our literature to the main thesis of the Christian
and of the Realist and to the Realist’s contempt of verbalism, than
this: “The end of learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents by
regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love
Him, to imitate Him, to be like Him, as we may the nearest by
possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the
heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection. But
because our understanding cannot in this body found itself but on
sensible things, nor arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and
things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior
creature, the same method is necessarily to be followed in all
discreet teaching. And seeing every Nation affords not experience
and tradition enough for all kind of learning, therefore we are chiefly
taught the languages of those people who have at any time been
most industrious after wisdom; so that language is but the
instrument conveying to us things useful to be known. And though a
linguist should pride himself to have all the tongues that Babel cleft
the world into, yet, if he have not studied the solid things in them as
well as the words and lexicons, he were nothing so much to be
esteemed a learned man as any yeoman or tradesman competently
wise in his mother-dialect only.”
§ 31. The several propositions here implied have thus been
“disentangled” by Professor Laurie (John Milton in Addresses, &c., p.
167).
1. The aim of education is the knowledge of God and likeness to
God.
2. Likeness to God we attain by possessing our souls of true virtue
and by the Heavenly Grace of Faith.
3. Knowledge of God we attain by the study of the visible things of
God.
4. Teaching then has for its aim this knowledge.
5. Language is merely an instrument or vehicle for the knowledge
of things.
 6. The linguist may be less learned (i.e., educated) in the true
sense than a man who can make good use of his mother-tongue
though he knows no other.
§ 32. Elsewhere, Milton gives his idea of “a complete and
generous education;” it “fits a man to perform justly, skilfully, and
magnanimously all the offices both private and public of Peace and
War.” (Browning’s edition, p. 8.) Here and indeed in all that Milton
says we feel that “the noble moral glow that pervades the Tractate
on Education, the mood of magnanimity in which it is conceived and
written, and the faith it inculcates in the powers of the young human
spirit, if rightly nurtured and directed, are merits everlasting.”
(Masson iij, p. 252.)
§ 33. But in this moral glow and in an intense hatred of verbalism
lie as it seems to me the chief merits of the Tractate. The practical
suggestions are either incomprehensible or of doubtful wisdom. The
reforming of education was, as Milton says, one of the greatest and
noblest designs that could be thought on, but he does not take the
right road when he proposes for every city in England a joint school
and university for about 120 boarders. The advice to keep boys
between 12 and 21 in this barrack life I consider, with Professor
Laurie, to be “fundamentally unsound;” and the project of uniting
the military training of Sparta with the humanistic training of Athens
seems to me a pure chimæra.
§ 34. When we come to instruction we find that Milton after
announcing the distinctive principle of the Realists proves to be
himself the last survivor of the Verbal Realists. (See supra, p. 25.) No
doubt
 “His daily teachers had been woods and rills,”

but his thoughts had been even more in his books; and for the
young he sketches out a purely bookish curriculum. The young are
to learn about things, but they are to learn through books; and the
only books to which Milton attaches importance are written in Latin,
Greek, or Hebrew. He held, probably with good reason, that far too
much time “is now bestowed in pure trifling at grammar and
sophistry.” “We do amiss,” he says, “to spend 7 or 8 years merely in
scraping together so much miserable Latin and Greek as might be
learned otherwise easily and delightfully in one year.” Without an
explanation of the “otherwise” this statement is a truism, and what
Milton says further hardly amounts to an explanation. His plan, if
plan it can be called, is as follows: “If after some preparatory
grounds of speech by their certain forms got into memory, the boys
were led to the praxis thereof in some chosen short book lessoned
thoroughly to them, they might then proceed to learn the substance
of good things and arts in due order, which would bring the whole
language quickly into their power. This,” adds Milton, “I take to be
the most rational and most profitable way of learning languages.” It
is, however, not the most intelligible.
§ 35. “I doubt not but ye shall have more ado to drive our dullest
and laziest youth, our stocks and stubbs, from the infinite desire of
such a happy nurture than we have now to hale and drag our
choicest and hopefullest wits to that asinine feast of sow thistles and
brambles which is commonly set before them as all the food and
entertainment of their tenderest and most docible age.” We cannot
but wonder whether this belief survived the experience of “the pretty
garden-house in Aldersgate.” From the little we are told by his
nephew and old pupil Edward Phillips we should infer that Milton
was not unsuccessful as a schoolmaster. In this we have a striking
proof how much more important is the teacher than the teaching. A
character such as Milton’s in which we find the noblest aims united
with untiring energy in pursuit of them could not but dominate the
impressionable minds of young people brought under its influence.
But whatever success he met with could not have been due to the
things he taught nor to his method in teaching them. In spite of the
“moral glow” about his recommendations they are “not a bow for
every [or any] man to shoot in that counts himself a teacher.”
