CHAPTER 1 - DC CIRCUITS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Electricity is very important form of energy which we use in our day to day life. From morning
till night we make use of electricity in many ways such as lightning, transportation, machines,
communication, etc. Electricity is considered as flow of electrons in a network or circuit.
Electrons are the charged particles that flow in a network when a potential difference is applied
across them. Based on the nature of current, circuits can be classified as direct current circuits
(DC) and alternating current circuits (AC). In this chapter we will learn about the DC circuits
and solve the examples related to DC circuits. Also we will see the fundamentals laws of electric
circuits and basic electrical elements that are current, resistor, power and energy.

1.2 POTENTIAL, CURRENT, POWER AND ENERGY

Electrical Potential (V)

Potential is the amount of work done on a charge to move it from one point to the another point.
It is measured in volts.
W
V= Q

Where, W – work done in joules

Q – charge in coulombs

Electrical Current (I)

Current is defined as the rate of change of charge OR flow of the electrons (charge). It is
measured in amperes.
dq
I= dt

Where, q – charge in coulombs

t – time in seconds

Power (P)

The rate of doing work is known as electrical power.

dw
Power = rate of change of work = dt

Power is also defined as product of voltage and current

Power = voltage * current = V * I

If 1 ampere current flows through a circuit when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across
it then the power is said to be one watt. So the practical unit of power is watt (W).

Energy

Energy is ability to do work. So energy is nothing but basically work done. It is measured in
joules (J). Electrical, mechanical, chemical, etc are different forms of energy.

1.3 SOURCES OF ENERGY

Source is a device that provides energy. There are basically two types sources (1)
Independent sources (2) Dependent sources

1.3.1 Independent sources:

These are the types of sources in which their output characteristic is not dependent on any
element of the circuit. There are two types of independent sources.

(1) Independent voltage source (2) Independent current source

Independent voltage source: It is a two terminal device whose terminal voltage is independent of
the current drawn by the network connected to its terminals. It maintains magnitude of its voltage
irrespective of the network connected to its terminals. The symbol for such a source is shown in
figure.

Independent current source: It is a two terminal device whose current at any instant of time is
independent of voltage across its terminals. The symbol for such a source is shown in figure.

1.3.2 Dependent sources:

If the current or voltage of a particular source depends on any other element of the network then
it is called as Dependent source. Such sources are denoted by diamond shaped box.

(i) Voltage dependent voltage source (VDVS): It is a device in which the terminal voltage
depends on the some other voltage of the network. The symbol for such a source is shown in
figure.

(ii) Current dependent voltage source (CDVS): It is a device in which the terminal voltage
depends on the current drawn by the network.

(iii) Voltage dependent current source (VDCS): It is a device in which the output current
depends on the voltage drawn by the network.

(iv) Current dependent current source (CDCD): It is a device in which the output current depends
on the some other current of the network.
1.4 RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITANCE

Resistance

These are the electronics components that oppose the flow of charges that is they oppose the
current in the circuit.
When potential is applied across the conductor electrons start moving through the material
during which they collide with atoms of other molecules. Due to this collision electrons
experience opposition from material. This opposition offered by material to the flow of electrons
is known as resistance. Resistance is measured in ohms and it is denoted by symbol Ω.
Conductors offer very less opposition to the flow of current for example metals and acids are
good conductors of electricity. Whereas insulators offer very high resistance to the flow of
current for example wood, plastic, rubber, etc.

Law of resistance: Resistance of a wire is directly proportional to length of wire and inversely
proportional to the area of cross section of the wire. It also depends on the temperature of the
wire.
l
R∞A

ρl
R=A
Where ρ (rho) is a constant know as resistivity or specific resistance of material. The unit of
resistivity is Ω-m.

Inductance
The property of a coil that opposes rate of change of current through it is known as inductance.
So inductor opposes any change in magnitude of current flowing through it. It is measured in
Henry (H).

When rate of current in a coil is changing, an voltage is induced in the coil. This voltage is
known as self induced voltage.

di
V=-L
dt

If a voltage of 1 V is induced in a coil when current is changing at the rate of 1 A/s the
inductance is said to be 1 H.

