Notes on Sociology of Education

Sociological foundations of education

The sociological foundations of education focus on the social structure and study of
human connections th
at contribute to the growth and development of the student as a socially efficient
individual, which explains the relevance of the sociological foundations of education to
the current educational system.

The meaning of the sociological basis of education is that education should be arranged
on the basis of the needs, aspirations and ideals of the society. sociocultural foundation
of education implies that it explores education from the perspective of the humanities
and liberal arts, as well as from the perspectives of different stakeholders in society,
using tools of analysis based in history and philosophy. Schools are the subject of
frequent and passionate debate.

The major sociological perspectives on education fall nicely into the functional, conflict,
and symbolic interactionist approaches
What are the three foundation of education?

There are six foundations of education:

 psychological,
 sociological,
 anthropological,
 historical,
 philosophical,
 legal foundations.
The main four foundations of education are designed to focus on the;
 Ideological
 Philosophical
 Psychological
 Socio-economic
 Historical foundations of education

Further practice Discussion questions

 Discuss sociological foundations of education with reference to contemporary theory and
practice in competence based education

History, scope and methods of sociology of education

 Sociology
The word SOCIOLOGY originated from two words namely; Socius + Logos where…
♫ Socius [Latin] meaning sharing in a group or relationship.
♫ Logos [Greek] meaning ‘reasoning’ or ‘science’
When these words and their interpretations were combined three meanings emerged as follows;
 Reasoning about relationship
  Words about human group sharing
 Science of group sharing
History and origin of sociology and sociology of education

Although all of these interpretations referred to human beings, there was a problem. The problem
is that,

(i) They made little sense in terms of what they meant

(ii) Also, they would not have withstood the test of time given that there were other
well developed disciplines which were able to explain the fate of human life;
disciplines like Philosophy; Metaphysics; Religion; History and politics

The problem is the meaning and interpretations of the words, ‘Socius’ and ‘Logos’ was
solved later in the 19th century by a French Social Philosopher named AUGUSTINE COMTE
(1789-1857).

Augustine Comte was able to combine these two words out of which be invented the word
SOCIOLOGY. His initial interpretation cum definition of this newly invented word was the
Science of Society. Comte’ first revealed his invention of a new science in a series of
writings called Cours de Philosophie Positive that he published between 1830-1842.

It is in one of these series in 1839 that he called the new Science, Sociology, Comte’ went on
to explain that sociology will have these purposes or uses

(a) To discover the laws of social order that could explain the natural development
of society;
(b) To contribute to the well being of social stability in society.

Why did Comte’ call Sociology a Science?

The answer is that Augustine Comte’ was recognized as the founder of the ‘School of
Positivism’ a philosophical approach which he emphasized the gathering and accumulation
of knowledge about the social phenomena- events, occurrences or happening – through the
use of scientific observations, investigation or studies.

Consequently he argued against the use of myths, speculations and the ultimate causes as
ways of explaining the social phenomena, e.g. floods, famines, epidemic diseases etc. Comte’
urged the use of scientific studies of human societies that would facilitate to discover, predict
and to control the observed social phenomena in society.

With such ideas, we can see why Augustine Comte’ called Sociology a science of society,
meaning that it would utilize scientific strategies to explain human societies and all their
social phenomena.

Always a way of strengthening Sociology, he strongly asserted that it must stand on its own
and not as another discipline like Philosophy. Standing on its own feet, Sociology will be
able to develop and acquire its own theories, concepts, facts and empirical methods to help it
become a full-fledged scientific discipline

Why did sociology emerge?

Since we have said that Comte’ referred to Sociology as the science of society, you may ask,
why is sociology comes into being only in the 19 th century and the human societies have
been in existence for thousands of years before?

Were there no other ways, for example other disciplines that were geared towards
understanding and explaining the social phenomena? The answer is, there were such like
philosophy, history, religion, politics, mythology and Metaphysics and may be others.

But in the 19th century Europe there were certain factors or conditions which appeared to
influence strongly the need for another discipline or means which would be more oriented to
analyzing the human societies.

The factors were intellectual, social, political, industrial and even scientific. Some of these
factors are:

(i) Generally, there was a feeling that other older disciplines mentioned above were
failing to explain the social phenomena) events, occurrences, etc) satisfactorily.
Take philosophy for example; Comte observed that philosophy was too abstract and
contained unknowable; or knowledge that the common people did not understand
and were perhaps not appealing to their everyday lives.

(ii) Intellectually, there occurred a shift in writings of certain writers of the 19 th century
Europe. Prominent Philosophers and Historians of this period. like Augustine
Comte; Karl Marx (1818-1873); Max Weber (1864-1920); Emile Durkheim “(1858-
1917); Hebert Spencer (1820-1903), changed from writing ambitiously about the
political structures of societies to writing about the industrial revolution societies. In
their philosophical writings, they found new interest in reflecting upon subjects or
issues like, the family, nature of society, population changes, social institutions and
development.

(iii) Upon the industrial revolution in Europe, many people migrated to the urban
industrial centers from their rural areas in search of jobs and better pay. This change
had a number of consequences like family disintegration, poor work and living
conditions especially among the new dwellers, poverty, child labor and abuse, new
crimes and thuggery, breach of law and order, alienations and animosity, and many
others. Comte’ realized that such problems were not natural. Instead they were
largely social. They were the result of human collectiveness and actions the
solutions could only be found in the contents of the collectiveness and not in the
writings of the old disciplines.
 (iv) New forces emerged especially after the French and American revolutions such
forces promised to spawn new democratic systems to replace the old feuds and
aristocratic practices which had dominated the Europeans societies ways of life for
a long time. Suddenly, many people found themselves empowered to live decent
lives compared to the disadvantaged lives before. They found themselves owners of
wealth unlike in the past.

As you can see, such conditions were paving way for Comte, thought and strengthening his
position towards a new way of studying and explaining the human societies. His new
discipline, Sociology, was meant to examine how the human societies in collections in their
phenomena are like through actual and practical observations. The old methods of the social
philosophers perspective were perspective in approach in that they promulgated what the
human societies ought to be like. As times went on, Comte’s lone effort continued to receive
more support and acceptance as other writers mentioned above (item ii) collaborated in the
founding of sociology. As a result of his work, Augustine Comte’ was recognized as the
‘Father of Sociology’ even up to his modern times.

Modern Sociology

In the modern times, we can say that sociology is like what Comte’ conceptualized it and
much more. It is a science, grouped together with other well established social sciences
disciplines like, Philosophy, Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science, Demography,
History and many others.

Definitions of Sociology

The term as various definition which are equally acceptable, such as:
(a) Sociology is the science of society. This is Comte’s definition.
(b) Sociology is the science of scientific study of society
(c) Sociology is the scientific study of social relationship in society
(d) Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior in society
(e) Sociology is the scientific study of institution in society
(f) Sociology is the scientific study of social activities in society
(g) Sociology is the scientific study of social interactions in society
(h) Sociology is the scientific study of social change n society
(i) Overall, sociology can be defined as scientific discipline which addresses the social
phenomena occurring and being observed in and are part of the human groupings in
society.

Key contributors

Auguste Comte ……

± Is the father of sociology from which sociology off education later stemmed...
 ± He coined the term sociology defining its scientific orientations upon which sociology of
education is based...
± Comte’ went on to explain that sociology will have these purposes or uses;
± To discover the laws of social order that could explain the natural development of
society;
± To contribute to the wellbeing of social stability in society.
± Discussed various groups or social institutions in society identifying education as a major
structure in society it is upon this background that later scholar’s base their ideas to
develop sociology of education as a discipline...
Emile Durkheim;

 Father of sociology of education...

 Posited use of sociological perspective in education...
 Applied the sociological perspective to the understanding of education from a theoretical
perspective noting that education is social in origin…nature…character and function…
 Famed for theoretical understanding of the connection between education and sociology
noting that education is social in nature…function and origin…
John Dewey;

♫ His major contribution lie in the connection he made between society (which is the subject
matter of sociology) and schooling (where the main educational activities occur in the
society)...
♫ He took a practical approach to the understanding and implementation of education in
society by considering the social environment within which children learn...

Why did Sociology of Education emerge in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

± The emergence of sociology as a discipline and its later growth gave rise to sociology of
education as one of its branches…
± Inability of existing disciplines to address social issues in education more
comprehensively…
± The contribution of various sociologists who saw growing connection between society and
education i.e. Emile Durkheim, John Dewy, Sir Fred Clarke, Karl Mannheim…
± Contributions of social philosophers and their organismic view of society where education
was one of the social institutions…
± Institutionalism of education in the early 20th century…
± Emerging role of education as a tool for social reconstruction and reconciliation after the
two world wars…
± Intellectual curiosity...intellectual shift to focussing on social issues in education...

There are many acceptable definitions of sociology including the following:

± Sociology is the Science of Society...

± Sociology is “the scientific study of the social human life…it is centred in the study
of human beings living in group and in the product of their lives in group…it is
 interested in habits, traditions and values emerging of human beings living in group
and then the way this kind of living can affect these habits, traditions and
values…”
± Sociology is the scientific study about social relationship, association ways,
detaching the general common characteristic to all social phenomena that appear in
the group relations among human beings. It studies the man and human
environment in their reciprocal interactions...
± Sociology is the science which investigates the social phenomena using the
empirical methods and techniques...
± Sociology is the scientific study of human social behaviour, interaction between
human, social organizations/structure...
Overall, sociology can be defined as scientific discipline which addresses the social phenomena
occurring and being observed in and are part of the human groupings in society. There is need to
clarify some of the words used in this overall definition as follows:

± Social: - The word social means something pertaining or belonging to associated with or
part of the human society...
± Scientific: - This word refers, here to any procedure, especially a research procedure that
follows the natural sciences methods of developing knowledge. Sociology is a social
science but uses the natural sciences methods of researching on social issues or questions…
± Science: - A science is a discipline, a subject area that is characterized by a uniquely
significant body of knowledge that has been unbiasely developed, accumulated, organized
systematically in an orderly and local manner, through the scientific research…
A science, also contain its own theories, concepts, principles, facts and a set of attitudes which
can motivate the willingness on the part of researchers to modify, change and even discard any
information that is found to be wrong in favour of more reliable evidence or knowledge. This
paradigm characterizes Sociology and this is why we can consider it as a science…

± Human Science: - Sociology does not study one individual. Instead, it examines
collections of individuals in society with respect to the behaviour, activities, problems and
many other issues observable in the groupings. This is why we have used the term human
groupings...
± Social Phenomena: - The term ‘social phenomena’ (singular is phenomenon), means a
collection of occurrences, events, objects, happenings, structures, all of which are part of,
appear in and are observable in a human society. Examples of social phenomena are the
social institutions, relationships, behaviours, activities, culture, traditions, changes
organizations, roles, crimes, and many more like political and schooling systems…
Sociology as a field of study has many branches ... it is the octopus of society since it has
tentacles in many aspects of society i.e. some of these branches are:

 Sociology of...education ...religion...social organization... knowledge... law... migration...

police... sociology... mathematics...Economics...urban...rural...art...etc...

The Branches of Sociology

 Now that you know how to define sociology, you should also be aware that it is inevitably a
diverse discipline so as to address the various social contexts that are part of a given society.
Because of the diversity of social the phenomena, Sociology has tried to cover many old and
new aspects through a number of branches into which it is subdivided. Some of these are:
(i) Sociology of Education
(ii) Sociology of religion.
(iii) Sociology of Social organization.
(iv) Sociology of knowledge
(v) Sociology of law.
(vi) Police of Sociology.
(vii) Military Sociology
(viii) Sociology of migration
(ix) Economics of Sociology
(x) Mathematics Sociology.
(xi) Urban Sociology.
(xii) Rural Sociology.
(xiii) Sociology of Art.
(xiv) Sociology Theories.

And the list goes on. Some of these branches are very obscure, but on notable sociologist,
Emile Durkeim, once remarked that there are as many branches of Sociology as there are
varieties of social facts in human societies.

Some Issues or Concerns of Sociology

Sociology is said to be the “study of social phenomena”. Thus each of the factors to be studied
through sociology is an issue or concern that is, “whatever touches the human society and also
what the human society touches” are the concern of sociology...