§ 36. Nor did he do much for the science of education. His scheme
is vitiated, as Mark Pattison says, by “the information fallacy.” In the
literary instruction there is no thought of training the faculties of all
or the special faculties of the individual. “It requires much
observation of young minds to discover that the rapid inculcation of
unassimilable information stupefies the faculties instead of training
them,” says Pattison; and Milton absorbed by his own thoughts and
the thoughts of the ancients did not observe the minds of the young,
and knew little of the powers of any mind but his own.
For information the youths are not required to observe for
themselves but are to be taught “a general compact of physicks.”
“Also in course might be read to them out of some not tedious writer
the Institution of Physick; that they may know the tempers, the
humours, the seasons, and how to manage a crudity.”
§ 37. Even the study of the classics is advocated by Milton on false
grounds. If, like the Port-Royalists, he had recommended the study
of the classical authors for the sake of pure Latin and Greek or as
models of literary style, the means would have been suited to the
end; but it was very different when he directed boys to study Virgil
and Columella in order to learn about bees and farming. In after-life
they would find these authorities a little out of date; and if they ever
attempted to improve tillage, “to recover the bad soil and to remedy
the waste that is made of good, which was one of Hercules’s
praises,” they would have found a knowledge of the methods of
Hercules about as useful as of the methods of the Romans.
§ 38. Milton was then a reformer “for his own hand;” and
notwithstanding his moral and intellectual elevation and his superb
power of rhetoric, he seems to me a less useful writer on education
than the humble Puritans whom he probably would not deign to
read. In his haughty self-reliance, he, like Carlyle with whom Seeley
has well compared him (Lectures and Addresses: Milton), addressed
his contemporaries de haut en bas, and though ready to teach could
learn only among the old renowned authors with whom he
associated himself and we associate him.
§ 39. Judged from our present standpoint the Tractate is found
with many weaknesses to be strong in this, that it co-ordinates
physical, moral, mental and æsthetic training.
§ 40. But nothing of Milton’s can be judged by our ordinary
canons. He soars far above them and raises us with him “to
mysterious altitudes above the earth” (supra, p. 153, note).
Whatever we little people may say about the suggestions of the
Tractate, Milton will remain one of the great educators of mankind.
[108]
 XIII.
LOCKE.
(1632-1704).

§ 1. When an English University established an examination for

future teachers,[109] the “special subjects” first set were “Locke and
Dr. Arnold.” The selection seems to me a very happy one. Arnold
greatly affected the spirit and even the organization of our public
schools at a time when the old schools were about to have new life
infused into them, and when new schools were to be started on the
model of the old. He is perhaps the greatest educator of the English
type, i.e., the greatest educator who had accepted the system
handed down to him and tried to make the best of it. Locke on the
other hand, whose reputation is more European than English,
belongs rather to the continental type. Like his disciple Rousseau
and like Rousseau’s disciples the French Revolutionists, Locke
refused the traditional system and appealed from tradition and
authority to reason. We English revere Arnold, but so long as the
history of education continues to be written, as it has been written
hitherto, on the Continent, the only Englishman celebrated in it will
be as now not the great schoolmaster but the great philosopher.
§ 2. In order to understand Locke we must always bear in mind
what I may call his two main characteristics; 1st, his craving to know
and to speak the truth and the whole truth in everything, truth not
for a purpose but for itself[110]; 2nd, his perfect trust in the reason
as the guide, the only guide, to truth.[111]
§ 3. 1st. Those who have not reflected much on the subject will
naturally suppose that the desire to know the truth is common to all
men, and the desire to speak the truth common to most. But this is
very far from being the case. If we had any earnest desire for truth
we should examine things carefully before we admitted them as
truths; in other words our opinions would be the growth of long and
energetic thought. But instead of this they are formed for the most
part quite carelessly and at haphazard, and we value them not on
account of their supposed agreement with fact but because though
“poor things” they are “our own” or those of our sect or party. Locke
on the other hand was always endeavouring to get at the truth for
its own sake. This separated him from men in general. And he
brought great powers of mind to bear on the investigation. This
raised him above them.