Capacitance
Capacitor is a device capable of storing energy and this ability of storing energy is known as
capacitance (C). It is used in various electrical and electronics circuits. The unit of capacitance is
Farad.
A capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by an insulating or dielectric
material.
Capacitance may be defined as amount of charge required by the capacitor plates to develop a
potential of 1 volt across it. Thus capacitance is the ratio of charge and the potential.

Q
C=V

Q.1) State & explain Ohm’s law.

Ohm‟s law states relation between voltage, current & resistance. It states that “Current flowing
between any two points of conductor is directly proportional to potential difference across them,
provided physical conditions such as temperature, pressure do not change.

V∞I V = IR

In other words it can be stated as: The ratio of potential difference across any two points of
conductor to the current flowing between them is always constant. This constant is called
resistance V/I = Constant V/I = R V = IR

Q.2)State & explain Kirchhoff’s law.

Kirchhoff’s First Or Current Law (KCL): It states that “In an electric circuit, the algebraic
sum of all the currents meeting at a point or a junction is always zero.” i.e. ∑ I = 0

In other words the sum of incoming current towards the junction is equal to the sum of outgoing
currents.

I 1

I 2

I 5
.

I 3
I 4

Sign Convention: If the currents entering the junction are taken as positive then the currents
leaving the junction must be taken as negative.
Fig. shows that currents I1 & I5 are entering the junction where as currents I2, I3 & I4 are leaving
the junction. Hence currents I1 & I5 are to be taken as positive & currents I2, I3 & I4 are to be
taken as negative. Applying KCL:-

I1 - I2- I3-I4 + I5 = 0 → I1 + I5 = I2 + I3+ I4 → sum of incoming currents = sum of outgoing

currents

KCL is similar to law of conservation of charge which states that the net charge flowing into a
node is equal to the net charge flowing out of the node.

Kirchhoff’s Second Or Voltage Law (KVL): It states that “In a closed path of a network the
algebraic sum of all the emfs plus the algebraic sum of voltages in that path is zero “ i.e.

∑E+∑V=0

A
R1 B
I1

I4 I2

R4
R2

E1 E2

D C
I3 R3

Sign Conventions:
(1) While moving from positive terminal to negative terminal the Emf must be taken as negative
& while moving from negative terminal to positive terminal the emf must be taken positive.

A B

(2) While moving along the direction of current the voltage drop must be taken as negative and
while moving in opposite direction of current the voltage drop must be taken as positive.
I R
A B

Fig. shows two Emf sources E1 & E2, four resistors R1, R2 , R3 & R4 & the currents I1,I2,I3 & I4
flowing through them. Applying KVL (ABCDA): -
I1R1 – I2R2 – E2 + I3R3 + E1 – I4R4 = 0 KVL is similar to law of conservation of energy.
Q.3) Derive the equivalent resistance when number of resistance are connected in (a) series
(b) parallel.
RESISTANCE IN SERIES:
A circuit in which numbers of resistors are connected end to end such that same current flows
through them is called a series circuit. Fig. shows a circuit which consists of three resistors R 1,
R2 & R3 .
These resistors are said to be in series because same current (I) flows through them. There is no
other path for the current to flow. But the potential difference across R1, R2 & R3 is V1, V2 & V3
volts respectively.
R R R
1 2 3

V V V 3
1 2
I

Now, V = Sum of the individual potential difference across R1, R2 & R3

V = V1+V2 + V3

But by Ohm‟s law we have V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3

V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

V = I (R1+ R2 + R3)

V/I = R1+ R2 + R3

But V/I = Rs where Rs is single equivalent resistance.

Rs = R1+ R2 + R3

In general, if there are „n‟ resistors in series, the equivalent resistance of the combination can be
written as :- Rs = R1+ R2 + R3 +…..+ Rn

i.e. the combined resistance of a system of „n‟ series connected resistance is equal to the sum of
individual resistances .
RESISTANCE IN PARALLEL: A circuit in which numbers of resistors are connected end to
end such that different current flows through them is called a parallel circuit. Fig. shows a circuit
which consists of three resistors R1, R2, R3.

