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Fit for Business
Matthias Pilz • Susanne Berger
Roy Canning (Eds.)

Fit for Business

Pre-Vocational Education
in European Schools

RESEARCH
Editors
Matthias Pilz, Roy Canning
Susanne Berger, Stirling, United Kingdom
Cologne, Germany

This publication has been funded with support from the European Commission.
It reflects the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible
for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

ISBN 978-3-531-18383-1 ISBN 978-3-531-19028-0 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19028-0

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;

detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

Springer VS
© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2012
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole
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Table of Contents

Matthias Pilz
Introduction: Questions, Challenges and Methods ............................................... 7

McGlynn, Catherine; Canning, Roy and Dolan, Michael

Pre-Vocational Education in Scotland:
A Case Study of One Local Authority ................................................................ 17

Muzis, Ivars; Liepins, Emils; Roze, Janis and Krastins, Valdis

The Development of Business Competencies in School:
Latvia’s Experience ............................................................................................ 35

Kurek, Sáawomir; Rachwaá, Tomasz and Szubert, Mariusz

Business Competencies in Polish School Curricula:
Opinions of Teachers and Social Partners .......................................................... 61

Gönczöl, EnikĘ and Bognár, Tibor

Economic Knowledge and Entrepreneurial Competencies in
Pre-Vocational Education in Hungary ................................................................ 89

Berger, Susanne and Pilz, Matthias

The Role of Pre-Vocational Education in the German Realschule:
Theory and Practice .......................................................................................... 119

Schwarz, Ingrid
Perspectives for Pupils and Teachers in Economic Education:
European and Austrian Aspects of the Fifobi-Project....................................... 145

Figueira, Eduardo
The Entrepreneurship Subject in the Portuguese Education System ................ 177

Canning, Roy; Berger, Susanne and Pilz, Matthias

A Comparison of Different Pre-Vocational Curricula in Seven
European Countries: Theoretical Perspectives and Policy Implications ........... 191
6 Table of contents

List of Contributors........................................................................................... 207

Appendix
Common Analysis Framework for the Curriculum Analysis
in the Fifobi Project. Simplified Illustration ........................................................ A
Introduction: Questions, Challenges and Methods

Matthias Pilz

This book presents the findings of a comparative research project on pre-

vocational education in secondary schools in seven European countries. The
framework was a multilateral project funded within the European Lifelong
Learning Programme.1
Pre-vocational education in the last two years of compulsory education (14
to 16 years old pupils) is here mainly understood as “to introduce participants to
the world of work and to prepare them for entry into vocational or technical
education programmes. Successful completion of such programmes does not yet
lead to a labour-market relevant vocational or technical qualification.” (Unesco
1997, § 58)
Against the backdrop of tensions across the EU produced by the burgeoning
use of technology, the growing importance of information and communications
technologies, and globalisation, the aim of the three-year project Fit for business
– Developing business competencies in school (Fifobi) is to optimise pre-
vocational and economic/business education and to encourage an entrepreneurial
mindset among young European citizens (Berger and Pilz 2010; Gönczöl 2010;
Kurek and Rachwaá 2010).
Fifobi has therefore investigated the current situation with regard to both
forms and content of pre-vocational education in state-funded schools in seven
EU countries: Scotland, Latvia, Poland, Hungary, Germany, Austria and Portug-
al.
This comparative study, which focuses on the last two years of general
compulsory education (ISCED-level 2) (Unesco 1997)2, is based on curriculum
and interviews with teachers, employers’ associations and trade unions.

1 The research project was funded between 2009 and 2011 with support from the European Commis-
sion. This publication reflects the views of the authors; the Commission cannot be held responsible
for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
2 The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) level 2 (Unesco 1997) includes
lower secondary education, or the second stage of basic education. The principal characteristics of
this level are defined as follows: “The content of education at this stage is typically designed to
complete the provision of basic education which began at ISCED level 1. In many, if not most,
countries, the educational aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development
on which countries may systematically expand in further educational opportunities. The programmes
at this level are usually on a more subject-oriented pattern using more specialised teachers and, more

M. Pilz et al. (Eds.), Fit for Business, DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19028-0_1,

© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2012
8 Introduction

The study’s main findings are presented here in an attempt to identify and
compare the different European systems involved in designing the pre-vocational
and economic/business education curriculum in secondary schools. On this basis,
we then investigate potential strengths and weaknesses, both within each country
and on a comparative basis. We conclude with a discussion of the main lessons
to be learned.

1 Background and rationale for the research

In many European countries, young people’s success in establishing their indi-

vidual career paths depends on a successful entry into the labour market once
they have completed their compulsory education. In a number of countries, it has
become increasingly difficult to make a direct transition from compulsory educa-
tion into initial training and the labour market; both the high numbers of young
people out of work and the correlation between unemployment rates and educa-
tion and qualification levels (OECD 2010) provide evidence for these difficul-
ties.
With technology and automation becoming more important, and in an in-
creasingly globalised world, observers predict that in the medium term, the de-
mand from European labour markets for better qualifications – both academic
and general – on the one hand and, on the other, the high importance now at-
tached to completion of a course of training make the issue of preparedness for
training more topical than it has ever been (European Commission 2003).
A 2005 survey by the German Chamber of Industry and Commerce, mean-
while, reported complaints by many businesses that “over recent years, the quali-
ty of applicants [had] declined markedly. This is not only reflected in their aca-
demic performance; their general demeanour, appropriate dress and expression,
and in particular their willingness to work hard and their ability to make an accu-
rate job application – unfortunately, none of that can be taken for granted any
longer!” (DIHK 2005 in Bundesagentur für Arbeit 2009: 2).
As a result, (potential) employees have to cope with higher standards for the
ideal combination of vocational and social competencies but they are also ex-
pected to fulfil expectations of a high degree of initiative and willingness to take
responsibility. A well-founded pre-vocational education during their compulsory
education could help to reduce the tensions in this precarious situation.

often, several teachers conducting classes in their field of specialisation. The full implementation of
basic skills occurs at this level. The end of this level often coincides with the end of compulsory
education where it exists.” (Unesco 1997: 18)
Introduction 9

Pre-vocational education, with its emphasis on developing an entrepreneuri-

al mind-set, can have a substantial impact on the personality development of
young people, with young people acquiring the skills to become a citoyen, a self-
dependent and mature citizen in a dynamic civil society (Aff 2005).
Closer links between schools (both general and vocational) and business
may also help to avoid early apprenticeship drop-outs (Niemeyer 2005). Young
people gain practical insights in the world of work that help them to deepen their
awareness of their own strengths and weaknesses. Furthermore, there is a direct
relationship between what has been learned and the benefits for practical expe-
rience, so workplace practice also helps to develop personal and social compe-
tencies (Oberth et al. 2006).
Fifobi has, therefore, drawn on the findings relating to the current position
of pre-vocational and economic/business education in European secondary
schools with the overall aim of optimising pre-vocational and economic educa-
tion as well as promoting an entrepreneurial mind-set among young Europeans.
Its aim is also to encourage positive effects on the transition from compulsory
education to the labour market and on lifelong learning. Due to this fact, the
study focusses on the age group of 14 to 16 years old students, who are the target
group in preparation for the transition process from school to work in all Euro-
pean countries.

2 Methodology

The study was designed to address a number of specific research questions:

1. How is the pre-vocational education curriculum structured and organised in
different European countries, and what does it involve?
2. Is there a difference between this prescribed curriculum and how it is actu-
ally delivered (enacted) within the school?
3. What is the role of the social partners in pre-vocational education, and what
are their expectations?
4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of pre-vocational education in dif-
ferent Europeans countries, and what can they learn from each other?
The research, covering the period from 2009 to 2011, includes analysis of both
quantitative and qualitative data. The first stage of data collection involved anal-
ysis of curricula for pre-vocational courses in all seven countries. A framework
for this analysis was developed on the basis of the European Qualifications
Framework (EQF) (European Parliament and Council 2008) and the traditional
competence concept of Roth (1971), who has been influential in the field of
10 Introduction

education and pedagogy (Klieme and Hartig 2007). Within this framework, four
broad fields were used to categorise provision: knowledge based competencies in
both business and economics; social competencies; and self-competencies (cf.
Figure 1).