§ 4. 2nd. Locke’s second characteristic was his entire reliance on
the guidance of reason. “The faculty of reasoning,” says he, “seldom
or never deceives those who trust to it.” Elsewhere, borrowing a
metaphor from Solomon (Prov. xx, 27), he speaks of this faculty as
“the candle of the Lord set up by Himself in men’s minds.” (F. B. ij.,
129). In a fine passage in the Conduct of the Understanding he calls
it “the touchstone of truth” (§ iij, Fowler’s edition, p. 10). He even
goes so far in his correspondence with Molyneux as to maintain that
intelligent honest men cannot possibly differ.[112]
But if we consider it from one point of view the treatise on the
Conduct of the Understanding is itself a witness that human reason
is a compass liable to incalculable variations and likely enough to
shipwreck those who steer by it alone. In this book Locke shows us
that to come to a true result the understanding (1) must be perfectly
trained, (2) must not be affected by any feeling in favour of or
against any particular result, and (3) must have before it all the data
necessary for forming a judgment. In practice these conditions are
seldom (if ever) fulfilled; and Locke himself, when he wants an
instance of a mind that can acquiesce in the certainty of its
conclusions, takes it from “angels and separate spirits who may be
endowed with more comprehensive faculties” than we are (C. of U. §
iij, 3).
 § 5. It seems to me then that Locke much exaggerates the power
of the individual reason for getting at the truth. And to exaggerate
the importance of one function of the mind is to unduly diminish the
importance of the rest. Thus we find that in Locke’s scheme of
education little thought is taken for the play of the affections and
feelings; and as for the imagination it is treated merely as a source
of mischief.
§ 6. Locke, as it has often been pointed out, differs from the
schoolmaster in making small account of the knowledge to be
acquired by those under education. But it has not been so often
remarked that the fundamental difference is much deeper than this
and lies in the conception of knowledge itself. With the ordinary
schoolmaster the test of knowledge is the power of reproduction.
Whatever pupils can reproduce with difficulty they know imperfectly;
whatever they can reproduce with ease they know thoroughly. But
Locke’s definition of knowledge confines it to a much smaller area.
According to him knowledge is “the internal perception of the mind”
(Locke to Stillingfleet v. F. B. ij, 432). “Knowing is seeing; and if it be
so, it is madness to persuade ourselves we do so by another man’s
eyes, let him use never so many words to tell us that what he
asserts is very visible. Till we ourselves see it with our own eyes,
and perceive it by our own understandings, we are as much in the
dark and as void of knowledge as before, let us believe any learned
authors as much as we will” (C. of U. § 24).[113]
§ 7. Here Locke makes no distinction between different classes of
truths. But surely very important differences exist.
About some physical facts our knowledge is at once most certain
and most definite when we derive it through the evidence of our
own senses. “Seeing is believing,” says the proverb. It may be
believing, but it is not knowing. That certainty which we call
knowledge we often arrive at better by the testimony of others than
by that of our own senses.
Miss Martineau in her Autobiography tells us that as a child of ten
she entirely and unaccountably failed to see a comet which was
visible to all other people; but, although her own senses were at
fault, the evidence for the comet was so conclusive that she may be
said to have known there was a comet in the sky.
On sufficient evidence we can know anything, just as we know
there is a great water-fall at Niagara though we may never have
crossed the Atlantic. But we cannot be so certain simply on the
evidence of our senses. If we trusted entirely to them we might take
the earth for a plane and “know” that the sun moved round it.
§ 8. But Locke probably considers as the subject of knowledge not
so much physical facts as the great body of truths which are
ascertained by the intellect. It is the eye of the mind by which alone
knowledge is to be gained. Of these truths the purest specimens are
the truths of geometry. It may be said that only those who have
followed the proofs know that the area of the square on the side
opposite the right angle in a right-angled triangle is equal to the sum
of the squares on the other sides. But even in pure reasoning like
this, the tiro often seems to see what he does not really see; and
where his own reason brings him to a conclusion different from the
one established he knows only that he is mistaken.
§ 9. It must be admitted then that first-hand knowledge,
knowledge derived from the vision of the eye or of the mind, is not
the only knowledge the young require. Every learner must take
things on trust, as even Lord Bacon admits. Discentem credere
oportet. To use Locke’s own words:—“I do not say, to be a good
geographer that a man should visit every mountain, river,
promontory, and creek upon the face of the earth, view the buildings
and survey the land everywhere as if he were going to make a
purchase” (C. of U., iij, ad f.). So that even according to Locke’s own
shewing we must use the eyes of others as well as our own, and this
is true not in geography only, but in all other branches of knowledge.
§ 10. But are we driven to the alternative of agreeing either with
Locke or with the schoolmaster? I do not see that we are. The
thought which underlies Locke’s system of education is this: true
knowledge can be acquired only by the exercise of the reason: in
childhood the reasoning power is not strong enough for the pursuit
of knowledge: knowledge, therefore, is out of the question at that
age, and the only thing to be thought of is the formation of habits.
Opposed to this we have the schoolmaster’s ideal which is governed
by examinations. According to this ideal the object of the school
course is to give certain “knowledge,” linguistic and other, and to fix
it in the memory in such a manner that it can be displayed on the
day of examination. “Knowledge” of this kind often makes no
demand whatever on the reasoning faculty, or indeed on any faculty
but that of remembering and reproducing what the learner has been
told; in extreme cases the memory of mere sounds or symbols
suffices.