These resistors are said to be connected in parallel because different currents I1, I2, I3 flows
through resistors R1, R2, R3.But the potential difference across all the resistors is same i.e. V
volts . From the Fig. we have,
I 1 R
1

I R
2 2

I R
3 3

I = I1 + I2 + I3

But by Ohm‟s law I1 = V/R1, I2 = V/R2, I3 = V/R3

I = V/R1+ V/R2 + V/R3

I/V = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3,

But I/V = 1/RP

1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

In general if „n‟ resistors are connected in parallel then it can be written as:-

1/RP = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +….+1/Rn

i.e. the reciprocal of the combined resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of individual
resistances.

Q.4) State and explain Superposition theorem.

A) SUPERPOSITION THEOREM:

This theorem is applied when we are to determine the current in one particular branch of a
network containing several voltage sources or current sources or both voltage and current
sources.

If there are several sources of emfs acting simultaneously in an electric circuit, then according to
this theorem emf of each source acts independently, all other emfs being taken equal to zero.
This theorem is only applicable to linear circuits that the circuits where Ohm‟s law is applicable.

“The superposition theorem states that in any linear network containing two or more
sources, the current in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the currents caused by
individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are inoperative.”

To remove a voltage source from the circuit, source is replaces by its internal resistance and to
remove a current source from the circuit, source is open circuited.

STEPS TO APPLY SUPERPOITION THEOREM:

1) Select any one energy source

2) Replace all the other energy sources by:
- Their internal series resistance for voltage source (short circuit)
- Their internal shunt resistance for current sources (open circuit)
3) With only one energy source, find the current through particular branch using Ohm‟s law and
current divider rule.
4) Repeat steps 1,2, and 3 considering other sources individually.
5) Now the total current in any branch of the circuit is the algebraic sum of the currents due to
each source.

For example find the value of current IL through resistor R3 in the below given figure.

R1 R2

IL

E1 R3 E2

First find current – IL1 through R3 due to source E1

R1 R2

IL1

E1 R3
Total resistance, Req = (R2 || R3) + R1

Total current. I = E1 / Req = E1 / (R2 || R3) + R1

Now current IL1 can be found using current divider rule

𝑅2
IL1 = I *
𝑅2 + 𝑅3

First find current – IL2 through R3 due to source E2

R1 R2

IL2

R3 E2

Total resistance, Req = (R1 || R3) + R2

Total current. I = E2 / Req = E2 / (R1 || R3) + R2

Now current IL2 can be found using current divider rule

𝑅1
IL2 = I *
𝑅1 + 𝑅3

Load current, IL = IL1 + IL2

Q.5) State and explain Thevenin’s theorem.

A) This theorem provides the technique for replacing a two terminal network by a equivalent
voltage source Vth and equivalent resistance Rth.

“Any network containing one or more dependent of independent voltage or current sources
can be replaced by an equivalent network containing a voltage source V th known as
Thevenin’s equivalent voltage or open circuit voltage and a equivalent resistance Rth in
series.”
STEPS TO APPLY THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

1) Remove the branch through which the current is to be found (load resistance)

2) Find Vth or Voc at the open circuit load terminals.

3) Remove the load resistance and replace voltage sources by short circuit and current source by
open circuit.

4) Find Rth at the open circuit load terminals

5) Draw the Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit and find the current through load resistance

Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit is shown in below figure:

I Rth RL

Vth

𝑉𝑇𝐻
Where, I =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅𝐿

Thevenin‟s theorem cannot be applied to unilateral network and if the network contains non
linear elements.

Thevenin‟s theorem makes it possible to convert a complicated network to a simple network

using the equivalent circuit consisting of Vth and Rth.

For example find the value of current IL through resistor R3 in the below given figure.

R1

IL

E1 R2 R3
First find Vth at open circuit load terminals

R1

E1 R2
Vth

Total resistance, Req = R1 + R2

Total current. I = E1 / Req = E1 / R1 + R2

Now Vth can be found using the formula

Vth = I * R2 = (E1 / R1 + R2 ) * R2

Find Rth at open circuit load terminal neglecting all the energy sources

R1

R2
Rth

Total resistance, Rth = (R1 || R2)

Now Thevenin‟s equivalent circuit can be drawn as

IL Rth R3

Vth
 𝑉 𝑇𝐻
Where, IL =
𝑅𝑇𝐻 + 𝑅3

Note: To neglect voltage source the in an network, make the path short circuit.