Knowledge based
competencies in business

Knowledge based
Social competencies in
competencies economics

Self-competencies
with emphasis on
entrepreneurial
thinking

Figure 1: Categories of curriculum analysis

Each field was then sub-divided into specific sub-competencies – 29 in all (see
country reports). The sub-competencies in the field of knowledge based compe-
tencies in economics and business were based on a cluster of internationally-
known scholarly texts, such as Appleby (1994) and Mankiw (2001). The social
and self sub-competencies were adapted from the OECD definitions for key
competencies (OECD 2005). Researchers within each country then used this
framework to analyse the relevant curriculum data.
The second stage of the research involved interviewing teachers from gen-
eral schools within the compulsory education system in each country to establish
how this prescribed curriculum was actually delivered. A semi-structured format
was used for the interviews. Based on current pre-vocational education provi-
sion, size of school, and level of qualification achieved (ISCED-level 2) (Unesco
1997), a purposive sample of schools was selected and a total of 75 teachers
from across the seven countries were interviewed.
The conceptual framework used for the study focuses on the potential dif-
ferences between the prescribed curriculum that is, the curriculum devised and
Introduction 11

published by national Ministries of Education and the enacted curriculum

(Bloomer 1997; Edwards et al. 2009), a term that refers to how the curriculum is
taught in practice in a classroom setting.
The social partners – employers’ associations and trade unions – were also
questioned about the process of curriculum development and implementation in
schools and on their attitudes to activities at both school and organisational level
in the area of pre-vocational education (for example, cooperation arrangements
between an employers’ association or union and schools). Interviews were car-
ried out with both local and supra-regional representatives of the social partners
(in the former case, employers who had entered into cooperation arrangements
with individual schools). Semi-structured expert interviews were used to elicit
the views of teachers.
The first stage was an internal summary and documentation of all the find-
ings at national level. This also included national characteristics relevant to the
framework. The situation in each country as regards pre-vocational competencies
was subject to an analysis of strengths and weaknesses based on the criteria al-
ready developed (see above), revealing possible weaknesses in the ability of
general compulsory education to develop key competencies (see the individual
country reports in this volume).
The national findings were then aligned, compared on an international basis,
and assessed. Using jointly developed analytical criteria and national elements
ensured both a consistent comparison and the inclusion of national characteris-
tics. These comparative and evaluative findings were then documented in detail,
resulting in the grounded formulation of best practice approaches and supra-
national recommendations (see the concluding chapter in this volume).
All the findings were then consolidated and are reported in detail in this vo-
lume (for an overview of the process, see Figure 2).
12 Introduction

1. Definition of the area for analysis

2. Curriculum analysis

3. Interviews with teachers

4. Interviews with social partners

5. Evaluation

6. Formulation of best practice approaches

Figure 2: Research approach

3 What we hope the research will achieve

This procedure has produced a comparative international analysis with the poten-
tial to generate important impetus for educational policy in individual EU coun-
tries in two ways: firstly, by making available detailed and structured informa-
tion on the partner countries and, secondly, by means of the formulation and
detailed analysis of best practice approaches that can be used as models. The
criterion-led process means, moreover, that there is clear and transparent justifi-
cation. This makes it possible to set the proposed approaches against the specific
background of the researcher’s own country (including, for example, its educa-
tion system, the features of its labour market, and any particular cultural fea-
tures), thus helping to avoid an unreflective carry-over of approaches. At the
same time, the analysis and evaluation framework, which was designed on a
supra-national basis, can also be used to consider the status quo in all the other
countries in respect of the themes addressed and then to compare it with the
project findings on a standardised basis.
The analysis of findings in the context of the key themes across the EU
Member States and the adoption of best practice approaches, or aspects of such
approaches, was central to the aim of the project – achieving a substantial im-
provement in pre-vocational education within the compulsory education system.
Introduction 13

On this basis, the project could help to prevent problems developing by enabling
the partners to learn from other countries’ experience. Optimisation of pre-
vocational education may, as a result, have a positive impact; it also reflects very
closely the objectives set by the EU.
Pre-vocational education promotes employability among young people,
both by making it easier for them to access the world of work and by giving
them the basis for lifelong learning as their careers progress. Economic thinking
and entrepreneurship are also promoted directly as a central aim.
The focus on students who are approaching the end of their compulsory
education and are about to leave school also identifies a target group that can be
categorised as disadvantaged or as needing specific support to overcome the
problems it faces in making the transition to stable employment and to remedy
its disproportionately low take-up of further training (Caroleo and Pastore 2003).

4 Partners

The partners in this project were:

Project leader University of Cologne

Germany
German Research Centre for Comparative Vocational
Education and Training, Chair of Economics and Business
Education
Contact person: Prof. Matthias Pilz and Susanne Berger
M.A.
www.great.uni-koeln.de
Austria College of Education Vienna/Krems, International Bureau
Contact person: Doris Sygmund and Dr. Ingrid Schwarz
www.kphvie.at
Hungary EduNet-Foundation for New Educational Resources, Bu-
dapest
Contact person: EnikĘ Gönczöl and Tibor Bognar
www.edunet.hu
Latvia Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management
14 Introduction

Academy
Contact person: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ivars Musiz
www.rpiva.lv
Poland Pedagogical University of Cracow, Institute of Geography
Contact person: Dr. Thomasz Rachwaá and Assoc. Prof.
Dr. Sáawomir Kurek
www.ap.krakow.pl/geo
Portugal Academus-Advisory, Training and Research Ltd, Evora
Contact person: Prof. Eduardo Figuera www.academus.pt
Scotland University of Stirling, Institute of Education
Contact person: Dr. Roy Canning
www.ioe.stir.ac.uk

We should like here to thank all the partners for their enthusiasm and generous
cooperation. Particular thanks must go to our critical friends, Dieter Wlcek MBA
(Vienna) and Klaus Ronsdorf, senior government executive official (retired)
(Hannover), who have given strong, constructive and inspirational support.
We should also like to thank all those in the schools involved, the employers’
associations, and the trade unions who provided help and information.

Cologne, December 2011

Introduction 15

References

Aff, Josef (2005): Plädoyer für ein integratives Entrepreneurship-Verständnis in der Aus-
bildung von Jugendlichen. In: Lindner (2005): 136-137.
Appleby, Robert C. (1994): Modern business administration. London: Pitman.
Berger, Susanne and Pilz, Matthias (2010): Fit for business – developing business compe-
tencies in school (FIFOBI). Vorstellung eines europäischen Vergleichsprojekts zur
Optimierung der ökonomischen Bildung und Förderung des Unternehmertums an
allgemeinbildenden Schulen. In: Wirtschaft und Erziehung, Vol.62 No.3, 70-72.
Bloomer, Martin (1997): Curriculum-making in post-16 education. London: Routledge.
Bundesagentur für Arbeit (2009): Nationaler Pakt für Ausbildung und Fachkräftenach-
wuchs in Deutschland. Kriterienkatalog zur Ausbildungsreife. Nürnberg: Bundes-
agentur für Arbeit.
Caroleo, Floro E. and Pastore, Francesco (2003): Youth participation in the labour market
in Germany, Spain and Sweden. In: Hammer (2003): 109-133.
Edwards, Richard; Miller, Kate and Priestley, Mark (2009): Curriculum-making in school
and college: the case of hospitality. In: The Curriculum Journal, Vol.20 No.1, 27-42.
European Commission (2003): Green Paper of 21 January 2003 on Entrepreneurship in
Europe. Brussels: European Commission.
European Parliament and Council (2008): Recommendation of the European Parliament
and of the Council of 23. April 2008 on the establishment of the European Qualifi-
cations Framework for lifelong learning. Brussels.
Gönczöl, Enikö (2010): Mire vállalkozunk?? In: Taní-tani alternatív iskolai folyóirat,
Vol.3, 23-31.
Hammer, Torild (ed.) (2003): Youth unemployment and social exclusion in Europe. Bris-
tol: Policy Press.
Klieme, Eckhard and Hartig, Johannes (2007): Kompetenzkonzepte in den Sozialwissen-
schaften und im empirischen Diskurs. In: Prenzel et al. (2007): 11-29.
Kurek, Slawomir and Rachwaá, Tomasz (2010): ZaáoĪenia i wstĊpne wyniki
europejskiego projektu badawczego FIFOBI w zakresie ksztaátowania kompetencji
uczniów gimnazjum do prowadzenia dziaáalnoĞci gospodarczej. In: Zioáo and
Rachwaá (2010): 472-485.
Lindner, Johannes (ed.) (2005): Entrepreneur: Menschen, die Ideen umsetzen. Wien:
IFTE.
Mankiw, Nicholas G. (2001): Principles of economics. Fort Worth: Harcourt College
Publishers.
Niemeyer, Beatrix (2005): Transcultural recommendations for the improvement of the
quality of re integration programmes. In: Petersen et al. (2005): 256-273.
Oberth, Christa; Zeller, Beate and Krings, Ursula (2006): Lernort Betrieb – Berufliche
Qualifizierung von benachteiligten Jugendlichen. Methodische Ansätze für Ausbil-
der und Ausbilderinnen. Bonn: Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2005): The defini-
tion and selection of key competencies. Executive summary. Available online at:
http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/47/61/35070367.pdf, accessed May 30, 2011.
16 Introduction