But after all we are not compelled to choose between these two
theories. Take, e.g., the subject which Locke has mentioned,
geography. The schoolmasters of the olden time began with the use
of the globes, a plan which, by the way, Locke himself seems to
have winked at. His disciple Molyneux tells him of the performances
of the small Molyneux. When he was but just turned five he could
read perfectly well, and on the globe could have traced out and
pointed at all the noted ports, countries, and cities of the world,
both land and sea; by five and a half could perform many of the
plainest problems on the globe, as the longitude and latitude, the
Antipodes, the time with them and other countries, &c. (Molyneux to
L., 24th August, 1695.) Here we find a child brought up, without any
protest from Locke, on mere examination knowledge, which
according to Locke himself is not knowledge at all. It is strange that
Locke did not at once point out to Molyneux that the child was not
really learning what the father supposed him to be learning. When
the child turned over the plaster ball and found the word “Paris,” the
father no doubt attributed to the child much that was in his own
mind only. To the child “the Globe” (as Rousseau afterwards said),
was nothing but a plaster ball; “Paris” was nothing but some letters
marked on that ball. Comenius had already got a notion how
children may be given some knowledge of geography. “Children
begin geography,” said he, “when they get to understand what a hill,
a valley, a field, a river, a village, a town is.” (Supra, p. 145.) When
this beginning has been made, geographical knowledge is at once
possible to the child, and not before.
Perfect knowledge in geography, as in most other things, is out of
every one’s reach. Nobody knows, e.g., all that could be known
about Paris. The knowledge its inhabitants have of it is very various,
but in all cases this knowledge is far greater than that of a visitor.
The visitor’s knowledge again is far greater than that of strangers
who have never seen Paris. Nobody, then, can know everything even
about Paris; but a child who knows what a large town is, and can
fancy to himself a big town called Paris, which is the biggest and
most important town in France has some knowledge about it. This
must be maintained against Locke. Against the schoolmaster it may
be pointed out that making an Eskimo say the words:—“Paris is the
capital of France,” would not be giving him any knowledge at all; and
the same may be said of many “lessons” in the school-room. If a
common sailor were to teach an Eskimo English, he would very likely
suppose that when he had taught the sounds “Paris is the capital of
France,” he had conveyed to his pupil all the ideas which those
sounds suggested to his own mind. A common schoolmaster may fall
into a similar error.
§ 11. In the most celebrated work which has been affected by the
Thoughts of Locke, Rousseau’s Emile, we find childhood treated in a
manner altogether different from youth: the child’s education is
mainly physical, and instruction is not given till the age of twelve.
Locke’s system on first sight seems very different to this, but there is
a deeper connection between the two than is usually observed. We
have seen that Locke allowed nothing to be knowledge that was not
acquired by the perception of the intellect. But in children the
intellectual power is not yet developed; so according to Locke
knowledge properly so-called is not within their reach. What then
can the educator do for them? He can prepare them for the age of
reason in two ways, by caring first for their physical health, second
for the formation of good habits.
 § 12. 1st. On the Continent Locke has always been considered one
of the first advocates of physical education, and he does, it is true,
give physical education the first place, a feature in his system, which
we naturally connect with his study of medicine, and also with the
trouble he had all his life with his own health. But care of the body,
and especially bodily exercises, were always much thought of in this
country, and the main writers on education before Locke, e.g., Sir
Thos. Elyot, Mulcaster, Milton, were very emphatic about physical
training.
In the autobiography of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, we may see
what attention was paid in Locke’s own century to this part of
education.[114]
§ 13. 2nd. “That, and that only, is educative which moulds forms
or modifies the soul or mind.” (Mark Pattison in New Quarterly
Magazine, January, 1880.)
Here we have a proposition which is perhaps seldom denied, but
very commonly ignored by those who bring up the young. But Locke
seems to have been entirely possessed with this notion, and the
greater part of the Thoughts is nothing but a long application of it.
The principle which lies at the root of most of his advice, he has
himself expressed as follows: “That which I cannot too often
inculcate is, that whatever the matter be about which it is
conversant whether great or small, the main, I had almost said only
thing, to be considered in every action of a child is what influence it
will have upon his mind; what habit it tends to, and is likely to settle
in him: how it will become him when he is bigger, and if it be
encouraged, whither it will lead him when he is grown up.”
(Thoughts, § 107, p. 86.)
Here we see that Locke differed widely from the schoolmasters of
his time, perhaps of all time. A man must be a philosopher indeed if
he can spend his life in teaching boys, and yet always think more
about what they will be and what they will do when their schooling
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