To neglect current source the in an network, make the path open circuit.

Q.6) State and explain Norton’s theorem.

A) This theorem is also known as dual of Thevenin‟s theorem or an alternative of Thevenin‟s

theorem. In Norton‟s theorem a complex network is reduced to a simple one in which a parallel
combination of current source and network resistance feeds the load resistance.

“Any linear network containing one or more voltage or current sources can be replaced by
equivalent network containing a current source called as Norton’s equivalent current or
short circuit current Isc and equivalent resistance RN in parallel.”

STEPS TO APPLY NORTON’S THEOREM:

1) Remove the branch through which the current is to be found (load resistance)

2) Find IN or ISC at the short circuit load terminals.

3) Remove the load resistance and replace voltage sources by short circuit and current source by
open circuit.

4) Find Rth at the open circuit load terminals.

5) Draw the Norton‟s equivalent circuit and find the current through load resistance.

For example find the value of current IL through resistor RL in the below given figure.

R1 R3

IL

E1 R2 RL
First find Isc at short circuit load terminals

R1 R3

E1 R2
Isc

Total resistance, Req = (R2 || R3) + R1

Total current. I = E1 / Req = E1 / (R2 || R3) + R1

Now Isc can be found using the current divider rule formula:
𝑅2
Isc = I *
𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Find RN at open circuit load terminal neglecting all the energy sources

R1 R3

R2
RN

Total resistance, RN = R3 + (R1|| R2)

Now Nortons‟s equivalent circuit can be drawn as

IL

Isc RN
RL

𝑅𝑁
Where, IL = 𝐼𝑆𝐶 ∗
𝑅𝑁 + 𝑅𝐿
Q.7) Explain time domain analysis of first order RC circuit.

Derive the expression for the voltage across the capacitor during charging through the
resistor Vc = V (1 - 𝒆− 𝒕/ 𝝀 ) .

VR R

V
C
VC

Fig. shows a circuit consisting of a resistor R & capacitor C connected to a d.c. voltage of V
volts through switch S. Initially when switch is open at time t=0 the voltage across capacitor is
Vc = 0. When switch is closed charge on capacitor starts rising and so does the potential
difference across it.

At the instant of closing the switch S, charging current is maximum whose value is given by,

Im = V / R

Applying Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law to the circuit,

V = Vc + VR ……. (1)

V = Vc + iR
𝑑𝑞 𝑐 𝑑𝑞 𝑐
V = Vc + R [i= ]
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐶 𝑑𝑉𝑐
V = Vc + R [ qc = C Vc]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
V – Vc = RC 𝑑𝑡𝑐

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝑡
= [Re-arranging, writing voltage terms together]
𝑉− 𝑉𝑐 𝑅𝐶

Multiplying both sides with (- sign) we get,

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝑡
−( ) = -( )
𝑉− 𝑉𝑐 𝑅𝐶
Now integrating the above equation we get,

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝑡
− (𝑉− 𝑉𝑐
) = −( 𝑅𝐶 )
𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐 ) = - + K
𝑅𝐶

Assuming initial condition to find value of constant, Vc = 0 & t = 0 we get K = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉

𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉 − 𝑉𝑐 ) = - + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉
𝑅𝐶

𝑉−𝑉𝑐 𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( ) = -
𝑉 𝑅𝐶
𝑉−𝑉𝑐
( ) = 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶
𝑉

V – Vc = V (𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )

Vc = V - V (𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )

Vc = V [1 - (𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 )]

Let, time constant λ = RC, we get

Vc = V [1 - (𝑒 −𝑡/𝜆 )] …….. (2)

A plot of current ( Vc) vs time (t) is shown in fig.

Equation of charging current (i):

V = Vc + VR [from equation (1)]

V = Vc + iR

𝑉− 𝑉𝑐
i=
𝑅
 𝑉− V [1 − (𝑒−𝑡/𝜆 )]
i= [from equation (2)]
𝑅
𝑉
i= (𝑒 −𝑡/𝜆 )
𝑅

i = Im (𝑒 −𝑡/𝜆 )

Derive the expression for the voltage across the capacitor during discharging through the
resistor Vc = V ( 𝒆− 𝒕/ 𝝀 ) .