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (2010): Education at

a Glance 2010: OECD Indicators. Paris: OECD.
Petersen, Wiebke; Heidegger, Gerald and Niemeyer, Beatrix (ed.) (2005): Re-Integration.
Transnational Evaluation of social and professional re-integration programmes for
young people. München: Grin-Verlag.
Prenzel, Manfred; Gogolin, Ingrid and Krüger, Heinz-Hermann (ed.) (2007): Kompetenz-
diagnostik. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Roth, Heinrich (1971): Pädagogische Anthropologie: Entwicklung Erziehung. Hannover:
Schroedel.
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco) (1997): Inter-
national standard classification of education. ISCED (1997). Paris: Unesco.
Zioáo, Zbigniew and Rachwaá, Tomasz (ed.) (2010): PrzedsiĊbiorczoĞü w warunkach
integracji europejskiej, PrzedsiĊbiorczoĞü – Edukacja nr 6. Warszawa–Kraków:
Nowa Era.
Pre-Vocational Education in Scotland: A Case Study of One
Local Authority

Catherine McGlynn, Roy Canning and Michael Dolan

1 Introduction

In order to carry out an in-depth study of the Scottish curriculum for pupils in
their final two years of compulsory education, one specific local authority, North
Lanarkshire, was selected, this is a local authority area of Central Scotland cov-
ering a population of around 326,000, which is 6% of the total population of
Scotland (North Lanarkshire 2011). The North Lanarkshire school-based model
of delivering pre-vocational courses to 14 to16 year old pupils is unique in Scot-
land, both for the scale on which it is offered and the range of provision across
different levels. The influential report on Quality and Equity of Schooling in
Scotland by the OECD (2007) highlighted the advantages of offering pre-
vocational education in schools based upon this local authority model. Although
concerns were raised about how the vocational curriculum could be better inte-
grated with academic subjects (Raffe 2008; Priestley and Humes 2010) there was
overwhelming support for expanding the delivery of vocational education within
the compulsory school years.
The aims of the study were to determine the nature and extent of provision
of pre-vocational education in this local authority and to elicit the views of
teachers and social partners on the quality of provision of such courses and to
identify how young people engage with the curriculum. An analysis of the curri-
culum was carried out and secondary data on participation and attainment rates
of pupils in pre-vocational courses was reviewed. Interviews were realised with
teachers from a variety of pre-vocational subject areas, across a number of
schools in North Lanarkshire. Also interviewed were three Headteachers, three
Further Education College Co-ordinators and other social partners who support
these programmes in schools. By interviewing a selection of those closely in-
volved in the pre-vocational programmes in North Lanarkshire, the aim was to
identify the strengths and weaknesses of these courses and suggest best practice
for dissemination.

M. Pilz et al. (Eds.), Fit for Business, DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19028-0_2,

© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2012
18 Scotland

2 The Scottish education system

Within the Scottish education system, pupils attend a secondary school from the
ages of 12 to 18 and school attendance is compulsory to the age of 16. From ages
12 to 16 is classed as lower secondary education (this is from first to fourth year
of secondary education i.e. S1 to S4). According to the Scottish Government’s
school leaver statistics, around 83% of 16 year olds stay at school until S5 with
54% of them continuing into S6 (Scottish Executive 2010). For the first two
years of secondary school, pupils follow a general education based on the five to
14 curriculum and during S3 and S4 they take specialist subjects and pre-
vocational education courses. Before the end of S4, pupils have the opportunity
of gaining national qualifications – currently these are Standard Grades, (which
are offered at three levels, Foundation, General and Credit) and Intermediate I
and Intermediate II. Pupils select up to eight subjects including Math, English
and a Science, which are compulsory and each is taught by a subject specialist
teacher. The majority of pupils attend state secondary schools (96%).
Teacher training in Scotland is studied within a University and for Second-
ary Education, is either as a four year Bachelor of Education Degree (BEd), or as
a one year Professional Graduate Diploma of Education (PGDE) taken after a
first degree. Teachers are required to register with the General Teaching Council
for Scotland (GTC) and must complete a one year probationary period before
being fully qualified. Those who teach pre-vocational courses in schools, might
have gained the Teaching Qualification for Further Education (TQFE) as a post
graduate qualification, or the BEd.
The largest awarding body in Scotland is the Scottish Qualifications Au-
thority (SQA). The SQA is responsible for developing, validating and awarding
qualifications, both of a vocational and academic nature. In one sense, this body
offers a unified curriculum framework, as it approves and validates the majority
of qualifications in Scotland which are awarded at a level lower than degree.
However, other awarding bodies can also offer and validate courses in Scotland,
in particular, vocational awarding bodies with a UK remit. Individual schools
can decide to use a range of Awarding Bodies. In an attempt to regulate such a
wide range of educational provision, the Scottish Government has supported the
introduction of a unified qualification framework. The Scottish Credit and Quali-
fications Framework (SCQF) was established in 2001 with the explicit aim of
bringing together all qualifications offered in Scotland under one umbrella orga-
nisation (Raffe 2003). This framework provides an integrated system for recog-
nising the volume and level of credit attached to formal qualifications both in
schools and colleges (Gallagher 2009). It establishes a climbing ladder of no-
tional equivalences for qualifications and smoothes the way for credit transfer
Scotland 19

arrangements between different institutions. However, SCQF is an enabling

framework that relies upon institutions adopting it on a voluntary basis. There is
no legal requirement to use the SCQF and many existing qualifications remain
outside the framework, particularly work-based qualifications and community
education courses.
Following the National Debate on Education in Scotland in 2002, the then
Labour Government launched a Curriculum for Excellence (Scottish Executive
2004, 2006). This legislation was particularly innovative as it supported a values
driven agenda for change across the education sector. Although there has been a
change of Government, the current administration has continued to support these
core values by reducing the burden of assessment and opening the door to a fur-
ther expansion of vocational education in secondary schools. The most important
curriculum offering in this context was the Skills for Work programmes (Scottish
Executive 2004, 2006) that help to prepare young people for the world of work.
Although initially these courses suffered from low completion rates, the attain-
ment levels have improved with time and as a consequence, provided pathways
into further education and employment (Speilhofer and Walker 2008). The
awards can be best described as work-related rather than work-based as they are
intended to have an educational component that contributes to cross-curricula
learning within the school (OECD 2010). It is useful to think of them as prepara-
tory studies for broader work-based occupations. They are also intended to pro-
mote certain generic clusters of skills and qualities, including the “four capaci-
ties” from the Curriculum of Excellence; successful learners, confident individu-
als, responsible citizens and effective contributors (HMIE 2009).

3 Pre-vocational education in the lower secondary school in North

Lanarkshire

Within North Lanarkshire’s 24 secondary schools, pre-vocational education

appears in pupils’ option choices for S3 and S4, listed in the same way as other
subjects and is available to all pupils across all secondary establishments. Gener-
ally, pupils have the option to undertake up to eight Standard Grades, this can
include a vocational option, which are on the same level on the SCQF. These
courses have the equivalent time allocated to other subjects, this is notionally –
three to four hours per week, taught over 50 minute periods for around 36 weeks
and are assessed and certificated. Some courses have continual assessment while
others have end of course examinations. Pupils attend their pre-vocational
choice, which is incorporated within their timetable in school, as they would
attend Mathematics, English or other subjects. This institutionalises the voca-
20 Scotland

tional element of their studies and normalises provision. Pre-vocational educa-

tion subjects also develop employability skills through practical learning within
an occupational setting. All pupils are also given the opportunity of undertaking
a one week’s work experience placement during S4 and many pupils will link
this to their pre-vocational subject choice. This follows the “universal principle”
(Scottish Executive 2008) whereby all pupils, regardless of their planned pro-
gression routes, have the opportunity to experience a work placement for one
week.
These pre-vocational subjects are taught within the schools mainly by
teachers (lecturers) from the local Further Education colleges (Berner 2010).
These teachers will have had previous work experience in their specialist subject
area and also have relevant qualifications (usually Higher National Diploma or
Degree) and a teaching qualification. Some will have gained the secondary
teaching qualification Post Graduate Diploma in Education, (PGDE), while oth-
ers will have the Teaching Qualification Further Education (TQFE) which is
normally gained as an in-service qualification over a one year period.