 Introduction to sociology and sociology of education

There are many acceptable definitions of sociology of education including the following;

 Sociology of education is a major and specialized branch of sociology which systematically

studies issues, problems and questions that occur within the education phenomenon. It is
meant to analyse the various features of education that are affected by and also affect the
society but educational in nature…
 Sociology of education can be explained as a “major and specified branch of Sociology
which systematically and scientifically studies the sociological issues, problems and
questions that occur within the education phenomena”…
 Sociology of education is +++ the systematic, scientific study of education that looks at
patterns of human interaction within educational institutions…It is discipline which attempts
to analyze systematically, the sociological aspects, processes and patterns occurring within
educational phenomenon…It applies the sociological perspective to study education by
applying a principles and theories from sociology which is the parent discipline…It is a
specialized branch of sociology that studies education as social institution
Key aspects in sociological definition of sociology of education

 Formal – its documented and recorded

 Systematic – its procedural, logical, step-by-step and consistent
 Major and specialized branch of sociology……….. Sociology of education is one of the main
branches of sociology among others sociology of the family and religion focusing on
education which is one of society’s social institution entrusted with the socialization of
children into job and career setting that makes society sustain itself
 Systematically and scientifically studies……… Sociology of education utilizes scientific
methods to generate knowledge on social issues occurring in education. The scientific
approach generate systematic (well planned methods and procedures) and objectives data can
be replicated ensuring and validity of theories generated.
 Sociological issues, problems and questions…..education phenomenon…….. Sociology of
education recognizes the fact that there are issues, problems and questions that emanate from
society (are sociological in nature and entail human behaviour from the group perspective
that heavily relies on interaction between members) that occur within educational setting
(enterprise) or have an effect, and influence education, school, teachers, pupils and learning-
teaching activities inside the classroom and schools.

Relationship between sociology and sociology of education

 Sociology of education is a major branch of sociology meaning that sociology of education

applies the sociological perspective in the understanding of education...
 Both disciplines utilize similar concepts ideas and theories to differentiate them from other
discipline studying human behaviour...
 Sociology is older/broader/mother to sociology of education which is younger/narrower and
offshoot of sociology
 Sociology has more theories which are borrowed and applied in sociology of education
 Society is the target material for sociology and also it is the source of an education system
which sociology of education studies...
 Sociology supplies the needed and suitable methods for studying issues in education...
 The understanding of educational issues and processes data for use in the construction of a
comprehensive picture of society in its many facets...

1. Sociology as a Discipline:
 Definition: Sociology is the scientific study of society, human social behavior,
and the institutions and structures that shape social life.
 Scope: It encompasses a broad range of topics, including social institutions,
culture, social interaction, social change, and more.
2. Sociology of Education:
 Definition: The sociology of education is a subfield within sociology that focuses
specifically on the social institutions and processes involved in education.
 Scope: It examines how education systems function, the impact of education on
individuals and society, educational inequalities, and the role of education in
socialization.
3. Interconnected Themes:
  Social Institutions: Both sociology and the sociology of education examine
social institutions. Sociology looks at various institutions in society, while the
sociology of education focuses specifically on the educational institution.
 Socialization: Both fields explore the process of socialization, which is the way
individuals learn and internalize societal norms, values, and behaviors. Education
plays a significant role in this process.
4. Educational Inequalities:
 Sociological Perspective: Sociology examines inequalities in society, including
those related to social class, race, gender, and other factors.
 Sociology of Education Perspective: This subfield delves deeper into
educational inequalities, investigating how factors such as socioeconomic status
impact educational opportunities and outcomes.
5. Social Change:
 Sociology Perspective: Sociology investigates social change and its drivers,
including changes in institutions and social structures.
 Sociology of Education Perspective: The sociology of education considers how
educational systems can be agents of social change and how changes in society
can influence education.
6. Research Methods:
 Shared Methods: Both fields use similar research methods, including surveys,
interviews, observations, and statistical analyses. However, the focus of inquiry
differs based on the broader sociological context or the specific educational
setting.
7. Mutual Influences:
 Reciprocal Relationship: Developments in sociology can influence the sociology
of education and vice versa. For example, changes in societal norms and
structures can impact educational practices, and educational systems can, in turn,
shape broader social dynamics.

Contrasts and differences between sociology and sociology of education

 That Sociology is older than sociology of education…

 That Sociology is broader in scope and has more content than sociology of education…
Sociology covers a wider scope of phenomenon than sociology of education…
 Sociology mainly uses informal set-ups while sociology of education uses mainly formal set-
ups with a formal curriculum with formal examinations…
 Socialization which in sociology is broader and continues throughout life while socialization
in sociology of education is mainly formal may end with formal education…
 That Sociology of education is a microcosm in a cosm of sociology which encompasses
entire society…
 Sociology of education mainly has formal socializers who may be formally trained and
employed to socialize socializees using formal socialization in the documented examinable
while sociology may not have formal socializers and a documented syllabus but uses cultural
content in society…
  Due to use of formal curriculum, socialization in education is uniform across the country but
socialization in sociology may vary due to cultural variations…
Significant issues that are the concern of sociology of education

Relationship between a society and its education system

 The issue examines the extent to which other social institutions like family, economy, politics
and religion are involved in the growth, maintenance, support and control of educational
activity and the effect the instability of these institutions will have on education...

Functions and contributions of education

 Sociology of education also concerns itself with the contributions and functions of the education
system for society to justify its existence. Both latent and manifest functions of education for
society are relevant concerns of sociology of education...

School as a formal organization

 Sociology of education examines whether the school is a social organization in terms of its
formal and informal structure that assists it to fulfil some specific task for society...

The teacher and the teaching activity

 Teachers play important roles within the school system which include counselling, judging and
evaluating and need to be properly socialized to play these roles effectively. Consequently,
teacher preparation and socialization as well as teacher activities in the school need to be
supported and facilitated to ensure a smooth teaching/learning process...

The learners learning environment

 The learning material and social environment has great influence on their acquisition of mental,
physical and social knowledge as well as wellbeing. It is therefore necessary for an educator to
understand and be aware of how and why the environment affects learners...

Gender issues in education

 Gender inequality is an issue in education and is manifested in form of poor educational

outcomes for women and girls in terms of under-participation, under-achievement and under-
representation at all level of the education system. Further, it is observed that schooling is a
major perpetuator of gender inequalities thus making it a sociological issue occurring within
education that warrant concern...

Method used in sociology of education

What is sociological perspective?

Sociological perspective is an angle of vision/a way of looking at something...in education it is a
systematic explanation and/or assumptions regarding the relationship among social phenomena
which guide educators in conceptualization and interpretation various social dynamics in
teaching and learning processes…

Importance of sociological perspective in the teaching and learning process

Sociological perspective enables educators to…

 It introduces the teacher to a new view i.e. the sociological perspective of understanding
the total realms of education including the schools, teaching activities, teachers, pupils and
many other components...
 Acquaints the teacher with the nature of the existing and upcoming socio-educational
problems that may come into the running of the school and the classroom...
 Enhance the teacher’s role in terms of knowing and being aware of how he/she is doing
especially in the classroom when interacting with learners more closely...
 Enables the teacher to conceptualize the school community in it’s entirely as an outgrowth
of the larger society...
 Helps the teacher to acknowledge the social purpose of education from a wider societal
perspective and not from a narrow personalized-self-interest approach...
 Enables the teacher to learn more about and hopefully apply the research procedures that
Sociology of Education uses to obtain and accumulate the dependable knowledge about
education...
 Initiate and sustain change in education to make it relevant in transmission of values that
are sustainably socially desirable...
 Acknowledge the social purpose of education from a wider societal perspective and not
from a narrow personalized-self-interest approach…
 Enhance teachers understanding of education as social institution with a specific role to
perform society assists teachers to efficiently prepare students who will fit within their
society…
 Enables teachers to appreciate the social relationship between a society and its education
system; Functions and contributions of education; School as a formal organization; the
teacher and the teaching activity; the learners learning environment and effects of
globalization in educations and society among others…
 Apply sociological theories to analyze educational problems and come up with objective
and realistic solutions to enable efficacy in teaching and learning processes for better
learning outcomes…such challenges could arise from school discipline, HIV and AIDS,
Obesity, drug and substance abuse, poor academic performance, gender discrimination,
truancy, drop outs, FGM, absenteeism, strikes, curriculum review, use of IT in education
etc which are some of sociological concerns in contemporary education…

Further practice Discussion questions

 What is sociology?
 Compare and contrast sociology and sociology of education?
  Discuss reasons that led to emergence of sociology and sociology of education?
 Provide 5 innovative arguments/rationales for the study of sociology of education in
teacher educational programs in context of CBC


Meaning, roles, origin, development and relevance of sociology of education

 The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual
experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is mostly concerned with the public
schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher,
further, adult, and continuing education.

 The sociology of education refers to how individuals' experiences shape the way they
interact with schooling. More specifically, the sociology of education examines the ways
in which individuals' experiences affect their educational achievement and outcomes.

 Engaging in sociology offers career pathways in the fields of urban development and
planning, public policy, nonprofit management, criminal and social justice, social
activism, community outreach and many more

 Sociology increases the understanding and power of social action. Sociology studies the
role of social institutions (home, school, church and more) in the development of the
individuals. Sociology provides critical insight and perspective to the solution of social
problems.

 The three functions of the sociology of education are:

o to understand the role educational systems play in the shape of society as a whole.
o how education as a social institution affects the individual.
o ways to address problems within education if the sociologist is engaging in
applied sociology.

 Durkheim established the academic discipline of sociology as a basis for organic and
social solidarity 19. This is considered as the beginning of sociology of education.
Therefore, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are regarded as fathers of sociology of
education.

 Sociology of Education: It is concerned with educational aims, methods, institutions,

administration and curricula in relation to the economic, political, religious, social and
cultural forces of the society in which they function.

 Sociologists have classified the different types of societies into six categories, each of
which possesses their own unique characteristics:
 Hunting and gathering societies.
 Pastoral societies.
 Horticultural societies.
  Agricultural societies.
 Industrial societies.
 Post-industrial societies.

 Sociology of education deals with how education and conclusions are affected by
individual experiences and public institutions. The study of the development of public
education systems and its blow on modern industrial societies form the subject of the
branch of study in sociology of education.

 Dewey thought that effective education came primarily through social interactions and
that the school setting should be considered a social institution (Flinders & Thornton,
2013). He considered education to be a “process of living and not a preparation for future
living”

 The founders of sociology—Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer and Karl Marx—intended

to create, each in his own fashion, a universal science of society.

 six of the founders of sociology—Karl Marx, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, George
Herbert Mead, Jane Addams, and W. E. B. Du Bois—carried out the two core
commitments of sociology.

 The three major sociological theories that new students learn about are the interactionist
perspective, the conflict perspective, and the functionalist perspective. And each has its
own distinct way of explaining various aspects of society and the human behavior within
it.

 Sociology is the scientific study of human society. There are so many subfields in
Sociology. Sociology of Education is one such sub-field of Sociology. In sociology of
education, one learns about the effects of government and individual behaviors on the
field of education.

 Functionalist sociologist Emile Durkheim saw Education as performing two major

functions in advanced industrial societies – transmitting the shared values of society and
simultaneously teaching the specialised skills for an economy based on a specialised
division of labour.

 Weber's ideas on education highlight the relationship between power and education. They
recognise the difference between education as a cultural value and education related to
the pursuit of power, whether in the case of capitalist society or traditional Chinese
society or in the context of his own (German) society.

 Marxists argue that education aims to legitimise and reproduce class inequalities by
forming a subservient class and workforce. Education also prepares children of the
capitalist ruling class (the bourgeoisie) for positions of power. Education is part of the
'superstructure'.
 Auguste Comte, in full Isidore-Auguste-Marie-François-Xavier Comte, (born January 19,
1798, Montpellier, France—died September 5, 1857, Paris), French philosopher known
as the founder of sociology and of positivism. Comte gave the science of sociology its
name and established the new subject in a systematic fashion.

 Harriet Martineau (June 12, 1802- June 27, 1876), barely known for her contributions to
Sociology is today known as the 'mother of Sociology'.

 The seven areas of sociology are social organization, social psychology, social change,
human ecology, population and demographics, applied sociology, and sociological
methods and research.

 essential characteristics of sociology are;

 It is an Independent Science.
 It Social Science not Physical.
 It is a Categorical Science.
 Pure Science.
 Sociology is Generalizing not Particular.
 General Science Not Special.
 Empirical Science.

 The sociology of education is the study of how public institutions and individual
experiences affect education and its outcomes. It is mostly concerned with the public
schooling systems of modern industrial societies, including the expansion of higher,
further, adult, and continuing education.

 Since Human relationships are very complex, sociology of education helps teachers to be
aware of certain outcomes of a group's behavior, and to understand that attitudes, values
and beliefs of those around them hence enhancing effective teaching and learning
process.