VR R

V=0
C
VC

Fig. shows a circuit consisting of a resistor R & capacitor C. Initially at t=0, the voltage across
capacitor is at its maximum vaue Vc = V. For discharging, capacitor is disconnected from the d.c.
supply. As a result the charge on capacitor starts decreasing & so does the voltage across it.

Applying Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law to the circuit,

0 = VC + VR ……(1)

0 = VC + iR
𝑑𝑞 𝑐
0 = Vc + R [i = dqc / dt]
𝑑𝑡

𝑐 𝑑𝑉𝑐
0 = Vc + R [ qc = C Vc]
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑐
= -( )
𝑅𝐶

Now integrating the above equation we get,

𝑑𝑉𝑐 𝑑𝑡
𝑉𝑐
= − (𝑅𝐶 )
 𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉𝑐 ) = - + K
𝑅𝐶

Now assuming initial conditions, t = 0 & Vc = V we get K = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 V

𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉𝑐 ) = - + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 V
𝑅𝐶

Vc 𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = -
V 𝑅𝐶

Vc = V 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶

Let, time constant λ = RC, we get

Vc = V (𝑒 −𝑡/𝜆 ) …….. (2)

A plot of current ( Vc) vs time (t) is shown in fig.

Equation of discharging current (i):

0 = Vc + VR [from equation (1)]

0 = Vc + iR

− 𝑉𝑐
i=
𝑅

− V (𝑒−𝑡/𝜆 )
i= [from equation (2)]
𝑅

i = - Im (𝑒 −𝑡/𝜆 )
Q.8) Explain time domain analysis of first order RL circuit.

Explain Rise of current in a Inductive circuit.

VR

V VL L

Fig. shows a circuit consisting of a resistor R & Inductor L connected to a d.c. voltage of V volts
through switch S. Initially when switch is open at time t=0 the current is i=0. When switch is
closed current in circuit will increase depending upon value of inductor L .

Applying Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law to the circuit,

V = VL + VR
V = L di/dt + iR
V – iR = L di/dt
di / V-iR = dt / L
Multiplying both sides with -R we get,
(-R) di/V-iR = (-R) dt/L
Now integrating the above equation we get,

(−𝑅) 𝑑𝑖/𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅 = (−𝑅) 𝑑𝑡/𝐿

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅) = -Rt/L + C

Taking i = 0 & t = 0 we get C = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅) = -Rt/L + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑉 − 𝑖𝑅) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑉 = -Rt/L

(𝑉−𝑖𝑅)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = -Rt/L
𝑉

V – iR / V = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

V – iR = V𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿
 𝑅𝑡
i = V/R ( 1 – 𝑒 − 𝐿 )
Now, taking Im = V/R & Time constant λ = L/R we get

i = Im ( 1 - 𝑒 − 𝑡/ 𝜆 )
When t = λ the equation of current becomes

i = Im ( 1 - 𝑒 − 1 )
i = Im ( 1 – 1/e)
i = 0.632 Im
A plot of current ( i) vs time (t) is shown in fig.

Im

0.632 Im

t=λ t

Explain Decay of current in a Inductive circuit.

VR

V=0 VL L

Fig. shows a circuit consisting of a resistor R & Inductor L. Initially at t=0 the current is i=Im.
Now the equation of decay in current can be found as :

Applying Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law to the circuit,

0 = VL + VR

0 = L di/dt + iR

di / i = -R/ L (dt)

Now integrating the above equation we get,

 𝑑𝑖 / 𝑖 = −𝑅/ 𝐿 (𝑑𝑡)

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑖) = -Rt/L + C

Taking i = Im & t = 0 we get C = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑚

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑖) = -Rt/L + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑚

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 ( 𝑖) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = -Rt/L

(𝑖)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐼𝑚 = -Rt/L

i / Im = 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

I = Im 𝑒 −𝑅𝑡/𝐿

Now, taking Time constant λ = L/R we get

i = Im ( 𝑒 − 𝑡/ 𝜆 )

When t = λ the equation of current becomes

i = Im ( 𝑒− 1)

i = Im ( 1/e)

i = 0.368 Im

A plot of current ( i) vs time (t) is shown in fig.

Im

0.368 Im

t=λ t