4 The pre-vocational education curriculum

The pre-vocational education curriculum is somewhat different to other parts of

the curriculum in Scotland. It does not form part of the compulsory subjects for
lower secondary schools and is, therefore, decided at local authority or school
level. Whether it is offered in schools or not, will depend on the individual
school as this is a devolved matter. Provision of such courses is, therefore, based
upon the “institutional logic” (Raffe 2003) adopted by the educational provider.
Once a school decides to offer a pre-vocational education course, the curriculum-
making process involved will be dependent upon the Awarding Body authorised
to accredit such programmes. If a school decides to offer a pre-vocational educa-
tion course, say for instance from SQA, it will then normally adopt a modular-
based structure that uses an outcome-based curriculum. This will largely be de-
termined by employer-led groups rather than jointly arrived at in consultation
with trade unions or any wider educational stakeholders. This employer-led cur-
riculum is intended to be responsive to both, labour market changes and rapidly
changing, innovative product market strategies. The actual pedagogic practices
of teaching such a curriculum are not specified in advance in the unit descriptors.
The role of the teachers here is paramount as they will take this prescribed curri-
culum and design practical learning activities around it to motivate and engage
young people. This, so called, enacted curriculum (Bloomer 1997 and Edwards
et al. 2009) can take many different forms as long as the outcome measures,
Scotland 21

identified by the unit descriptors, are met. The majority of the qualifications
certificated under this system have a strong general core skills based format
(Canning 2007, 2011).

5 Curriculum analysis

For the purpose of the current study, a number of pre-vocational modular courses
were selected based upon SQA specifications. All the modules in question are
offered within the lower secondary school and are separate courses rather than
embedded ones, and thus not subsumed within other school subject areas.
After an examination of the existing frameworks and curricula on offer in
Scotland and in particular in North Lanarkshire schools, the course documents
were selected from the SQA database. The curriculum documents comprise of
the required competencies framework (see appendix) and contents which relate
to the codes of the common analysis framework used within the Fifobi-project.
The courses were: Business Management, Economics, Personal Development
and Work Experience. The SQA category is classified at Intermediate level I,
(SCQF Level 4) this provision is classified as International Standard Classifica-
tion of Education (ISCED) level II (Unesco 1997) and, generally speaking,
aimed at 14 to 16 year old pupils.
The quantitative analysis of the data was undertaken by collecting and cate-
gorising subject headings within the curriculum documents used for pre-
vocational education courses.
Figure 1 below gives an overview of the competencies identified within the
Scottish pre-vocational education curriculum. All four competence fields, know-
ledge based competencies in the firm and business environment (B), as well as in
the wider economic and industry environment (E), self-competencies (SE), and
social competencies (SO) are nearly evenly distributed over the whole analysed
curriculum. The most important sub-competencies identified are: Internal locus
of control (SE1); Moderate tendency to take risks (SE4); Eagerness for indepen-
dence (SE3); Communication ability (SO1) and Team ability (SO4). Those com-
petencies that are given less priority include: Basic principles of economics (E1);
Market forms (E7); Labour market (E11) and Income (E9). Overall there is a
strong preference within the Scottish vocational curriculum for self and social
competencies.
22 Scotland

Business and its external environment (B1)

Corporate strategy and planning (B2)
Organising (B3)
Directing (B4)
Controlling (B5)
Marketing and sales management (B6)
Production and operation management (B7)
Human resource management (B8)
Administrative management (B9)
Basic principles of economics (E1)
The market forces of supply and demand (E2)
Trade and globalisation (E3)
Actors in the market (E4)
The monetary system (E5)
Government policies and its influences (E6)
Market forms (E7)
Firms in the market (E8)
Income (E9)
Indicators of economy (E10)
Labour market (E11)
Internal locus of control (SE1)
Achievement motivation (SE2)
Eagerness for independence (SE3)
Moderate tendency to take risks (SE4)
Communication ability (SO1)
Conflict ability (SO2)
Ability to give and receive criticism (SO3)
Team ability (SO4)
Empathy (SO5)

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12%

Figure 1: Differentiated results of the Scottish curriculum analysis. Standardised

data
Scotland 23

6 Teacher interviews

The teacher and social partner interviews were carried out across the three geo-
graphical areas, of North Lanarkshire; Cumbernauld, Coatbridge and Mother-
well. Within each area, there are denominational (linked to a church) and non-
denominational schools. After consultation with the Local Authority and a selec-
tion of schools across all areas, a total of eight schools were identified. These
schools offer a cross-section of pre-vocational option choices for pupils, ranging
from Automotive Engineering, Beauty Therapy, Construction Crafts, Early Edu-
cation and Childcare, Hairdressing and Professional Hospitality. All these
courses are offered in S3 and S4. Teachers from five of the subject areas were
interviewed.
The 15 teachers were predominantly very experienced and had taught on
average, for over 15 years. Some were employed by a local Further Education
College and came into the schools to teach pre-vocational programmes, as they
were subject specialists. The majority of them had several years of work expe-
rience outside the education sector, with some additionally having experience of
running their own businesses. Four of the teachers were school-based course co-
ordinators who had a responsibility for the running of the pre-vocational curricu-
lum. The overall findings were that teachers greatly valued the pre-vocational
curriculum which is available in these schools for a variety of reasons. They felt
that the Local Authority and the schools themselves had invested time and re-
sources in making sure these programmes were well supported and promoted
within the schools. The interviews highlighted that the main focus of pre-
vocational courses, as far as the teachers are concerned, is on pupils gaining
social and self-competencies, rather than those related to business or economics.
They said that the courses on offer to S4 pupils (aged 15 to 16 years) not only
provided these young people with experience in a pre-vocational area, but also
gave them a variety of useful, transferable skills. All the courses include a unit
on employability and teachers emphasised these employability skills as being an
important component of the programmes. They highlighted a number of benefits
gained by those pupils who were taking the pre-vocational options and com-
mented on the fact that these courses were viewed by them as being a different
experience. The teachers mentioned the positive changes in attitude and beha-
viour and the enthusiasm pupils show for these classes. The extra-curricular
activities, including participating in competitions and visits to colleges, expe-
rienced as part of the pre-vocational courses, were also mentioned as contribut-
ing to the very positive way the courses are seen by both, pupils and schools. As
a result of the pre-vocational programmes, the majority of the teachers believed
that the pupils were better prepared on leaving school to go on to work, or take
24 Scotland

up a college course and school leaver destination statistics seem to confirm this
(Scottish Executive 2011).
The quotations are employed here selectively and are used mainly for illu-
strative purposes.

“The school leavers need good employability skills, they need to be motivated and
their timekeeping and attendance [needs to be] good (...). They also need to show re-
spect (...) occupational, business and leadership skills are not really necessary for
school leavers.” (Child Care Teacher)

However, within the schools, staff tended to teach the curriculum in terms of
occupational skills, which included aspects of general education:

“They develop their motor skills which is useful in their technical subjects. They al-
so use presentation skills which transfer to Art. Their written theory taps into Eng-
lish and Science subjects.” (Hospitality Teacher)

The teachers also emphasised that pre-vocational education was much more
concerned with the broader aspects of life and citizenship:

“It is like the continental approach to education, it should not just be about how to
do, but how to be.” (Headteacher)

“Learning to trust others, employers and other adults is massively important.” (Work
Experience Teacher)

“For some it is the first time they are learning independently of their teachers.”
(School Course Co-ordinator)

There was an emphasis on the general skills pupils were gaining by participating
in pre-vocational programmes and not just qualifications. The teachers stressed
positive pupil behaviour and attitude, not just in the sense of pupils being better
behaved, but that they were exhibiting more mature behaviour and learning how
to conduct themselves in a working environment. Several instances were also
given of pupils whose behaviour had been poor in other subjects, but they be-
haved well in their pre-vocational classes. One teacher explained that some pu-
pils believed that their pre-vocational teachers showed a greater interest in them
and praised their efforts more than in other classes. The teachers frequently cited
examples of the pupils acting in a professional manner and being able to reflect
critically on their own work. Many saw their role as being to broaden their pu-
pils’ experiences and help to change their attitude towards the world of work,
Scotland 25

particularly where the young person came from a background of generational

unemployment.