 Sociology of education has provided important perceptions into the ways in which
schools affect individuals and groups. For learning to take place activators of learning
should be aware of the society around them. It is of paramount importance for teachers to
study sociology of education.

 The sociology of education refers to how individuals' experiences shape the way they
interact with schooling. More specifically, the sociology of education examines the ways
in which individuals' experiences affect their educational achievement and outcomes.

 The three functions of the sociology of education are: to understand the role educational
systems play in the shape of society as a whole. how education as a social institution
affects the individual.
 Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social
integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation.

 Durkheim established the academic discipline of sociology as a basis for organic and
social solidarity 19. This is considered as the beginning of sociology of education.
Therefore, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber are regarded as fathers of sociology of
education.

 Education gives everyone a chance to acquire new knowledge and learn soft skills that
will help them improve their life. Education also helps children to appreciate themselves,
their ambitions and knowledge from an early age, and to understand that they have been
given a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity.

 Educational sociology has two main fields of study, namely “education as society” and
“education in society”. The former takes education as a social system or a social fact,
analyzing its social structure or process. The typical subfields are sociology of school, of
class-room, and of teachers.

 Education gives everyone a chance to acquire new knowledge and learn soft skills that
will help them improve their life. Education also helps children to appreciate themselves,
their ambitions and knowledge from an early age, and to understand that they have been
given a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity

 A systematic sociology of education began with Émile Durkheim's work on moral

education as a basis for organic solidarity and that by Max Weber, on the Chinese literati
as an instrument of political control.

 Sociology of education is concerned with educational aims, methods, institutions,

administration and curricula in relation to the economic, political, religious, social and
cultural forces of the society in which they function.

 The sociology of education is a specialized sociological scien- tific discipline whose

subject matter is the education system as a societal institution, the interaction of its
subsystems, and the interaction of the education system and its subsystems with soci- ety,
primarily with the societal structure.

 We can say that the main character of the “New sociology of education” is its application
of the “interpretive approach” for schooling. Its origins exist in Schutz's
phenomenological sociology and Mead's symbolic interactionism, and it sees schooling
as the negotiation process between teachers and students.

 There are six manifest functions of education namely socialization, social control, social
placement, transmitting culture, promoting social and political integration and as an agent
of change (Javier et al, 2002). Education also serves as an agent of social control.
  Education certainly determines the quality of an individual's life. Education improves
one's knowledge, skills and develops the personality and attitude. Most noteworthy,
Education affects the chances of employment for people. A highly educated individual is
probably very likely to get a good job.

 Education is one of the most important means to improve personal endowments, build
capabilities, overcome constraints and in the process, enlarge available set of
opportunities and choices for a sustained improvement in well-being. The process of
education and attainments thereof has an impact on all aspects of life.

Further practice Discussion questions

 Explain what is sociology of education
 Discuss factors that lead to emergence of sociology and sociology of education
 Identify 5 persons and Discuss their contributions to the development of sociology and
sociology of education

Main sociological theories and their relevance in education

What is meant by theory?

 A theory, or a theoretical model, is series propositions about the possible nature of an object
or phenomenon.
 We use the word possible because a theory is not a final statement of truth but a series of
plausible conjunctures, based on available evidence, which appears to most accurate
describe that phenomenon, account from how it functions and how it relates to other
phenomena.
 Theories are important because they enable sociologists to make generalizations about
observations that consist of interrelated, coherent set of ideas and models…
 Typically, theories are both descriptive and explanatory i.e. a theory should have the
capacity to describe a set of observed phenomenon and to explain their occurrence, usually
causally…
 In our usual understanding of science, a theory continues to be worked on and tested and is
thus always open-ended and provisional rather than dogmatically held to represent the
‘truth’ so theory from the scientist in always work in progress and the scientist may well end
up having to revise their ideas if sufficient evidence emerges that contradicts an existing
theory…
Sociological theory

 Sociological theory emerges out of attempts to provide explanatory frameworks that link
specific aspects of the social world to larger processes, thus helping us to contextualize them
 and to understand them. William skid more (1979:4) suggest that most sociological theories
are developed out of a desire to find solutions to ‘theoretical problems’…

 Sociological theory/perspective systematic explanation of the relationship among social

phenomena which guide in interpretations is a theoretical perspective is general set of
assumptions about the nature about the nature of a social phenomenon…is application of
empirical observation through use of relevant sociological theories/paradigms, research
procedures, analysis and interpretations so as to be able to draw the right
inferences/conclusions about social concerns, problems, issues in society…is way of
looking, viewing, analyzing and finally explaining social concerns, issues or problems in
society…it looks at the totality of relationships in an individual’s life…

 …Applied in a school situation the sociological theories/perspectives can be used appreciate

issues concerning school discipline, drug abuse, academic performance, gender issues,
truancy etc which are sociological concerns in education…a perspective can be defined as a
way of looking at and seeing something…to have a perspective, therefore, means to look at
something (whatever that thing might be) in a particular way.
Examples of sociological theories and perspectives include but not limited to…

 Symbolic Interactionism
 Labelling theory
 The Tabula Rasa
 The looking glass self-theory
 Role taking theory
 Structural functionalism theory
 Conflict theory
Symbolic Interactionism and its application to education
Meaning: Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological theory that focuses on the subjective
interpretation of symbols and the role of social interactions in shaping individual behavior. In
education, it explores how symbols, language, and social processes influence learning, identity
formation, and educational outcomes.
Proponents and Year:
 Proponents: George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer are key contributors.
 Year of Emergence: Early 20th century, with Mead's work in the late 1920s and Blumer
formalizing the theory in the 1960s.
Explanations of the Theory:
 George Herbert Mead: Mead emphasized the role of language and symbols in the
development of the self. He introduced concepts like "self" and "generalized other" to
explain how individuals learn to see themselves from the perspective of society.
 Herbert Blumer: Blumer expanded Mead's ideas, defining Symbolic Interactionism as a
perspective focusing on the subjective meanings individuals attach to objects, events, and
behaviors. He highlighted the importance of ongoing social interactions in shaping these
meanings.
Assumptions:
1. Subjective Reality: Reality is socially constructed and varies based on individuals'
interpretations.
 2. Symbolic Meaning: Symbols have different meanings for different people or groups.
3. Social Interaction: Meaningful interaction is essential for understanding and interpreting
symbols.
4. Identity Formation: Identity is a result of social interactions and the meanings attached
to symbols.
5. Dynamic Nature: Social life is dynamic, with meanings and interactions constantly
evolving.
Tenets/Principles:
1. Symbolic Meaning: Individuals assign meanings to symbols through a process of
interpretation.
2. Interaction and Process: Social life is an ongoing process of interaction and negotiation
of meanings.
3. Subjective Reality: Reality is subjective, shaped by the meanings individuals give to
symbols.
4. Role of Symbols: Symbols, including language and gestures, are central to
communication and meaning-making.
5. Identity Formation: The self and identity develop through social interactions and the
meanings attributed to symbols.
Application to Education:
1. Classroom Interaction: Understanding how symbols shape teacher-student and student-
student interactions in the classroom.
2. Labeling Theory: Exploring how labels assigned in educational settings impact students'
self-concept and behavior.
3. Teacher Expectations: Analyzing how teacher expectations, communicated through
symbols like grades, influence students' academic performance and self-esteem.
4. Peer Relationships: Studying how symbols contribute to the development of norms and
values within peer groups.
5. Identity and Socialization: Examining how educational experiences contribute to the
formation of students' identities and self-concept.
6. Educational Inequalities: Understanding how symbolic interactions contribute to the
reproduction of social inequalities in education, such as through biased teacher
expectations.
In summary, Symbolic Interactionism in education explores the subjective meanings individuals
give to symbols and how social interactions shape learning, identity, and educational outcomes.
It has influential proponents, including Mead and Blumer, and is applied to various aspects of the
educational experience

Conflict theory

 Conflict means disagreement/ disharmony…

 The term conflict was used by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engel’s to describe conflicting
 situations in the society… Conflict could emerge in society if…
 Sources of conflict in education includes…

♫ Power that is not fairly distributed…

 ♫ Class and interschool competitions in academics and games…
♫ Award of scholarships and bursaries…
♫ Competition in employment and promotion opportunities…
♫ People are sharing resource in unfair and unequal manner…
♫ Poor performance in examinations…
♫ Corruption and unethical practices…
♫ Tribalism and ethnicity…
♫ Completion in sports, games and athletics interschool competitions…
♫ Control and distribution of power and leadership positions…
♫ Religious and faith based difference…
♫ Emerging issues and force of change in education…
♫ Lack of involvement in educational policies, rules and regulations…
♫ Unfair remuneration and terms of services…
♫ Unequal distribution of teaching load and learning resources…

Meaning: Conflict theory is a sociological perspective that examines how societal inequalities,
particularly in power and resources, lead to conflicts and struggles among different groups.
Applied to education, conflict theory explores how educational systems perpetuate and reinforce
social inequalities.
Proponents and Year:
 Proponents: Karl Marx and later developed by scholars like Max Horkheimer, Theodor
Adorno, and Pierre Bourdieu.
 Year of Emergence: The roots of conflict theory can be traced back to the works of Karl
Marx in the 19th century.
Explanations of the Theory:
 Karl Marx: Marx emphasized the role of economic structures in shaping society. In
education, he argued that the system reflects and perpetuates existing class structures,
serving the interests of the dominant class.
 Later Scholars: Expanded on Marx's ideas to include cultural and symbolic dimensions
of inequality. For example, Pierre Bourdieu introduced the concept of cultural capital,
highlighting how cultural knowledge can be a source of power and privilege.
Assumptions:
1. Structural Inequality: Society is characterized by inherent structural inequalities,
particularly in terms of class, race, and gender.
2. Power Dynamics: Social institutions, including education, are tools for maintaining and
reinforcing the power of dominant groups.
3. Conflict as a Driving Force: Conflict and struggle are inherent in social relationships,
and they result from the competition for limited resources.
Tenets/Principles:
1. Structural Inequality: Society is structured to benefit the ruling class, and educational
institutions are not neutral but serve the interests of those in power.
2. Role of Education: Education is seen as a mechanism for reproducing social
inequalities, transmitting and legitimizing the values of the dominant class.
3. Hidden Curriculum: Apart from formal curricula, education has a "hidden curriculum"
that reinforces social norms, values, and inequalities.
 4. Cultural Reproduction: Educational systems contribute to the reproduction of cultural
and social inequalities across generations.
Application to Education:
1. Tracking and Stratification: Examining how educational systems contribute to the
tracking of students into different levels or educational paths, reinforcing social
inequalities.
2. Meritocracy Critique: Analyzing how the idea of meritocracy in education often masks
underlying social inequalities and serves to legitimize the existing power structures.
3. Access to Resources: Investigating how unequal access to resources such as quality
teachers, facilities, and educational materials perpetuates social disparities.
4. Critical Pedagogy: Promoting critical education that encourages students to question and
challenge social inequalities and power structures.
5. Curriculum Analysis: Assessing how educational curricula reflect or challenge
dominant ideologies and contribute to cultural reproduction.
In summary, conflict theory applied to education focuses on the role of educational institutions in
perpetuating social inequalities and serving the interests of dominant groups. It critiques the
structural aspects of education and explores how power dynamics contribute to unequal access
and outcomes within educational systems.

Labelling theory

 It was developed by a sociologist by name Howard Becker…

 It focuses on the tendency of the majority/powerful to label minorities or subordinate staff…
 These categories of the people are likely to label each other as they interact…
 All sorts of labels are likely to able the less powerful…
 A label may be is a tag/mark/name…description…meaning to someone some actions,
behavior, character…
 Labelling theory is defined as an orientation that explains the basis upon which certain
individuals in society are seen to be different, or out of the norm, are given tags, labels…
 Labels may carry positive or negative connotations…
Educational implications of labelling theory

 In a school situation, students may be tagged or labelled based on academic ability, ethnic
origins, cultural background, character or behaviour, physical appearance, religious
affiliations or other factors…
 Students may be labelled based on perceptions of whether they are good or bad teachers,
patience or impatient or harsh or lenient based on the way a teacher, talks, dresses, walks
etc…
 Labelling can have negative or positive impact on the students affecting the self-esteem,
behaviour or even academic performance in a process known as the self –fulfilling
prophesy…
 The theory therefore implies that caution should be taken by teachers to use academic
evaluation/ assessment properly so that student’s academic of giving negative labels…
positive and constructive labels that are understood by students should always be used…
 Labelling students…Is an aspect of giving tags to students…Students internalize the labels or
tags and conform to them…Self-fulfilling prophecy influence outcomes…
 Outcomes of labelling are indicated by…Academic performance…Behaviour change...
discipline…Attitudes and social interactions and Expectations [all of which may be good/bad
depending on the labels used]…

The looking glass self-theory - Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) was a social psychologist and one of the founders of the
interactive perspective theory in sociology…

♫ In addition to development the notion of primary group, Cooley is the most noted from this
theory explaining how individuals develop a sense of self…
♫ Central to his theory is the concepts looking glass self…
♫ The theory explains the interactive process by which we develop an image or ourselves based
on how we imagine we appear to others…
♫ Other people act as mirrors, reflecting back the image we project through their reaction to our
behaviour…
♫ According to Cooley, the development of the looking glass self is a three step process…
♫ 1st we use our perception of how others judge us to develop feeling about ourselves…
♫ 2nd based on their reactions to us, we attempt to determine whether others view us as we view
ourselves…
♫ Finally, we use our perception of how others view us to refine our self-image/identity based
on how others view us…self-development begins early in childhood…
♫ The process of identity development begins early in childhood and continues throughout
life…
♫ According to Cooley, a new-born baby has no sense of person or place…
♫ The entire world appears as one mass…then various members of the child’s primary group-
interact with the growing child…they provide the child with a mirror that reflects his or her
image…From this, interactive process; a child develops a sense of self…We continually
refine our self-images as we alter our interpretations of the way we think others view us…
Educational implication of looking glass self-theory

 This theory puts a lot of responsibilities on parents and other primary group members who
interact with children…
 Parents & teachers who think little of a child’s ability and let their feelings be known will
likely give rise to feeling of inferiority in their children’s, students… or vice versa may make
the child to achieve, succeed in life… On the other hand, parents who treat their children as
capable and competent are likely to produce capable and competent children…
 Cooley pointed out that while this process starts in childhood, it continues throughout life…
 Educators should think and act responsibly to enhance positive self-concept, inspire
passionately and be positive to all learners regardless of their individual differences,
weaknesses, ability, backgrounds, age, gender, tribe, creed, faith…
 Explains how an individual acquires a sense a self through the socialization process in
schools so that teachers as socializers can use formal curriculum and other social structures in
schools to effectively socialize learners to acquire positive and socially desirable attributes…
 Explains how individuals learn towards the active theories of socialization because the
individual assesses the perception of their others towards their actions in line with their own
individual traits…
Role taking theory - George Herbert Mead (1863-1931)

 Was a founder of the interactions perspective

 According to Mead, seeing ourselves as others see us is only the beginning…
 Eventually, we come not only to see ourselves as others see us but actually to take or pretend
to take the role of others…
 This act of role taking forms the basis of the socialization process, by allowing us to
anticipate what others expect of us…
 We thus are able to see ourselves through the eyes of others…
 Mead points out that we first internalize the expectations of those closer to us that is our
parents, brothers, sister and others… Children develop a self-mind ability to reason by taking
/acting out the role of the other they put themselves in someone else shoes to understand how
someone else feels and thinks in certain situations...
 Anticipate how that person will act…
 Learning through role taking goes through 3 stages – imitation, play and games…
 He theorized that human beings begin their understanding of the social world through play
and games...
 Play comes first in the child development…the children takes different roles s/he observes in
“adult” society, and plays them out to gain an understanding of different social roles…
 Specific people who have a direct influence on our socialization…
 He called the internalized attitudes, expectations and view pints of society the generalized
other…
 We come to internalize the generalized other thorough the process of role taking…
 He visualized role taking as involving imitation, play and games…
 Through role taking, individuals develop a sense of self…
 According to mead, the self-consist of two related parts the “I” and the “me”…
 In children, the “I” component of their personality in stronger than the ‘me’…
 Through socialization, the “me” gains power over the “I” bringing our cautions in line with
the expectations of society…
 However, the “me” never totally dominates the “I” and both aspects of our personality are
needed if we are to be well rounded individuals, bringing our actions in line with the
expectations of society…
 Through role playing individuals develop a sense of ‘self’ – which consists of two related
parts the ‘I’ and the ‘me’ …
 The ‘I’ is un-socialized, spontaneous and self-interested component of the personality and the
self-identity…
 The “me” is that part of our personality that is aware of the expectations and activities of
society [socialized self-]…
 In children the ‘i’ component of their identity is stronger than the ‘me’ but through the
process of socialization the ‘me’ becomes stronger thereby bringing their actions in line with
the expectations of society…
 However, the ‘me’ never totally dominates the ‘i’ because we need both aspects to ensure a
well-rounded personality…to develop self and society…
 Educational implications of Role Taking theory

 Educators need to have positive view and good expectations of learners and use them to
encourage them regardless of their character flaws…
 Encourage learners to form good attitudes to self and others…view every challenge as an
opportunity to assert themselves…keep on instead of withdrawing…being negative and
giving up…take a positive attitude for development of a positive personality…
 Enables Educators to appreciate how socialization process in teaching and learning can
provide avenues for development of social vices and unproductive human instincts…hence
develop and implement a curriculum that can ameliorate such social vices in a civilized
peaceful humane environment…
Structural functionalism theory…………….

It was developed from the ideas of Charles Darwin-who came up with the evolution or
organisms…
 According to Darwin, organisms develop from small to complex structures…
 Therefore, structural functionalism is based on the organic theory analogy…
 Early social philosophers such as Auguste Comte and Emile Durkheim followed the
analogy/conceptualization of Darwin…
 These social philosophers saw a similarity between an organism, society and human body…
 The three (human body, organism society) have structures that function properly for it to be
healthy, so is the society...
 Each part in a body must be well -coordinated so as to foster a proper harmonization…
 Just as the human body has evolved over time, so has the society…
 The view of the society is to ensure survival for the organisms, human body or the society…
 In order for a society to survive, the subsystem must function in ways that promote and
maintain existence of society as a whole…

Educational implication of structural functionalism theory to education

♫ Education system has evolved overtime…this is seen after looking at various educational
commissions since independence…the aim of these commissions is to be able to incorporate
the new ideas/changes of the society…at the same time aspects that are not needed are shed
off and new ones are incorporated…
♫ School operates as a structure-with the hierarchy of positions-these positions must be well
synchronized for them to function…
♫ There must be a co-coordinating office-which ensures that duties are efficiently done and not
duplicated…
♫ Head teachers office should be seen to be effective in enchaining efficient…

The Tabula Rasa Theory - John Locke (1632-1704)

 Insisted that each newly born child is tabular rasa or clean state- on which can be written just
anything
 He claimed that each of us is born without a personality…
 We acquire our personally as result of our social experiences…
 He believed that human beings can be mounded into any type of character…
 He further believed that given a new born infant, he could shape the individual into whatever
type of person he wanted…

NB:
Many of the basic assumptions about socialization are related to Locke’s views…
 Most sociologists think of socialization as process by which we absorb those aspects of
our culture with which we come into contact…
 Through the socialization process, we develop our sense of being as distinct member of
society…

Educational implications of Tabula Rasa theory

 Educators should regard and encourage learner’s innocence, good intentions and correct them
in a friendly/caring and considerate manner…to make them more responsible…create and
promote spirit of trust/faith and confidence…
 Always belief and expect their best efforts/intentions/interests and wish them the best in their
efforts to better self and society…
 Be positive…constructive and hopeful for out any learner regardless of their ability you can
make them become important in their own right...their ability and intellectual
differences/deficiencies not withstanding…
 Promote and encourage fairness and give every learner a chance/avoid being
judgmental/biased and partisan…
 Educators can shape a child into a person desired by family/society…

Further practice Discussion questions

 Justify the use of sociological theories in the study of contemporary educational theory
and practice
 Identify 5 sociological theories and tease out their respective tenets. Using relevant
illustrations discuss educational implications of the theories identified in context of CBC

Relationship Between Education and Society

The relationship between education and society is complex and multifaceted, as education plays a crucial
role in shaping and influencing various aspects of societal development. Here are some key aspects of the
relationship between education and society:
Socialization: Education is a primary institution for socialization, where individuals learn the values,
norms, customs, and behaviors that are accepted in a particular society. It helps individuals understand
their roles and responsibilities within the community.
Cultural Transmission: Education is a vehicle for the transmission of culture from one generation to the
next. It preserves and passes on the knowledge, beliefs, traditions, and skills that define a particular
society.
Social Mobility: Education is often seen as a means of social mobility, allowing individuals to improve
their socio-economic status. Access to quality education can contribute to breaking the cycle of poverty
and promoting upward mobility within a society.
Economic Development: Education is closely linked to economic development. A well-educated
workforce is essential for economic growth and innovation. It equips individuals with the skills and
knowledge needed to participate in a modern, knowledge-based economy.
Political Participation: Education is crucial for fostering active and informed citizenship. A well-
educated populace is more likely to participate in civic activities, engage in political processes, and make
informed decisions in a democratic society.
Social Equality: Education has the potential to promote social equality by providing equal opportunities
for all individuals, regardless of their background. However, issues such as unequal access to quality
education can perpetuate social disparities.
Cultural Diversity: Education can foster an understanding and appreciation of cultural diversity. It can
contribute to the development of a tolerant and inclusive society by promoting intercultural awareness
and respect for different perspectives.
Innovation and Progress: Education is a driving force behind technological and scientific advancements.
It cultivates critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving skills, which are essential for innovation and
progress in various fields.
Social Cohesion: A well-functioning education system can contribute to social cohesion by promoting a
sense of community and shared values. It can help bridge societal divides and foster a sense of belonging
among diverse groups.
Social Change: Education has the potential to be a catalyst for social change. It can challenge existing
norms, promote progressive ideas, and contribute to the evolution of societal attitudes and values.
Generally, education and society are interdependent, with education playing a central role in shaping
individuals and influencing the overall development and dynamics of a society. The quality and nature of
education in a society can have profound and lasting effects on its social, economic, and cultural fabric

Relationship between education and society

 Society and education complement each other. Society lays down values and all members of
the society should respect norms. Education, on the other hand, attempts to preserve and
transmit some of the norms and values for welfare of all the members of the society. It is
through education that members of the society discover the aptitudes and are progressively
trained to become useful…
 Societal growth depends on new knowledge. If members of society lack new knowledge,
they risk extinction. Education enables people to be conversant with modern changes in
technology. Through education, man’s creativity and survival is enhanced…
 Education contributes to the upward social mobility. By acquiring education, one is likely to
move from one social status to another. There is increased possibility of interacting with
people who have acquired knowledge. Therefore, the more one acquires knowledge, the
higher the chances of climbing the social ladder…
 Education contributes to the economic development of the society. This is so because
educated and enlightened society is likely to be progressive. Such a society is likely to see
opportunities that are likely to be exploited. Such a development is likely to lead to higher
percapita income in society. Education trains professions and technocrats while society
provides them with opportunities for career…thus, provides education with the wherewithal
i.e. resources and facilities to sustain quality education that modernizes society...a good,
healthy and progressive system of education can enhance a mature, productive and developed
political and socio-economic structure in society which supports innovation the synergizes
education qualitatively and quantitatively…
 Educations brings attitudinal change that are important for social change and transformation
of society for continued existence…change of attitude is critical to overcome challenges that
threaten existence of society e.g. diseases due to ignorance, different types of poverty,
various types of corruption, disunity…education has the potency to bring out change oriented
workforce to adapt society for changes in all its forms e.g. politically, economically,
technologically, attitudinally(beliefs), socially to provide social vaccine to overcome
communicable and non-communicable diseases pandemic…
 Education is a catalyst to enable society reduces inequalities and disparities to ensure
meritocracy, fairness and social justice…
 The efficiency of political machinery depends on quality of education. Quality education
socializes citizens to realize, accept and practice self-discipline, responsibility, maturity,
accountability, tolerance, patience, respect for the rule of law which are quintessential for
good governance and democracy…organized quality education is instrumental to produce
efficient, productive and self-less leaders and statesmen/women as well as devouted,
enlightened and informed citizens…this mix will foster an optimum environment for political
stability and economic development in a civilized society…education enables society to
appreciate implications of political liberty and freedom…thus, making citizens to appreciate
their rights, duties and responsibilities to ensure good social order in society…i.e. diligence,
dignity, respect and integrity…
 Quality education and good governance mutually complement each other…education
transforms and produces quality leaders while good politics support good policies that
modernize education and society leading to civilization…

An education that is capable of developing the society in which it operates should be

characterized by the following:
≠ It should be an available to the generality of the people nut in such a way that quality is not
sacrificed to quantity. This raises the issue of equality of educational opportunities which is
still a myth in a myth African country...
≠ It should show a great deal of concern for the development of all natural resources of the
society in which it operates. If suitable manpower is not trained to exploit the natural
 resources of the nation foreign investors may take charge of the economy, leaving the
country persistently impoverished...
≠ There should be a lively curriculum that teaches vocational and technical courses as well as
the general development of a scientific attitude necessary for experimentation and inquiry. It
should concern itself with the development of the individual goal depends largely on the
individual’s personality and work behaviour, as seen in punctuality readiness to take
assignment from time to time and the quality of the outpoint...
≠ There should be a well-run and systematic programme for teacher training. All educational
efforts may be fruitless unless a positive teacher education program is maintained...