“(...) employability, this is the key theme of the vocational programmes.” (Construc-
tion Teacher)

7 Social partners interviews

The individuals chosen for the social partner interviews reflect the partnerships
which support the S4 curriculum in the schools of North Lanarkshire, where the
teacher interviews were based and a total of ten partners were interviewed from
eight organisations. Since the pre-vocational programmes within the S4 curricu-
lum are supported by the three local Further Education Colleges (Coatbridge,
Cumbernauld and Motherwell), four senior staff at these colleges with responsi-
bility for college liaison work, were interviewed (FE). Headteachers (HT) from
three of the local secondary schools were also interviewed, as well as two senior
members of staff from different areas of Skills Development Scotland (SDS) and
one local employer (E).
The three colleges have worked closely with North Lanarkshire Council and
the schools to develop appropriate pre-vocational courses for school pupils.
Some of the courses are delivered in the colleges, but the courses we focussed on
were taught in the schools, mainly by lecturing staff from the colleges. The four
college staff who were interviewed are responsible for the co-ordination of
school provision and the planning and development of courses for school pupils.
They work very closely with their school colleagues and have an in-depth know-
ledge of the pre-vocational programmes. The Headteachers from the schools
were also interviewed to gain their perspective of the pre-vocational curriculum
running in their school. These Headteachers have been very actively involved in
developing the pre-vocational curriculum within North Lanarkshire and their
schools offer a range of subjects within this curriculum.
Skills Development Scotland is a non-departmental public body which was
set up in 2008 and brought together the careers, skills, training and funding ser-
vices of Careers Scotland, Scottish University for Industry and the Skills Inter-
vention arms of Scottish Enterprise and Highlands and Islands Enterprise. It
employs 1,400 staff and has a network of public access centres and offices across
Scotland. One of those interviewed is a Team Leader who works closely with
schools and is responsible for providing careers advice and support to young
people. She is also part of a school-college collaborative group which set up the
pre-vocational programmes in schools. The other interviewee is the National
26 Scotland

Operations Executive for SDS, whose role is a more strategic one as she deals
mainly with the finance required to support these programmes.
The final interview was with the Corporate Responsibility Manager of a
large national manufacturing company of around 4,000 staff. It has a local
branch which works closely with one of the secondary schools involved in the
project, providing support for the curriculum and work experience placements
for pupils.
The majority of the social partners were agreed that general employability
skills and motivation were very important for young people, as they saw these as
being transferable into any work area. They considered that knowledge of eco-
nomics and business was less important than pupils gaining social and self-
competencies and that the pre-vocational curriculum was a key factor in this.

“Those who lack motivational skills also tend to lack entrepreneurial skills and this
is often due to a lack of positive role models.” (SDS)

Most also mentioned the impact that Curriculum for Excellence should have in
the future and they felt this would have a positive effect on improving skills
across the curriculum.

“We are quite a long way off from [pupils gaining these skills across the curriculum]
it will be a few years before all of this is totally embedded.” (HT)

The social partners saw their role as being to help supporting rather than deter-
mine the school curriculum, using words like “advise”, ”collaborate” and ”con-
tribute”. The partners from the local colleges believed they should have greater
involvement in the pre-vocational curriculum, as they had better links with in-
dustry than school staff. They saw their role as giving pupils an additional educa-
tional experience and providing, as one put it “an enhanced education”. As one
of the social partners stated, it is important to have “effective partnerships, with
the young person at the centre of everything”. The Headteachers mentioned col-
laborative learning as the aim of their partnerships.
In the interviews with the social partners, there were some barriers identi-
fied, with the main ones the lack of shared information (in particular an aware-
ness of pupils’ learning support needs) and funding restrictions. The employer
noted that at times it seemed that teachers did not fully understand their organisa-
tion and had unrealistic expectations regarding input from the employer in terms
of timescales. The inflexible nature of the school timetable was also seen as a
barrier to greater involvement with industry. The social partners said that, the
fact that courses were taught by college staff who were (or in some cases, still
are) practitioners, was a very positive element of the pre-vocational programmes.
Scotland 27

They also felt that since the pupils’ learning is related to the working environ-
ment, it makes the experience more real for them and they respond to the teach-
ers’ different expectations of them in this environment.
The employer suggested that since many (ordinary) school teachers lack
business experience, this was an area that they could perhaps help out with, by
offering teachers work experience. All of the Headteachers would like to involve
their own staff more in pre-vocational courses by giving them the opportunity to
gain more experience and also the option of industrial placements, but they rec-
ognise that time and resources are against this.

“There is a lack of confidence within the teaching profession [about teaching pre-
vocational courses] teachers are preoccupied with the demands of their own subject
discipline.” (HT)

The interviews with the social partners provided an overwhelmingly positive

view of the S4 curriculum. Those interviewed from the local Further Education
Colleges all commented on the good working relationships that had been created
between school and Local Authority staff to support the pre-vocational pro-
grammes. They also all indicated that the colleges had seen an improvement in
the calibre of applicant to college from the schools involved. They commented
that the pupils leaving school were much more aware of the opportunities open
to them, they had a greater knowledge of the courses they were applying for and
they all seemed to have benefited greatly from the pre-vocational course they had
attended, whatever the subject area. Those who had close links with employers
also said that these benefits were also apparent when the young people moved
into the workplace and, that when employers were consulted on the pre-
vocational programmes, they also saw them as being a very useful introduction
to the world of work. Several mentioned the general benefits to young people in
their personal development, broadening their horizons and giving them the skills
to aid them in their transition from school to college or work.

“[The courses] are seen as something different from school and for certain pupils
this can re-engage them.”(FE)

“Some of the pupils on our vocational courses are from the third generation of un-
employed families; they have no aspirations and no role models. These vocational
programmes give them confidence to empower them to go into the world of
work.”(FE)

“Pupils positively opt into college courses [after their pre-vocational course] and are
more likely to succeed. It’s more of an informed choice for them.” (FE)
28 Scotland

The staff from Skills Development Scotland work with school leavers and com-
mented that these courses had enhanced the employability skills of school leav-
ers and said that statistics have shown that those who had participated in pre-
vocational education had a 5% better progression into work or further education,
that those who had not. They also emphasised the changing workplaces that
young people are now entering and believed that these courses promoted the
notion of lifelong learning to them. In particular, they felt that the investment
that had been made within the schools to provide appropriate learning environ-
ments for the pre-vocational courses had provided the pupils with real-life expe-
riences and the interaction with college staff had helped their maturity.

“The main purpose of these programmes is to give pupils the option of doing some-
thing that suits their needs. It gives them the choice of studying what they are inter-
ested in and helps them gain transferable skills, not just subject related skills.”
(SDS)

The employer who was interviewed saw this school partnership role as being
part of their input into the local community, so they did not necessarily take a
pro-active role, but responded to requests for them to get involved. It was inter-
esting that both, the employer and one of the Headteachers, saw the barriers to
collaboration being the inflexibility of the school year and the fact that teaching
staff were focused on their own subject areas. The Headteachers all had a num-
ber of pre-vocational classes running in their schools and their comments on
these classes were also extremely positive. They cited benefits to individual
pupils, whose whole school experience had been enhanced by their pre-
vocational studies. They also mentioned general benefits to the schools them-
selves, with the pre-vocational pupils organising charity events and open even-
ings in the school, which added to the pastoral aspect of school life. In the main,
they were full of praise for the staff teaching on these courses and felt that the
pupils benefitted greatly from the teaching approach taken by the lecturers,
which was often different from school staff – sometimes due to the nature of the
subject being taught. The few negative comments tended to be where it was felt
that the college had not used the appropriate staff to cover this level of course, or
age of student, but these were relatively rare occasions.

“The North Lanarkshire model works particularly well. For that age of pupils taking
time out to travel to college is difficult.” (HT)

“There were initial barriers as there was a pupils’ and parents’ perception that the
pre-vocational courses were less worthy. We promoted the life skills element of the
curriculum and it became very successful.” (HT)
Scotland 29

“The drop-out rate is negligible from the school based pre-vocational courses. Pupils
who do drop out of these courses are the ones who tend to drop out of everything.”
(HT)

It is perhaps ironic, that just as this study of the S4 pre-vocational programmes

should produce such positive feedback, some of the courses are being cut due to
funding restrictions as part of the Local Authority and Government cutbacks.
Many of those interviewed expressed their concern about the future of the S4
curriculum and the negative effect the funding cuts will have. Several of them
also commented that since Curriculum for Excellence was just gaining a foothold
in the school curriculum, it was particularly unfortunate that the pre-vocational
courses would be restricted, as these two developments working together, could
have had a very positive effect on the educational experience of young people in
North Lanarkshire.