Further practice Discussion questions

 Using appropriate citations, demonstrate the relationship between education and society
 Discuss the features of education that has the potency to initiate and sustain social
transformation and development of human society


Social Change:
Social change refers to the transformation of societal structures, institutions, values, and
behaviors over time. It is a continuous process that can manifest at various levels within society.
Social change can be driven by a range of factors, and it often results in alterations to cultural,
economic, political, and social aspects of a community. Here are some examples of social
change:
a. Technological Revolution:
 The widespread adoption of the internet has revolutionized communication, altering how
people connect, share information, and engage with the world.
b. Civil Rights Movements:
 Historical movements, such as the Civil Rights Movement in the United States during the
1960s, led to significant legal and social changes, challenging racial segregation and
discrimination.
c. Gender Equality Advocacy:
 Ongoing movements advocating for gender equality have resulted in changes in societal
attitudes, legal reforms, and workplace dynamics, challenging traditional gender roles.
d. Industrialization:
  The Industrial Revolution marked a profound social change by transitioning societies
from agrarian economies to industrial ones, affecting work patterns, living conditions,
and social hierarchies.
e. Globalization:
 Increased global interconnectedness through trade, travel, and communication has led to
a more interconnected world, influencing cultural exchange, economic systems, and
political dynamics.
f. Environmental Awareness:
 Growing concerns about environmental sustainability have led to changes in individual
behaviors, corporate practices, and government policies to address climate change and
environmental degradation.
g. Digital Transformation:
 The digital revolution has transformed various sectors, including education, commerce,
and healthcare, reshaping the way people live and work.
h. Cultural Shifts:
 Changes in cultural norms and values, such as evolving attitudes towards family
structures, marriage, and social expectations, reflect ongoing social change.

Causes of Social Change in Education:

a. Technological Integration:
 The integration of technology in education, with examples like online learning platforms,
virtual classrooms, and educational apps, has transformed traditional teaching methods.
b. Economic Changes:
 Shifts in job markets and demands for specific skills influence educational priorities. For
example, a growing emphasis on STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics) education reflects economic trends.
c. Educational Policies and Reforms:
 Government policies and educational reforms, such as changes in curriculum standards,
standardized testing, and the emphasis on inclusive education, impact the structure and
content of education.
d. Globalization of Education:
  International collaborations and exchange programs contribute to a more diverse and
interconnected educational landscape, exposing students to global perspectives and ideas.
e. Social Movements:
 Social movements advocating for educational equality, diversity, and inclusivity can
influence educational policies and practices, fostering positive social change within
educational institutions.
f. Cultural Evolution:
 As cultural norms change, educational systems may adapt to reflect evolving societal
values, promoting inclusivity, diversity, and culturally responsive teaching practices.
g. Environmental Education Emphasis:
 Growing awareness of environmental issues may lead to changes in educational curricula
to include environmental education, fostering a sense of environmental responsibility
among students.
h. Technology Literacy Focus:
 With the increasing importance of technology in various professions, educational systems
may emphasize technological literacy, ensuring students are equipped with relevant
skills.

Role of Education as an Agent of Social Change:

Education is an institution in society, what happens in the larger society affects education. At the
same time, education is expected by society to bring in new material goods, new styles of dress,
new ways of doings things and new ideas to challenge existing ideas. These changes affect the
education system. This is mainly because education depends on other institutions. For example
the government and family must maintain, protect and feed education. If changes occur in the
family in influences changes in education
a. Promotion of Social Justice:
 Educational institutions can promote social justice by addressing inequalities in access to
quality education, implementing inclusive practices, and fostering an understanding of
social issues.
b. Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness:
  Education plays a role in fostering cultural sensitivity by incorporating diverse
perspectives, histories, and traditions into curricula, promoting understanding and
respect.
c. Skill Development for the Future:
 Education equips individuals with the skills needed for the evolving job market, fostering
innovation, critical thinking, and adaptability.
d. Environmental Education Initiatives:
 Educational programs focused on environmental issues contribute to a more
environmentally conscious citizenry, promoting sustainable practices and responsible
environmental behavior.
e. Gender-Inclusive Education:
 Initiatives promoting gender-inclusive education challenge traditional gender roles and
stereotypes, fostering equality and empowering all students.
f. Community Engagement and Social Responsibility:
 Educational institutions can instill a sense of social responsibility by encouraging
community engagement, volunteerism, and a commitment to making a positive impact on
society.
g. Digital Literacy Programs:
 Education can address the digital divide by implementing digital literacy programs,
ensuring that students are equipped with the skills needed in a technologically advanced
society.
h. Inclusive Education Practices:
 The adoption of inclusive education practices ensures that diverse learning needs are met,
promoting a more inclusive and equitable society.

Further roles of education in social change and development :

 Schools can be viewed as agents of social change. Reforms, renovations can
be facilitated by education. Education facilitates technological renovation...
 Education may be used to break down traditional attitudes and lessening the
resistance to change...
  Education encourages or promotes social mobility and allows new elites to
threaten and overcome the old...
 Education involves the training of the labour force in the new skills required
by an expanding technology...
 Through education, people can acquire new values, perceptions, aspirations
and attitudes and aptitudes. This value is transmitted in school, value to
appreciate wealth legally or illegally acquired
 One of the dominant themes in educational reform has been the extension of
educational opportunities to wider sectors of the community. In general this
has taken the form of free schooling, scholarships and maintenance grants
for needy students, equal opportunities for all classes in the community...
 Education is directly affected by globalization and learners should be taught
how to cope with it...
 Education influences economic changes because of its role in the discovery
and dissemination of new knowledge. There is hardly any economic
development without education...
In schools, teachers can bring about positive changes among students/learners by
doing the following:
 Enhancing personal values, attitudes and mental capacity of students...
 Developing in individuals positive attitudes towards others...
 Developing abilities and attitudes of tolerance and objectivity of thought...
 Developing individuals who have initiative, creativity and capabilities of
self-determination...
 As an agent of social change, education school therefore, facilitates values,
perception and aspiration for change...
 It equips learners with skills and knowledge...
 It reflects the needs of society...
  Its primary role is to conserve and transmit traditional values, beliefs and
norms to the new generation...
 The school is expected to teach the dominant value system of the society...

Implications of Social Change:

a. Cultural Shifts:
 Cultural changes can lead to increased diversity and inclusivity in society. For example,
shifts in attitudes towards LGBTQ+ rights reflect a more inclusive cultural landscape.
b. Economic Transformations:
 Economic changes, such as shifts from manufacturing to a knowledge-based economy,
impact employment patterns, income distribution, and socioeconomic structures.
c. Political Realignments:
 Social change can lead to political realignments, where new ideologies, parties, or
movements emerge. The Arab Spring is an example of social change influencing political
dynamics.
d. Health and Well-being:
 Advances in healthcare and changing social attitudes can impact public health. For
instance, awareness campaigns on mental health contribute to reducing stigmas and
promoting well-being.
e. Education and Innovation:
 Social change can foster innovation and creativity, influencing educational approaches
and contributing to advancements in science, technology, and the arts.
f. Environmental Sustainability:
 Changes in societal attitudes towards environmental issues can lead to sustainable
practices, such as increased use of renewable energy sources and conservation efforts.
g. Social Inequality Dynamics:
 Social change can either exacerbate or mitigate social inequalities. Efforts towards
reducing inequality may include policies that address economic disparities, access to
education, and healthcare.
h. Global Interconnectedness:
  Increased globalization and social change lead to greater interconnectedness among
nations. This interconnectedness has implications for trade, diplomacy, and cultural
exchange.
In conclusion, social change is a multifaceted phenomenon with broad implications across
various aspects of society. Education, as an agent of social change, plays a crucial role in shaping
attitudes, skills, and values that contribute to positive transformations. The implications of social
change extend to cultural, economic, political, and environmental dimensions, influencing the
overall trajectory of society

Social Stratification:
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society
based on various criteria, leading to unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. In
education, this stratification can be observed in various ways:
 Example: A university system that charges high tuition fees can create a stratified
education system where individuals from lower socio-economic backgrounds may have
limited access to higher education, leading to disparities in educational outcomes.
Types of Social Stratification:
 Caste System:
o Example: In certain societies, such as India, the caste system historically assigned
individuals to specific social groups based on birth, impacting educational
opportunities and social mobility.
 Class System:
o Example: Capitalist societies often exhibit a class-based stratification where
individuals can move between classes based on factors like wealth, occupation,
and education. Educational opportunities may vary significantly between social
classes.
 Estate System:
o Example: Feudal societies historically had an estate-based stratification with
distinct classes such as nobility, clergy, and commoners, influencing access to
education and knowledge.
Features of Social Stratification:
 Hierarchical Structure:
o Social stratification involves the arrangement of individuals or groups in a
hierarchy. In education, this hierarchy can be observed in the ranking of schools,
universities, and academic programs.
 Inequality:
o Social stratification leads to unequal distribution of resources, privileges, and
opportunities. In education, this inequality may manifest in disparities in funding,
quality of teaching, and access to extracurricular activities.
 Permanence and Mobility:
o While some aspects of social stratification may be inherited, there is often a
degree of social mobility. Individuals may move up or down the social hierarchy
based on educational attainment and achievements.
 Power, Wealth, and Prestige:
o Education is often stratified based on power (influence over educational policies),
wealth (access to resources and private education), and prestige (reputation of
educational institutions).
 Social Classes:
o Social classes are often defined by factors such as occupation, income levels, and
access to resources, which in turn influence the type and quality of education
individuals receive.
Implication of Social Stratification in Education:
 Unequal Access to Educational Resources:
o Example: Students from affluent families may have access to private tutors,
advanced technology, and extracurricular activities, giving them an advantage
over students from less privileged backgrounds.
 Differential Treatment and Opportunities:
o Example: Bias in educational systems may result in differential treatment of
students from different social strata. Students from marginalized backgrounds
may face stereotypes that affect their opportunities for advancement.
 Influence on Educational Attainment:
 o Example: Social stratification can impact the educational attainment of
individuals. Students from higher social classes may have more resources and
support for higher education, leading to greater educational achievement.
 Reinforcement of Social Inequality:
o Example: Educational systems may inadvertently reinforce social inequality by
perpetuating stereotypes and biases that disadvantage certain social groups,
limiting their educational and career opportunities.
 Impact on Educational Policies:
o Example: Social stratification can influence the formulation of educational
policies. Policies may either address or inadvertently perpetuate social inequalities
based on factors like socio-economic status.
 Creation of Social Class Divisions:
o Example: Educational systems can contribute to the creation of distinct social
classes by providing certain advantages and opportunities to individuals from
higher social strata.
 Cultural Reproduction:
o Example: Social stratification in education can contribute to the reproduction of
cultural norms and values. Educational institutions may prioritize the cultural
perspectives of dominant social groups, perpetuating existing power structures.
 Inequality in Access to Higher Education:
o Example: Individuals from lower social classes may face barriers in accessing
higher education due to financial constraints, lack of educational resources, or
discriminatory practices.
Conclusion:
Social stratification has profound implications for education, affecting access, opportunities, and
outcomes. It is essential for educational systems to be cognizant of these implications and work
towards creating more equitable and inclusive learning environments. Addressing social
stratification in education is crucial for fostering a society that values diversity, promotes equal
opportunities, and ensures that every individual has access to quality education, regardless of
their social status

Socialization
Socialization is the lifelong process through which individuals acquire the cultural norms,
values, beliefs, and behaviors of their society. It is a fundamental aspect of human development,
shaping one's identity and guiding social interactions.
 Example: A child learning to say "please" and "thank you" is an example of
socialization. Through repeated interactions, the child internalizes societal expectations
regarding polite behavior.

Characteristics of Socialization:
a. Lifelong Process:
 Example: Socialization begins in infancy and continues throughout an individual's life. A
teenager learning social norms through peer interactions exemplifies this characteristic.
b. Cultural Transmission:
 Example: Parents passing down cultural traditions, such as holiday celebrations or
religious practices, to their children is an example of cultural transmission through
socialization.
c. Development of Self-Concept:
 Example: Adolescents forming their identity based on feedback from peers, family, and
societal expectations demonstrate the development of self-concept through socialization.
d. Learned Behavior:
 Example: Children learning language skills by imitating the speech patterns of those
around them is an illustration of learned behavior through socialization.
e. Social Control:
 Example: Teaching children the concept of right and wrong helps instill societal norms,
contributing to social control. For instance, a child learning not to steal aligns with
societal expectations.
Agents of Socialization:
a. Family:
 Example: Parents teach children cultural norms, values, and basic social skills. A family's
emphasis on honesty, responsibility, or religious beliefs contributes to the child's
socialization.
b. School:
  Example: Schools introduce students to formal education, but they also play a role in
socializing individuals into broader cultural contexts. Peer interactions in schools
contribute to the development of social skills.
c. Peer Groups:
 Example: Teenagers often form peer groups that influence clothing choices, language
use, and social norms. Peer groups contribute significantly to socialization during
adolescence.
d. Mass Media:
 Example: Television, movies, and social media platforms shape societal norms and
values. Exposure to certain media content influences individuals' perceptions and
behaviors, contributing to socialization.
e. Religious Institutions:
 Example: Religious institutions play a role in shaping moral values and ethical principles.
For instance, attending religious services and participating in rituals contribute to an
individual's socialization.
f. Workplace:
 Example: The workplace socializes individuals into professional norms and expectations.
Employees learn appropriate behavior, communication styles, and work ethics through
workplace interactions.
g. Government and State Institutions:
 Example: Government institutions contribute to socialization by enforcing laws and
regulations. Citizenship education in schools is an example of state-driven socialization.
h. Media and Technology:
 Example: Social media platforms influence how individuals perceive themselves and
others. Trends, ideologies, and information shared on these platforms contribute to
socialization.
Implication of Socialization:
a. Cultural Reproduction:
 Example: Socialization contributes to the reproduction of cultural norms and values. An
individual raised in a culture that values hard work is likely to pass on this value to the
next generation.
b. Social Order:
 Example: Socialization establishes societal norms and expectations, contributing to social
order. For instance, individuals following traffic rules contribute to a well-functioning
and orderly society.
c. Formation of Social Identity:
 Example: Socialization influences the formation of social identity. A person identifying
strongly with their cultural or religious background is a result of socialization within that
context.
d. Social Cohesion:
 Example: Shared values and norms acquired through socialization create a sense of
cohesion within a society. Cultural events, rituals, and celebrations foster a shared
identity.
e. Social Change:
 Example: Socialization can contribute to social change by challenging existing norms.
Movements advocating for gender equality, for instance, challenge traditional gender
roles through socialization efforts.
f. Social Stability:
 Example: Socialization fosters stability by imparting individuals with a shared
understanding of societal expectations. A common language, etiquette, and behavioral
norms contribute to social stability.
g. Adaptation to Social Roles:
 Example: Socialization equips individuals with the skills and behaviors expected in
various social roles. An individual transitioning from student to employee adapts to new
social roles through socialization.
h. Social Control and Deviance:
 Example: Socialization helps establish social norms, and deviations from these norms
may be labeled as deviant behavior. Criminal justice systems are an example of societal
responses to deviance shaped by socialization.
In conclusion, socialization is a dynamic and multifaceted process that shapes individuals and
societies. Its agents, characteristics, and implications are integral to understanding how
individuals internalize and contribute to cultural norms, values, and behaviors
Education, social mobility and social stratification

Social status

Social status is used to refer to a typically effective claim to positive or negative privilege with
respect to social prestige. Social class is subjective and is based on: the mode of living, that is,
life style; a formal process of education related to the acquisition of the corresponding life-style;
and the prestige of birth or of one’s occupation

Social mobility and education

Social mobility is defined as a process by which people move from one social stratum to the
next. Social mobility can be upwards e.g. moving from working class to middle class or
downward such as moving from middle class to working class. Stratification systems, which
provide little opportunity for social mobility, may be described as “Closed”, while those with a
relatively high rate of social mobility are “open.”

Importance of Social Mobility

The rate of social mobility has an important effect on class formation. If the rate of social
mobility is low, class solidarity and cohesion will be high. Most individuals will remain in the
same class of origin and this will provide for the reproduction of common life experiences over
generations. As a result distinctive class structures and strong class identifications will tend to
develop.
Social mobility can provide an indication of life chances of members of society. It can show the
degree to which a person’s class of origin influences his or her chances of obtaining a high status
occupation.

It is important to know how people respond to the experiences of social mobility for example, if
the downwardly mobile resent their misfortune and form a pool of dissatisfaction, which might
threaten the stability of society.

Types of Social Mobility

a) Contest/Achieved status: These positions are open for competition. Able people are able to
achieve. Achieved statuses are not assigned to persons from birth. They are left open to be
filled through competition and individual effort. Among the commonly recognized achieved
statuses are: education, occupation, income and marital status. Statuses that may be achieved
in modern society include, college graduate, class positions, union organizer, police
commissioner, major in the army, millionaire, pauper, and married man. They are occupied
due to personal effort in society.
b) Ascribed status: These are permanent attributes for example sex, age, place of birth, colour of
skin, kinship by birth, height, born in a rich or poor family and relationships. They are
permanent attributes.
e) Sponsored Mobility: It is similar to ascribed in the sense that members are assisted to occupy
positions.
 A good number of African societies combine both the ascribed and the achieved statuses,
except that achieved statuses are increasingly more dominant over ascribed statuses. In
effect individuals in society are never equals. Through education people are able to move
to classes, income, status and prestige.

Further practice Discussion questions

 Provide sociological explanations of following terminologies;
o Social status
o Ascribed status
o Social mobility
 Discuss sociological causes of social mobility
  Give 5 arguments to demonstrate how transformative education can initiate and sustain
social mobility

Education and social change

Introduction

Human beings are often viewed as social beings…This is because they live, work and support
each other…This groupings and connection to one another forms their identity thus their
society…Based on their society, individuals are assisted to know what is expected of them and
what they can expect from others.

This chapter defines society, and its influence on education…Specifically, the chapter defines
society¸ the conceptualization of society, theoretic framework and factors that contribute to the
existence in society.

Schooling is - Instruction or training given at school…Education obtained through experience or

exposure…. the process of teaching or being taught in a school… training, guidance, or
discipline derived from experience…

A school is an institution designed for the teaching of students (or "pupils") under the direction
of teachers in most countries have systems of formal education, which is commonly
compulsory…

Education

Education or teaching in the broadest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on
the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense education is the
process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values
from one generation to another…

Education is a concept, referring to the process in which students can learn something:

 Instruction refers to the facilitating of learning toward identified objectives, delivered

either by an instructor or other forms…
 Teaching refers to the actions of a real live instructor designed to impart knowledge and
skills to the learners…
  Learning refers to learning with a view toward preparing learners with specific
knowledge, skills, or abilities that can be applied immediately upon completion…

Education

Education can be seen from two perspectives

 As a discipline
 As a social institution

Education as a social discipline is that branch of human knowledge which is concerned with the
duty of socializing the socializees to become a functional/useful member of the society…
As a discipline, it applies knowledge of other disciplines in understanding the socializees e.g.
History, Economics, Geography…

As an Institution – It can be seen to be a social structure and machinery through which the
human society organizes, directs and execute or carries out its activities in order to meet the
socialization needs of socializees in society...

Education as a social institution serves the society in many ways:

 Prepares the individual mind – it develops the right type of personality required by the
society…
 It equips and preserves skills, values, and knowledge of the past from one generation to
the next…
 It equips individuals with skills, values and attitudes that will enable them to function
appropriately in any society…
 It prepares and equips the individual to bring about useful changes as deemed necessary
by the society…
 Education is an active agent of social, economic, political and technological change…
Education has the capacity to cause things to happen and consequently can transform and
help to develop society. Education is a variety of roles to play in development. This is
follows:

o Democracy demands education for all citizens. It is the duty of education to purse
the values of society at large
o Africa needs capable minds to man her industries and exploit the potentialities
available. These human resources have to be produced by education. Education is
an investment for the future.
Education as an agent of social change

Ezewu (1983:137) points out that since education is an institution in society, what happens in the
larger society affects education. At the same time, education is expected by society to bring in
new material goods, new styles of dress, new ways of doings things and new ideas to challenge
existing ideas. These changes affect the education system. This is mainly because education
depends on other institutions. For example the government and family must maintain, protect
and feed education. If changes occurs in the family in influences changes in education. The role
of education in social change and development is as follow:

 Schools can be viewed as agents of social change. Reforms, renovations can be

facilitated by education. Education facilitates technological renovation
 Education may be used to break down traditional attitudes and lessening the
resistance to change.
 Education encourages or promotes social mobility and allows new elites to threaten
and overcome the old.
 Education involves the training of the labour force in the new skills required by an
expanding technology.
 Through education, people can acquire new values, perceptions, aspirations and
attitudes. This value is transmitted in school, value to appreciate wealth legally or
illegally acquired
 One of the dominant themes in educational reform has been the extension of
educational opportunities to wider sectors of the community. In general this has taken
the form of free schooling, scholarships and maintenance grants for needy students,
equal opportunities for all classes in the community
 Education is directly affected by globalization and learners should be taught how to
cope with it.
 Education influences economic changes because of its role in the discovery and
dissemination of new knowledge. There is hardly any economic development without
education.
In schools, teachers can bring about positive changes among students/learners by doing the
following:

♫ Enhancing personal values, attitudes and mental capacity of students.

♫ Developing in individuals positive attitudes towards others
♫ Developing abilities and attitudes of tolerance and objectivity of thought.
♫ Developing individuals who have initiative, creativity and capabilities of self-
determination.
♫ As an agent of social change, education school therefore, facilitates values, perception
and aspiration for change.
♫ It equips learners with skills and knowledge.
♫ It reflects the needs of society
♫ Its primary role is to conserve and transmit traditional values, beliefs and norms to the
new generation.
♫ The school is expected to teach the dominant value system of the society.

The school as an agent of social change

The school is a powerful agent of social change. The school can bring change in society through
the following:
  Insisting on the preservation and transmission of what is valuable in society. Teachers
have frequent contact with students in school. They are able to change student’
perspectives over various issues…
 Schools can transform learner’s behaviour and thus assist them able to be useful
members in the community…
 Schools can assist learners in the selection of course that can make them competitive
on the job market…
In schools, teachers can bring about positive changes among learners by doing the following:

 Enhancement of personal values, attitude and mental capacity among students

 Development in individuals of positive attitudes towards others
 Development of abilities and attitudes of tolerance and objectivity of thought
 Development of individuals who have initiative, creativity and capabilities of self-
reliance, self-expression and self determination
Education therefore as agents of social change facilitates change aspiration, values, perception. It
also equips learners with skills, knowledge. Education reflects the needs of the society. It has a
primary role of conserving and transmitting the traditional values, beliefs and norms to the new
generation. The school is expected to teach the dominant value system of the society.

Characteristics of Social change

1. Social change is universal or it is an essential law.

2. Change with diff. in speed & form simple society … change was slower.
3. Change is unpredictable in general Revol is a process of social change. What speed & in
what form the change takes place is not easily predictable.
4. Social change is change in community
5. Social change generally changes in direction. There are 3 patterns of social change.
i. linear failure change generally leads to progress (change for good) can't cycle –car
– train –plain
ii. Fluctuating change – the change may be upward & downward. The demographic
change is such also economic change,
iii. Cyclical change – the change is in a cycle. Fashion, sometimes also in economical
aspect (Karl max gave this idea. He says earlier there was no private property &
we may go back to it).