8 Discussion

The curriculum analysis showed that across the S4 curriculum in Scotland there
is an even distribution of knowledge based, self and social competencies. Where
there was less emphasis was on the wider economic and industry based environ-
ment. The interviews with teachers seemed to agree with this analysis. Their
focus was very much on developing self-competencies and in particular em-
ployability skills. The notion of self-competence and entrepreneurial thinking
was interpreted differently by some of the teachers and the social partners. Some
viewed entrepreneurship as being when an innovative individual sets up a busi-
ness and therefore considered that this kind of skill could not really be taught as
it was innate. Others, the Headteachers in particular, viewed entrepreneurship as
being innovative in a general sense, willing to try new activities and working
outside their own comfort zone. They believed the pre-vocational programmes
did give pupils opportunities to develop these entrepreneurial skills. The teachers
all said that they took the opportunity of discussing self employment opportuni-
ties within their own area of industry and so the pupils would have gained know-
ledge of being entrepreneurial in that sense. Although all agreed that there was a
lesser emphasis on pupils gaining business and economic competencies within
the pre-vocational courses, they did think that since all teachers involved in the
pre-vocational courses had relevant industrial experience, they were able to give
pupils up-to-date business knowledge and relate this to the wider economy. In
fact, some of the teachers had very current knowledge as they still worked part-
time in their own field or ran their own part-time businesses.
30 Scotland

The teachers were also very specific about the benefits of the pre-vocational
courses, saying, they provide pupils with active learning experiences, they equip
pupils with skills for training and employment, they teach young people to be
flexible, adaptable and self-reliant. A number of them mentioned the increasing
confidence and self esteem of the young people they teach on these courses and
being able to show respect and work with others, was seen as a common out-
come. The pupils themselves seemed to acknowledge this, as the teachers men-
tioned that pupils liked being able to work in pairs or small groups during their
pre-vocational activities. Usually S4 classes are streamed according to ability,
whereas the pre-vocational classes are available to all S4 pupils and are therefore
mixed ability. Since a unit on employability is a key feature of these pro-
grammes, the skills related to this were seen as being prevalent; good timekeep-
ing, organisational skills, having a positive attitude and taking responsibility for
their own work. The teachers who were also the Course Co-ordinators and had
more of an overview of the whole school curriculum, were very positive about
the competencies gained by pupils and emphasised the importance of these
courses as a preparation for the world of work, noting that pupils were more
mature as a result of taking pre-vocational courses. They considered that those
pupils taking these courses had an advantage over those who had not. More self
and social competencies were identified as resulting from pre-vocational studies
and it was felt that this broadened their horizons and helped pupils to consider
other options. Only one teacher, a Course Co-ordinator, considered that these
courses were primarily for the “less academic”. Most saw them as offering a
wider experience to pupils rather than a particular career path; therefore they
were relevant to all, regardless of academic ability.

“Enterprise skills are important as young people need to be able to innovate, not ve-
getate; we need to encourage them to think outside the box.” (School Course Co-
ordinator)

“We find that even those who eventually want to be vets and lawyers are still moti-
vated enough to take a vocational course [at school] in Hairdressing and Beauty.”
(Beauty Therapy Teacher)

While the teachers focussed mainly on the benefits to individual pupils, the
Headteachers also spoke of the overall benefits these courses brought to the
whole school, with an improvement in pupils’ behaviour and a broadening of
their outlook. They specifically talked about the events some of the groups had
organised in the schools, involving parents and the local community and the
benefits gained from this. The social partners were all agreed that employability
skills were the most important in the world of work and that the pre-vocational
Scotland 31

courses deliver these skills. They also stressed that these skills were of particular
benefit to young people, as they are transferable to other areas of the school
curriculum and help in the transition from school to further education or work.
One of the social partners had carried out focus groups with young people and
found that they were able to identify the skills they had gained through the pre-
vocational programmes and they mentioned employability skills specifically.
The employer was not convinced that some skills, like entrepreneurial, can ac-
tually be taught and said that often in the workplace a willingness to learn was
more important than specific skills.

9 Conclusion and recommendations

It would be reasonable to claim from the case study data that pre-vocational
education has had an important role to play in engaging young people in the
lower secondary school, and has also produced tangible results in the retention
and progression of pupils within tertiary education and employment. Although
we have identified distinctions in how the curriculum is prescribed within na-
tional curriculum documents and how this curriculum is in fact enacted in prac-
tice by teachers in the classroom, these distinctions do seem largely to benefit the
pupils through providing a broader and more holistic education. It is also ac-
knowledged that the role of the social partners in the provision of this type of
education is very important, although at times many employer and trade union
groups often operate at a distance from the daily work-related practices of the
pupils and teachers within the schools. Nonetheless, the social partners fulfil an
important role in supporting such programmes and eventually providing oppor-
tunities for young people in the workplace. Although it is not possible to simply
generalise these case study findings to a broader school population, there are
lessons to be learned from North Lanarkshire local authority that will be of help
to other institutions within the UK and to countries within continental Europe, in
particular:
ƒ The need to plan pre-vocational education provision at a strategic level
within the schools and colleges.
ƒ The importance of fully accrediting such provision within recognised na-
tional qualification frameworks.
ƒ The value of integrating vocational and academic courses within a unified
mixed mode curriculum that is supported by excellent guidance and careers
services.
ƒ The need to involve social partners and, in particular, teachers with an oc-
cupational background in the pre-vocational subject.
32 Scotland

ƒ Finally, the need to recognise and value the educational purposes of such
provision and to develop strong links between the pre-vocational and aca-
demic subject areas from across the school curriculum.

This is not to say that there are not problems associated with the provision of
pre-vocational courses in the lower secondary school. Indeed, there still remains
a need to integrate better the vocational and academic curriculum and to chal-
lenge the more able pupils within pre-vocational classes. However, in overall
terms, the pre-vocational curriculum has an important role in engaging young
people in active learning processes that can also succeed in retaining them within
schools, while simultaneously building their employability skills.

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The Development of Business Competencies in School:
Latvia’s Experience

Ivars Muzis, Emils Liepins, Janis Roze and Valdis Krastins

1 Introduction

In the international project Fit for business – Developing business competencies

in school (Fifobi) from 2009 till 2011 were curriculum analysis, interviews with
teachers and social partners in education institutions and organisations carried
out, to conduct the present situation in the development of business competen-
cies in schools in Latvia.
The project analysed the curriculum in the subject Social Sciences, con-
ducted interviews with teachers at schools and with social partners, according to
the forms and questionnaires designed in Germany1.

1.1 Brief description of the specific background and national education

system of Latvia

Since the independence of Latvia in 1990, the education system is administered

at three levels – national, municipal and institutional. The Parliament (Saeima),
the Cabinet of Ministers and the Ministry of Education and Science are the main
decision-making bodies at a national level. The Ministry of Education and Sci-
ence is the education policy-making institution which also issues licenses for
opening comprehensive education institutions and sets educational standards
along with the teacher training content and procedures (The Cabinet of Ministers
of the Republic of Latvia 2003).
On September 1, 2005 started a gradual implementation of a curriculum
reform in basic education. It covers changes in the curriculum, introduction of
new subjects and increase of a study load. A number of new subject standards
were developed in order to ensure a logical link between the subjects and acqui-

1 The results were reported to the Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy
(RTTEMA) international interdisciplinary scientific conference “The Crisis and the Ways How to
Overcome It” and a publication was submitted to the journal “The World of Psychology”. The
project importance has been reported to the RTTEMA Scientific Council and the meeting of the
Department of Management.

M. Pilz et al. (Eds.), Fit for Business, DOI 10.1007/978-3-531-19028-0_3,

© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2012
36 Latvia

sition of basic skills instead of overloading pupils with facts. Gradually, all pu-
pils of basic education were involved within a three-year period. The implemen-
tation of this reform was completed in the school year of 2007/2008.
In September 2008 the Cabinet of Ministers approved the 'Regulations on
National Standards for General Secondary Education and Secondary Education
Subject Standards'. The regulations foresee both a gradual transition to a moder-
nised curriculum and changes in the criteria for assessment of pupil study
achievement at general secondary education level, beginning with school year
2008/2009 and providing a succession of basic education content changes at
general secondary education level (The Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of
Latvia 2006).