Factors of Social change
Biological

1. Demographic factors – Population plays an important role in society it there is change in

the composition of pop there is change in society by composition we mean the structure
i.e. sex ratio. For balance in society the sex ratio should be 1:1 and if there is change in
the ratio there is change in society if there are more females than the status & position
goes down (because in Polygene more wives & the hubby now their status goes down). In
the other case the females position rises. The bride –price increases (in the tribunal
society).
 Age group – childhood, adulthood, old age. If the population of children is most then
increase of population will be slower. If adults more than there will be rapid change in
society cause they are the most regulative. In case of old more there is conflict in society
they don't wish for change.
Marital status in production of children. If girls are married young there will be over
population & he health is also in danger. Status of women becomes lower. And if at too
late a stage – a girl is married fertility is less. Changes in demography – Birth rate &
Death rate. Higher birth rate creates a lot of problems. Malthus theme of population –
Economics. Over population-poverty unemployment increases. Death – rate – man –
power decreases.
Immigration & Emigration – 1 is coming into country, 2 – going out of the country.
Causes cultural problems leads to over population. 2 – Brain – drain is the problem.
2. Natural factors – now native affect society – National calamities, floods, epidemics
affairs society in its social relationships (i) structure. People become selfish as during
scarcities they are more bothered feeding themselves.
3. Technological factors
a. Mechanization & social change – machines bring about this gave women the
chance to work gave rise to women's tib.
Unemployment & such problems arose these affected cottage industries.
b. Urbanization – changed job opportunities.
Transport gave rise is social contacts. Communication gives rise to greater
awareness & is beans of recreation too.
Atomic Energy & change
4. Cultural Factors
Write about concept of cultural tag by w.f Ougbourn book – social change brings change.
He says material & non – material change. Usually non-material can't cope up with
material changed & gives rise to cultural lag.
Change in values ideas & custom's changes society (Habits).
In handbook of Sociology, he said if may so happen that material behind education,
unization etc., too brings change in marriage system etc.
Marxian theory of social change i.e. Technological Deterministic theory. On
interpretative theory – change according to him is inevitable & a continuous process. He
has given more important to the economical factors. He says if there is change in
economy the only tractor my (changes of demography etc affect the individuals) there is
change in society – change n the production system i.e. change in technology because it
is due to change in technology that these's change in production that's why his theme is
called technological data. Two change in production system. Has two aspect productive
forces & productive relations – this is due to change in technology productive
apparatuses, labour & production experience & labour still ? productive faces. Productive
relations ? Capitalists & labourers (master & slaves).

 Causes of Social Change

 Changes to technology, social institutions, population, and the environment, alone or in
some combination, create change. Below, we will discuss how these act as agents of
 social change, and we’ll examine real-world examples. We will focus on four agents of
change that social scientists recognize: technology, social institutions, population, and the
environment.
 Technology
 Some would say that improving technology has made our lives easier. Imagine what your
day would be like without the Internet, the automobile, or electricity. In The World Is
Flat, Thomas Friedman (2005) argues that technology is a driving force behind
globalization, while the other forces of social change (social institutions, population,
environment) play comparatively minor roles. He suggests that we can view globalization
as occurring in three distinct periods. First, globalization was driven by military
expansion, powered by horsepower and wind power. The countries best able to take
advantage of these power sources expanded the most, and exert control over the politics
of the globe from the late fifteenth century to around the year 1800. The second shorter
period from approximately 1800 C.E. to 2000 C.E. consisted of a globalizing economy.
Steam and rail power were the guiding forces of social change and globalization in this
period. Finally, Friedman brings us to the post-millennial era. In this period of
globalization, change is driven by technology, particularly the Internet.
 But also consider that technology can create change in the other three forces social
scientists link to social change. Advances in medical technology allow otherwise infertile
women to bear children, which indirectly leads to an increase in population. Advances in
agricultural technology have allowed us to genetically alter and patent food products,
which changes our environment in innumerable ways. From the way we educate children
in the classroom to the way we grow the food we eat, technology has impacted all aspects
of modern life

Causes of social change

1) Materialistic perspectives (materialistic factors are usually economic production and

technology)
Marxist perspective: economic production, economic classes form the basic anatomy
of society, and everything else arises in relationship to them

Other materialistic perspectives: Cultural lag theory (W. Ogburn) technological causes
of change, material culture (technology) changes more quickly than nonmaterial culture
(values, ideas, norms, ideologies), i.e. there is a period of maladjustment (a lag time)
during which nonmaterial culture is still adapting to new material conditions

Technology causes change in 3 ways:

- increases alternatives available to society, creates new opportunities
- alters interaction patterns among people, changes structures of human
groups
- creates new problems

2) Idealistic perspectives (idealistic factors/ideational aspects are values, beliefs and

ideologies)
Weber’s perspective: in essence, values and beliefs, both religious and secular, have
decisive impact on shaping social change, as well as other factors such as those
outlined by Marx:
Protestanism: He argued that values of Protestanism, esp. Calvinism and related,
produced a cultural ethic which sanctified work and worldly achievement, encouraged
frugality and discouraged consumption. Unintended consequences of this religious
worldview, this-worldly asceticism, encouraged development of large pools of capital
through encouraging work, savings and non-frivolous consumption, and encouraged
rational reinvestment and economic growth. Work was a religiously sanctioned
calling. Each man is a moral free agent, accountable only to God. Suspicious of
material consumption beyond bare necessities believing it led to moral corruption.
In Catholicism, work is merely mundane activity to keep one alive, encouraging
other-worldly asceticism where highest form of activity was devotion to God, men
were accountable to the Church which sought to regulate the operation of the economy
and other secular aspects of society in terms of religious values. No reason in values to
ban consumption.
Discussed China and India, whose faiths, Confucianism & Taoism and Hinduism
respectively, also weren’t favorable to the development of capitalism.
Other ideational perspectives: Lewy focused on role of religion in social change citing
examples of Puritan revolt in England, Islamic renaissance in Sudan in 1800s,
Taiping & Boxer Rebellion in China, Islamic fundamentalism in Iran.

Cultural ideas, values, and ideologies that have broadly shaped directions of social change in
modern world:
freedom and self-determination
material growth and security
nationalism, e.g. French & English Canadians, English & Irish, Germans & French,
Palestinians, Kurdish, Basque separatists and Spanish
capitalism: not only type of economic system but also ideology, connected set of values
and ideas emphasizing positive benefits of pursuing one’s private economic
interests, competition and free marketS
Marxism

Ideas and values can cause change or be barriers to change, can be barriers at one time or
promote change at another time. Ideational culture can cause change by:

legitimizing a desired direction of change, e.g. promoting further equality and

democracy
providing a basis for social solidarity necessary to promote change, i.e. integrative
mechanisms, neutralizing the conflicting strains found in society, e.g. mobilizing
force during war
highlighting contradictions and problems, e.g. US cultural value of equality of
opportunity have highlighted racism and sexism

Further practice Discussion questions

  What is social change
 Discuss causes of social change
 Discuss 5 characteristics of social change
 Using relevant illustrations demonstrate 5 ways that education can initiate and sustain
social change

Socialization and agencies of socialization

Socialization

 It is the process by which person acquire dispositions, skills and knowledge that enable them
to become integrated members of society…it is the process where people become members
of their social system through interacting with their social environment…

 It is the process where individuals learn the culture of their society…they learn behaviour
patterns, norms and values that make them fit in their society…it is a process of
enculturation…it is a process by which accumulated culture of society is transmitted from
one generation to the next…it stands for a whole range of learning situations beginning at
birth and continuing long into old age…

 It is a process by which an individual is taught the disciplines, aspirations, social roles and
skills necessary for group membership. Socialization can make someone a part of the group.
Socialization is a continuous process i.e. from birth to death…

Aims of socialization

The aims of the process of socialization are varied. Such aims differ from one society to another.
However principally, the process aims to achieve the following for individuals and society.
 It enforces basic discipline in society members. Individuals are trained on appropriate
social conduct in the various contexts they operate
 The process instills aspirations in members, thereby influencing the rate of social and a
cultural change in society
 It is a process through which social roles are learned
 It teaches individuals appropriate understanding of the natural and supernatural
phenomena, laws and powers that are basic to existence
Learning points in socialization process

Some of the learning points are;

 Basic psychomotor skills…
 Communication skills…
 Patterns of behaviour…
 social skills e.g. how to conduct oneself in a group
 Career/occupational skills….
 Ideas regarding specific statuses/values, attitudes that go with a given social status…
Features of socialization

 Timing

Specific skills/knowledge is acquired/learned at specific ages/stages in life e.g. childhood basic

skills like toileting, play, movement, language…teenage e.g. discovery of self, hard work,
creativity…adulthood e.g. responsibility, trustworthy, integrity…

 Sequence of events

Oral – use of mouth to voice needs…

Anal – control of bowel movement – toilet training…
Childhood –
Adolescence -
Adulthood –

 Socialization is a process

It is long life process i.e. from birth to old age then to death…

Elements and Factors for Socialization

- Socializer – Socializees – Environment – Social skills and pertinent content…

 Socializees e.g. child, freshman in college, army recruit, newlyweds, stranger etc.
 Socializer: e.g. family, peer group, churchmen teachers etc
 Environment: In which the Socializees and Socializer interact.
 Social skills: e.g. ability, competence, drive/interest
 Content: any curriculum content/knowledge

Forms of Socialization

It can be classified into:

 Planned/Organized e.g. a school with a curriculum, syllabus, time schedule etc…

 Unplanned…Where individuals are able to acquire new ideas just by chance e.g. family,
church, peer group, TV etc…

Types of socialization

 Primary Socialization

Primary socialization is the process whereby people learn the attitudes, values, and
actions appropriate to function as members of a particular culture. In many instances, the
socialization process takes place without the individual knowing about it. Primary
 socialization is essentially through face-to-face interaction between people and the main
socializing institution is the family.

 Secondary socialization

Secondary socialization refers to the process of learning what is appropriate behaviour as

a member of a smaller group within the larger society. This type of socialization is
purposeful and obvious. Usually it involves smaller changes than those occurring in
primary socialization. Example would be being socialized by the peer group or when
entering the workplace or relocating to a new environment or society. A substantial
amount of secondary socialization takes place in the school and peer groups.

 Anticipatory socialization

Anticipatory socialization refers to the processes of socialization in which a person

"rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships. For example, a
high school student who has been accepted to university begins to dress and adopt
mannerisms which are supposed to be characteristic of an undergraduate.

 Status socialization

Designed to prepare an individual to occupy a generalized status/position in life…

One learns broad patterns of behaviour and the norms that enable them to fit in their
family or community….they learn family or community values…it targets all members of
the family or society who must learn basic social skills…

 Role socialization

Individuals are prepared for specific role or vocation in society e.g. skills, expectations,
of a given vocation or role e.g. employments like teaching, masonry, medicine, law
witchcraft…or the role of a mother/father…
An individual is prepared role to play in the society e.g. a man in the tradition society was
expected to be almost everything the security, provider etc. All Socialization agents
settings prepare an individual for a specific role e.g. Kenyatta University, preparing
people to play the role of teaching etc…

N.B
Status and Role Socialization can take place at the same setting…

Settings/Agents of Socialization
These are avenues, paths, ways through which socialization occurs…examples include…Family
- The school/Education system - The peer group, community, religion, mass media…

Family
Is a basic social unit in any society comprising of parents and children who may share blood
relationships, kinsmanship, culture and values…

Examples of kinds of families

Monogamous, polygamous, monandrous and polyandrous among other…

 Monogamous Family - One husband – One wife most common in western societies. Man
marries a wife…
 Monandrous Family - One wife, one husband, Children belong to the wife…
 Polygamous Family - Man, marries more than one wife and exercises control over them.
This is as per African and Islamic tradition…
 Polyandrous Family - Many husbands – one wife children belong to her and her
lineage…
 Group Family - Many women and many men living together. Therefore, socialization
will depend on the type of family. Type of family has an influence on education…

Functions of Families

 Child rearing - Child rearing through primary Socialization to become a human

being…
 Child bearing: Sexual reproduction, are basic pre-conditions for the existence of a
society, without family, no society and nation…
 It is the oldest institution in the history of mankind…
 It is also the primary agent of socialization…socialization occurs informally as a
product of social interaction between people of extremely close physical and
emotional proximity…children learn through observation and imitation of parents and
other siblings…
 Lays foundation for mental and moral development…children learn basic social skills
like language and behaviours to enable them fit/adjust in the family/society…how to
relate with other people…personality and self-concepts are learnt through the
experiences with one’s family, social class and religion…
o The first agent of socialization; children learn qualities like social conscience,
love clemency, social/life skills, psychomotor skills, domestic chores,
aspirations, self-determination, forgiveness and sacrifice, feelings, behaviour,
morals, character, mannerisms, beliefs, languages, virtues, dexterity,
responsibility, humility, ethics and attitudes…
o Family provides informal education to the child in addition some patterns of
thinking are initiated in the family setting e.g. self-esteem, confidence, trust,
feeling of greatness…
 Provides a sense of belonging and blood ties to members…
o Biologically – Blood – Orientation e.g. children and parents…
o Primary socialization occurs between the individual and those people in their
life with whom they have primary relationships. A primary relationship is one
in which the individual has a close, personal, face-to-face relationship with the
people responsible for the socialization process. Socialization: Child rearing
 and socialization are the next major functions from birth. Children must be
cared for feed, loved or love affection etc.…
o The socializers are the parents, older siblings and the socializees are the
children
o Family socialization is informal…
o Family members provide role models, emotional support, language, status
etc…
o Some of the challenges faced by primary socialization in the family are
emergence of single parenthood, childless families, lifestyle diseases, nuclear
family, young parenthood, child-headed families, street families, gay families,
divorce, incest etch…

The School

Education is a conscious effort by society to socialize the youth into functional members of the
society…

The advancement of industrialization has kind of removed from the family the function of
educating the young e.g. Teaching of specific skills and Normative training…However, the
school cannot completely take-over from the family…the schools are the first institutions that the
child comes into contact after leaving the family…

 Secondary socialization occurs between the individual and those people in their life
with whom they have secondary relationships…A secondary relationship is one in
which the individual does not have a close, personal, relationship with the people
responsible for the socialization process…
 In schools, social roles shift from parents to teachers…
 Socialization in the school is made possible through formal curriculum, knowledge,
beliefs, attitude and values of teachers; determined by the extent to which teachers are
motivated and use of positive role models among other issues…
 The family exerts a lot of influence on a child’s response to school. Social class and
Academic achievements…
 Socialization that takes place is school is both formal and informal…formal
knowledge where basic intellectual skills like reading, writing, verbal expression and
other cognitive skills are learnt…
 Familiarizes with information concepts, values etc. needed for personality
development …guidance/mentorship from teachers and interaction with other
children enables stable personality development…formal curriculum and hidden
curriculum obtained outside the classroom enable learners to learn important skill and
attributes like cooperation, respect, responsibility…
 One is socialized on authority patterns that are necessary for career advancement are
learnt in schools…from subjects and school authority structures e.g. head teacher,
D/head teacher, HOD, class teachers, teachers, support staff, prefects…
 Through school curriculum one learns the general culture of society…e.g. history
teaches them about their roots…they learn about vocational/professional and social
skills/values through subjects offered…communication skills/language use…
  Acquire social skills and practices qualities like mutual dependence, civic sense,
punctuality that makes socializees functional members of society…
 A school is a symbol of change and modernity by socializing socializees using formal
knowledge in the curriculum that contains elements of societal culture…
 Socialization in the schools enables acquisition of technical skills, professionalism
through inculcation of vocational and occupational skills…it enables enhancement of
talents/potentials e.g. music, arts, leadership…
 Socialization in the school using a formal curriculum enables modernization…

The Peer Group

Children belonging to the peer group are of similar/equal age and status…this awards them the
freedom to learn from one another…

♀ An association of those within the same age-group (both old and young)…
♀ Age group is important coz it influences behaviour, language, rules, laws, goals, rights
etc….
♀ Every child occupies an equal status within the peer group…
♀ There is freedom – hence a child freely learns the ways of the world from the other
members…
♀ However, the children may not perceive the group and participate at the same degree…

Peer influence

 Child who does not participate and is not interested in the group activities will neither
influence the group nor be influenced…
 Child who is interested but does not participate will be influenced but will not
influence…
 Child who participates and contributes will influence and be influenced…

Functions of a Peer Group

Serves as a source of information bureau for the child on career inclinations, sex
education, educational aspirations, sex roles, gender issues, lifestyle…
Serves as source negative or positive peer influence…since the peers provide freedom
from adult control where members can indulge in behaviours like use of drugs, premarital
sex…communication via social media…
Extracurricular knowledge and skills…
Help to transmit prevailing societal values that are in vogue/fashion…develops new
distinct cultures…
Improvement of personality roles e.g. self-esteem, self-concept…
Transmit socially desirable values and norms like democratic ideals…
Learn about competition, unity and collective behaviour…
Provide opportunities for learning group roles and responsibility, social justice,
fairness…
Teaches sex roles: Girls free with girls and boys with boys. But a mixed group is better…
 Serves as a practicing venue for adult values they learn from adult…
Teaches Unity and collective behaviour…
Discourages social discrimination since they mix children from different social
classes/ethnic groups e.g. children who are white, black, pink, poor, rich play together…
unity and collective behaviour are learned because tasks are done collectively by all
members and they learn to unite in making decisions for the group…
Helps open discussion and concept formation…develop self-esteem because it’s through
the peer group that they are allowed to freely express themselves and show their “true
colours” since the peer group can control the affection, approval and prestige accorded to
each child…peer group a crucial role in personality development…
Practicing avenue for adult roles…learn to be responsible, respect one another views if
they are to remain in the group…have a leader of the group…learn leadership roles,
teamwork/spirit/play…

NB
Since education involves the child, everything that interests or discourages children should be
our concern. See how best we can use it to attain our goals.

Religious institutions

These include churches, mosques, and other traditional religious institutions including shrines…
they provide Christianity or Islam provides acceptable religious values and ethics…which
Socialize the young and adults members on accepted moral values and moral standards…

Some religious sects indoctrinate members to accept certain values which in extreme can lead to
dangerous fanatism. There have been cases where religious cults have persuaded their members
into suicide, with the hope of another pure live…

♫ Has negative socialization e.g. false beliefs, indoctrination, fanatism, fundamentalist,

cults, dogmatism…
♫ Has positive socialization e.g. ethics and morals…

The Mass Media

These include electronic and print media such as TV, radio, internet services, social media,
twitter, newspapers, magazines that have an influence on the behaviour… In other cases, such as
when we admire a particular film/TV star or musician, we may never meet or talk personally
with them, yet we can still be influenced by what they look like, what they do and how they do
it…media influence may be positive as well as negative…

 Propagates popular cultural values by educating and informing…

 Recreational and entertainment services in all languages…
 Influences and shapes opinions…mode of communication, speech, dress codes e.g. TCM
dressing codes…
 Has negative socialization e.g. cultural imperialism…negative sexuality…negative
politics… propaganda campaigns…
  Has positive socialization…socially desirable moral, ethics and values that are in vogue...
 Has violent socialization…crime and drug abuse…sex orgies, gang sex, lesbianism,
homosexuality…rape…

Formal curriculum

Through subjects the curriculum socializes learner’s to acquire values of the society…each
subject transmits certain aspects of culture i.e. language, speech to communicate agriculture,
self-employment…aesthetic values…music, fine art, spirituality…has rules and regulations…

Informal curriculum

Co-curricular activities…sportsmanship, clubs transmit culture through peer influence…peer

group membership…interaction within teachers both inside and outside classrooms…role
models…

Relationship between Socialization and Education processes

Various relationships exist between socialization and education. These are as follows:

 Socialization can be positive and negative on the learner depending on what has been
passed over…Education on the hand is supposed to be positive…
 The two involve acquisition of new attributes/values/aspects in life…which includes
knowledge, attitudes skills, values and norms….
 Socialization and education can be viewed as processes of trying to equip the learners
with necessary skills and socially desirable values/ideologies/paradigms…
 Socialization can be planned and unplanned, while education calls for scheming and
planning…nevertheless, the end result is the same as the socializees/learners have to
change the behavior to achieve intended goals...
 Both socialization and education must be carried out by agents…who are people who
competent/know how to pass over certain knowledge/skills/expertise/values…..
 Both socialization and education calls for a conducive atmosphere for the two to
succeeded, whether at school, society or at home…
 Cultural values and norms can be impaired during the teaching time…
 Formal Education is terminal while socialization is continuous…Socialization can take
place in and out of a school setting while education is found in most cases in school
settings…
 Socialization and education aim at making individual complete and useful to self and to
the society…
Outcomes of in/complete formal socialization process in education

Positive outcomes of a complete formal socialization process includes…

 Behaviour Conformity: If a student conforms to the rules and procedures in a school, then
we label the student as being “good.” For example, in schools we have rules to govern
students’ behaviour during the classroom lessons…
  Moral Conformity: Socialization trains a student to conform to moral behaviour (moral
conformity) that are perceived as the “correct action.” Students are equipped with moral
behaviour such as honesty, generosity, fairness, kindness and hard work…
 Cultural Conformity: Socialization trains students for cultural conformity or
acculturation… The process of cultural conformity happens through intercultural contact
and the borrowing or imitation of cultural norms…
 Professional competence…secondary socialization equips one with norms, morals, ethics,
skills and values that enable one to become a technocrat and a practitioner in a given
career/vocation…
 Better performance in examinations…higher chances of self-actualization…
 Better self and collective discipline…less maladaptive behaviour…
 Eradication of social vices such corruption and moral decadence…
 Stability of society…Acquisition of employable skills…
 Good health practices and healthy lifestyles for healthy living…

Negative outcomes of socialization process

Some of the negative effects of incomplete/dysfunctional socialization process are moral

decadence, social conflicts and lack of values leading to dysfunctional society and a
world where we will no longer find solid, unifying principles…Nor religious principles,
for obvious reasons… No ideological principles…cultural principles…economic
principles…increase in immoral society…drug and substance abuse…social deviants …
truants…cheats…liars…social misfits… …

Over socialization

Over socialization is a state of being rigid, stereotyped and domination…it is being not in a
position to accept any external changes resulting from excessive conformation to social norms
and values…some of the shortcomings of over socialized concept in education includes…

♫ Students who do not pass to conform to socialization are made to repeat classes and
programs leading to internal inefficiency in education…frustrations…dropping out…so
examinations are seen as a passport to good job…Success and good life…so rather than
getting value in education one aims at passing exams…

♫ Unnecessary emphasis on mean scores leading to mean score syndrome instead of

teaching for knowledge only examinable subjects are taught…indeed past papers are used
to drill students to pass…instead of equipping them with skills to face challenges in
life…

♫ It is manifested in classes when pupils are grouped according to ability…performance…

♫ Overemphasize in quality of grades and papers for promotions and better careers and
jobs…
 ♫ Students with high academic grades are taken to be the best in spite of obvious weakness
in moral and other personal attributes…

♫ Students are expected to conform without question to norms, rules, and regulations in
schools as indicator of obedience to authority…hence rewards and punishments are
excessively used…leading to sycophancy…teachers rewards those who perform well in
examinations, follow schedules, most obedient, follow directions, stick to rules regardless
of any obvious flaws, meet deadlines, obey authority etc…this makes teachers focus on
achievers and ignore other students leading to poor learning output for those with
individual differences like those with special needs…some teacher resort to harsh
punishments, canning, ridicule, as ways of ensuring conformity and shaping behaviour…
leading to negative attitudes…

♫ Administration and teacher become authoritative and oppressive in an effort to socialize

learners leading to widening of the gaps between them and students…resulting in
conflicts since grievances and differing views are unlikely to be tolerated...unrests, strikes
may occur…

♫ Other social organs that may exercise undue pressure on education include religious
values that may be over emphasized by sponsors…economy and social economic
statues…poverty and child labour…gender inequalities… Over socialization emphasizes
the status quo at the expense of innovation and creativity which are seen as a threat to
status quo…aggressive and creative students may be punished since they want to do
something different…thus education may produce unimaginative and unquestioning
workforce which could be manipulated by employers…
Strategies to counter over socialization

 Curriculum review…change of values in education…

 Change of instructional pedagogy to adapt heuristic instructional approaches…
 Good democracy practices in school management and administration…
 Attention to individual difference in education…
 Harmonization of standards of performance…fairness and meritocracy…
 Use of creative and innovative ways of evaluating education using a variety of tools at
various times within the study program…
 Innovative and socially desirable strategies of maintaining social discipline with more
biases on values and morals that are fairy humane i.e. use of humanistic approach…
 Use of consensus approach in conflict resolution…
 Periodic and regular curricula reviews to capture emerging issues in socio-dynamics in
society to enhance more adaptability and efficacy of education in reflecting the social
image of society…making education to be in tandem with modernity and post modernity
in line with global trends…
Further practice Discussion questions
 Provide a sociological explanation of the term education?
 Explain what is socialization?
 Compare and contrasts socialization and education processes
 Using relevant examples discuss 5 agents of socialization process
 Give 5 arguments to illustrate how education can support socialization process and
outcomes in CBC contexts