1.2 Brief description of basic education of Latvia

The goals of the basic education programme are defined in the National Standard
of Basic Education: to provide basic knowledge and skills required for the stu-
dents’ public and personal life; to form basis for the students further education;
to promote harmonic formation and development of the students personality; to
encourage the formation of the students responsible attitude towards him-
self/herself, society, environment and state (The Cabinet of Ministers of the
Republic of Latvia 2006).
The acquisition of basic education is compulsory; it starts in the calendar
year when a child turns seven. Admission of students for studies in the basic
education programme is carried out in compliance to the procedure stipulated by
the Cabinet of Ministers.
The compulsory basic education programme content is determined by the
National Basic Education Standard. Each general education institution can im-
plement one or more licensed education programmes, including education pro-
grammes for ethnic minorities.
The full basic education programme is completed within a period of nine
years in grades one to nine (except for several special basic education pro-
grammes). Education can be acquired in several forms, usually by attending full-
time schools, but there are also additional education programmes available. An
individual can also choose to become an external student (The Cabinet of Minis-
ters of the Republic of Latvia 2003).
Upon the acquisition of general basic education programme, young people
receive a certificate attesting general basic education, and a list of results – a
grade transcript. The criteria and procedures for the evaluation of the acquired
education are set in the National Education Standards.
Latvia 37

The structure of the education system of Latvia is depicted in Figure 1.

Age Schooling

29 22

28 21
PHD-programmes
3 to 4 years

25 18 Magister
programmes IV
3, 2 or 1 years

23 16
University-
22 15 Applied
type
Bachelor professional
professional
programmes programmes College
programmes
4-6 years 4 years programmes IV
4-6 years
19 12
2 years

III
19 12 Secondary
General secondary vocational
educations programmes 3 programmes Vocational II
years 4 years programmes
16 9
2-3 years

Basic vocational
16 9
programmes 1-2 years I
(for drop outs)
9 years basic education
7 0

Figure 1: The Education System of Latvia. Source: own compilation on Eurydice

2009/2010: 25
38 Latvia

1.3 Brief description of supplementary courses offered at school

The lesson of the class teacher, which is mandatory for every class at least ones a
week, as well as individual, optional subjects and interest education classes are
not included in the calculation of the total number of students’ lesson load per
week. The mandatory topics to be looked into during class lessons include be-
haviour and communication culture, civil education, basics of a healthy lifestyle
and prevention of addictions, acting in emergency situations, traffic safety and
career choice.

2 Description of results of the curriculum analysis in Latvia

2.1 Justification for the selection of curriculum documents in Latvia

Carrying out the research the following can be concluded:

ƒ in the academic year of 1990–1991 in the Republic of Latvia started a tran-
sition to a new education practice declaring the basic education, grade one
to nine, compulsory;
ƒ in the mid-90s of the last century was a subject-cluster of Social Sciences
created which consisted of three subjects: Ethics, Economics and Citizen-
ship Education. These subjects were taught during the final years of basic
schooling: grades seven to nine;
ƒ in secondary education the subject Fundamentals of Basic Business was
made compulsory;
ƒ currently, Social Sciences, grade one to nine, is a compulsory subject in
basic education.
In 2005 new curriculum documents were designed which set the following goals
for basic education:
ƒ to provide students with basic knowledge and skills necessary for public
and personal life;
ƒ to develop foundations for students’ further education;
ƒ to promote harmonic formation and development of students’ personality;
ƒ to promote development of students’ sense of responsibility towards them-
selves, their family, society, environment and state.
The major objectives for basic education programmes are:
ƒ to establish the concept about major nature, social and life-long processes,
and moral and ethical values;
Latvia 39

ƒ to ensure opportunity for the acquisition of basic knowledge and skills in

Language and Mathematics;
ƒ to ensure opportunity for the acquisition of basic learning skills and use of
information technologies;
ƒ to ensure opportunity for the acquisition of knowledge and democratic val-
ues necessary for the citizen of Latvia;
ƒ to ensure opportunity for the acquisition of creative activity experience; to
create the basic concept about the cultural heritage of Latvia, Europe and
the world;
ƒ to develop communication and cooperation skills (Regulations of the Cabi-
net of Ministers 2006).
The subjects were divided into four educational content areas: Fundamentals of
Technologies and Sciences, Language, The Arts and Self and Society. The sub-
ject cluster Self and Society consists of the following subjects: History of Latvia
and the World, Social Studies, Home Economics and Technologies, Sports, Eth-
ics and Christian Education.
Alongside with specific knowledge in the subjects, general competencies
were created, which have been divided into seven educational aspects: Self-
expression and creativity aspect, Analytical and critical aspect, Moral and aes-
thetic aspect, Social (cooperative) aspect, Communicative aspect, Learning and
practical application aspect and Mathematical aspect.

2.2 Description of the results

Considering the above mentioned curriculum organisation, the knowledge and

skills required for civic education, as well as general competencies are acquired
by students during the whole period of compulsory education from grade one to
nine.
In grade eight there is a focus on Economics but in grade nine – on Citizen-
ship Education; therefore, several essential economic and business issues are
taught in a short, concentrated and simplified way according to perception of 15
to 16-year olds. For instance, subject standards comprise numerous desires con-
cerning basic issues of Economics:
ƒ Basic principles of economics (E1) and Trade and globalisation in the mar-
ket (E3).
ƒ The monetary system (E5).
40 Latvia

Less general desires are set for the following issues:

ƒ Government policies and its influences (E6).
ƒ Market forms (E7).
ƒ Firms in the market (E8).
ƒ Indicators of economy (E10).
ƒ Labour market (E11).
No desires are set for acquisition of the topic Income (E9). It could be attributed
to the fact that in compulsory basic education business issues are not dealt with
in a detailed way; they have been transferred to the secondary education subject
Fundamentals of Basic Business.
In basic education, the following business education issues are set desires for
ƒ Business and its external environment (B1).
ƒ Principles of effective budgetary and non-budgetary control, financial ac-
counting conventions.
Most desires are set in the sections social and self-competencies with the empha-
sis on entrepreneurial competencies. The following aspects can be elicited:
ƒ Communication ability (SO1) - Conflict ability (SO2) - Ability to give and
receive criticism (SO3).
ƒ Team ability (SO4) – Empathy (SO5).
ƒ Decision-making ability; assertiveness; self-marketing/-organising compe-
tencies; visionary thinking (SE1).
ƒ Achievement motivation (SE2).
ƒ Eagerness for independence (SE3) – Moderate tendency to take risks (SE4).

All this can be viewed in Figure 2 which shows distribution of curriculum de-
mands in competence groups. All four competence fields are not distributed
evenly. Knowledge based competencies in the firm and business environment
(B) as well as in the wider economic and industry environment (E) are much less
accentuated than self-competencies (SE) and social competencies (SO). It is
obvious considering the aims and goals set for students’ personality development
in basic education.
Latvia 41

Business and its external environment (B1)

Corporate strategy and planning (B2)
Organising (B3)
Directing (B4)
Controlling (B5)
Marketing and sales management (B6)
Production and operation management (B7)
Human resource management (B8)
Administrative management (B9)
Basic principles of economics (E1)
The market forces of supply and demand (E2)
Trade and globalisation (E3)
Actors in the market (E4)
The monetary system (E5)
Government policies and its influences (E6)
Market forms (E7)
Firms in the market (E8)
Income (E9)
Indicators of economy (E10)
Labour market (E11)
Internal locus of control (SE1)
Achievement motivation (SE2)
Eagerness for independence (SE3)
Moderate tendency to take risks (SE4)
Communication ability (SO1)
Conflict ability (SO2)
Ability to give and receive criticism (SO3)
Team ability (SO4)
Empathy (SO5)

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%

Figure 2: Results of Curriculum Analysis of Latvia. Standardised Data

42 Latvia

This shows that including specific and general skills into the curriculum and
simultaneously, retaining traditional content knowledge, have moved the com-
pulsory education of Latvia towards gradual development and strengthening of
the competencies necessary for independent life. The students who will acquire
their education according to the new standards (the basic school leavers in
2014/2015) will be better prepared for real life and lifelong learning (The Cabi-
net of Ministers of the Republic of Latvia 2006).

3 Description of the results of the teacher interviews in Latvia

3.1 Description of the selection of the interviewed schools in Latvia

Latvia is divided in four regions, and schools were selected from each region.
Nearly half of the population of Latvia lives in the capital city – Riga. Two
schools from Riga and one in the nearest surroundings were chosen for the inter-
view. The schools that were chosen are located in towns. We tried to avoid
schools that are located in the countryside, because due to the reform initiated by
the Ministry of Education and Science, some countryside schools are going to be
closed. Three schools are located in the cities with >750,000 inhabitants, one
school from the city with >150,000 inhabitants, one school >80,000 inhabitants
and one more school >30,000 inhabitants. In total six teachers were interviewed:
one male teacher and five female teachers with a teaching experience from one
to 19 years. None of the interviewed teachers has had work experience outside
school or education sector.

3.2 Description of the results

In most cases, schools have basic equipment for teaching Social Sciences – one
computer for the teacher and a data projector; but sometimes it is essential that
every pupil in class has their own computer, for example, to search for specific
information on the Internet.
In general, teachers find economic/business/pre-vocational education very
important for the pupils’ future life. Business management competencies have to
be developed in every subject; in addition, the requirements for teachers’ profes-
sional competencies grow (Bikse 2007).
At schools, there are no extra-curricular activities organised in addition to
economic/business/pre-vocational education. Occasionally, the school/teacher
invites parents to talk about their professions, their work specifics and the re-
Latvia 43

quired education for this profession. Very rarely teachers organise students’
visits to some organisations/enterprises, where students can see how the compa-
ny is organised and are introduced to different professions. In addition do
schools rarely work together with external partners in the field of econom-
ic/business/pre-vocational education. Sometimes, municipalities are asked for
assistance; occasionally, some organisations act as sponsors, but it is not based
on partnerships. Mostly, organisations that express willingness to become a part-
ner of a particular school choose professional schools. The chosen schools,
where students acquire professions, are often similar to the company specifics.
Most teachers, four out of six, were not motivated to do some extra teach-
ing, for instance, to invite parents to speak about their professions or to organise
visits to some companies because they do not get extra payment for it and it will
mean taking extra risks. Teachers have to follow the regulations of the Ministry
of Education and Science in their work, as well as school regulations. These
regulations do not allow unauthorised persons to arrive at school and conduct a
lesson.
Teachers evaluate the training received at university as neither bad, nor
good. They mostly complain about lack of practical aspects – for instance, there
could be more practical trainings, how to understand pupils’ behaviour, how to
manage the class better and how to manage conflict situations. During the inter-
view, it could be seen that most teachers have low motivation to improve the
quality of teaching or organise extra activities (e.g. pupils’ meetings with an
organisation). Perhaps this is due to the fact that many teachers are not very
positive about the teaching profession, for example only 30 to 45% of pedagogi-
cal university students display positive attitude towards the teacher’s profession.
Considering teachers' activity, it should also be noted that the teacher’s profes-
sion still has a low status in society and, unlike the United Kingdom are in Latvia
no steps taken to raise the status of the teaching profession.
During the interview it was possible to detect which subject the teacher was
teaching previously – the former History teacher demonstrated his point of view
using historic examples; presumably, while teaching Social Sciences to pupils, in
spite of the subject, he provides only History examples. It could be true referring
to a lot of Social Sciences teachers. Four out of six teachers reported that they
had taken enough courses (according to Ministry of Education and Science
teachers are required to take some courses every year, but it has not been speci-
fied which ones) and they are not willing to study Social Sciences deeper.
The teachers see the overall purpose of economic/business/pre-vocational
education as a combination of social activities and practical skills to be able to
get a job:
44 Latvia

1. to develop self-competencies and practical skills – to write a CV, covering

letter and a contract of employment; to know the procedures of a job inter-
view;
2. to motivate students to be a socially active, to have knowledge about the
banks, how to design and manage a credit;
3. to be able to explain the processes going on in society.
The teachers hold the opinion that the most important aspects for students in the
economic/business/pre-vocational education course are:
1. to develop communication skills;
2. to develop economic-mathematical thinking and knowledge of legislation;
3. to learn how to manage money.
It should be noted that despite the teachers' positive attitude to business, all
teachers are looking at the economic processes from the point of view of an indi-
vidual employee’s position. This is also due to the fact, because graduates do not
start business on their own, because of a rigid tax policy and the level of corrup-
tion of public institutions.
In the subject standard developed by the Ministry of Education and Science
it has been stated what the students should reach after the completion of Social
Sciences course, for instance, to manage one’s own emotions in communication
and cooperation, to be able to present publicly the results of the workgroup and
to know what to do to protect consumer rights. Then teachers analyse the skills
and abilities defined in the standard, write the curriculum considering the course
book that can be used and provide examples from it.
Most teachers report that in the time provided for teaching Social Sciences
it is impossible to meet the standard requirements and almost all teachers agreed
that the number of hours allocated for Social Sciences is insufficient. It is espe-
cially hard to include practical lessons because there should also be allocated
time for warm-up exercises. It is important to involve students in semi-real eco-
nomic situations to promote creative acquisition of knowledge and develop their
business management competencies, which requires individual or group nego-
tiating to solve a problem or make a decision. Students have to be given an op-
portunity to check, experiment and test theory in practice. Only one teacher
claimed that the number of hours is sufficient because the aim of Social
Sciences, in her opinion, is socialisation, for example, just getting acquainted
with economics. Two of the interviewed teachers evaluated the classrooms, facil-
ities, equipment and teaching materials at their school as very useful for teaching
the subject and four teachers evaluated the situation as almost useful for teaching
the subject.
Latvia 45

Four teachers rate the importance of social competence as the first priority,
and two teachers consider self-competence with the emphasis on entrepreneurial
thinking as the first priority. None of the teachers mentioned knowledge-based
competencies in business and knowledge-based competencies in economics.
Teachers placed major emphasis on the significance of social competencies be-
cause of the importance of students’ personal qualities, attitudes and knowledge.
Six teachers mentioned tests, four teachers – questioning/oral tests and four
teachers – projects as most successful methods of evaluation across all four
competencies. Teachers elicited the following major issues that have to be an
integral part of the economic/business/pre-vocational education course:
1. to generate business ideas and make business plan, while working on pro-
jects;
2. to manage money;
3. to show initiatives.
The main purpose of Social Studies course, mentioned by all teachers, is to pre-
pare and motivate students for further economics studies. Students must be
aware of the nature of the Social Studies subjects.

4 Description of the results of the social partner interviews in Latvia

4.1 Choice of social partners in Latvia

One of the involved partners is the Ministry of Education and Science. The Min-
istry sets the standard where teachers are guided on creating their individual
lessons, as well as the determination of the teaching hours per week/year, and
which subjects are taught in which grade.
The Latvian Trade Association is the second involved employers’ organisa-
tion. The endowment of this Association is providing encouraging environment
for entrepreneurship and development in organisation of trade: active work to
improve trade laws; coordination of interests of the government and business-
men.
The second unit of employers’ representative organisation is Employers’
Confederation of Latvia. The Confederation’s aim is to enhance effectiveness of
entrepreneurship and to represent and defend its members’ interests in relations
with trade unions, state and municipal institutions, as well as international em-
ployers’ organisations.
Among the employer organisations is also one which provides further edu-
cation of adults and offers to learn a variety of professions, for example, a
46 Latvia

welder, construction worker or carpenter This organisation is the largest in Lat-

via (each year approximately 22,000 people get a profession).
In addition was also an executive-entrepreneur from a new, progressive and
developing organisation chosen. This organisation is working in the IT field.
Junior Achievement Latvia also participates in our research. This company fo-
cuses on education activities for teachers’ education and organising competitions
in business field.

4.2 Description of the results

All respondents noted that all those competencies played a major role in the
world of work. However, they avoid to judge which competence is the most
important one. Concerning teaching of those competencies at school, a person
from the Ministry pointed out that the teaching strategy of competencies should
be taught in an integrated way; it means when the teacher presents some theme,
he/she has to unfold it from different aspects conveying all Social Sciences sub-
jects and combining knowledge-based and practical exercises. This approach – to
teach these competencies in an integrated way also appeared in the newest field
research.
The majority of respondents estimated young school leavers’ developed
economic and entrepreneurship skills and knowledge as low. However, the two
organisations that communicate and work with schools – the Ministry of Educa-
tion and Science and Junior Achievement – are not aware of the graduates’ level
of entrepreneurship skills and knowledge. Most organisations evaluate the com-
petencies of young graduates as not qualified or slightly qualified. The above
mentioned organisations considered that basic-school leavers are very young and
they do not need the level of business competencies. It is important to note that
business competence is one of the eight basic competencies that, according to
Bologna conference, have to be developed at all education levels (European
Commission 2005).
According to the research, most organisations do not have any connection
with schools. Sometimes students visit some organisations, but the initiative
comes from teachers or parents, and this cooperation does not have official sta-
tus. Unions cooperate with schools, but only with vocational ones because the
study process of professional education establishments is much more aimed at
the development of business competencies thus giving employers a chance to
select valuable employees. Only the Ministry and Junior Achievement Latvia
cooperate with schools. This organisation arranges further education courses in
business competence development for those teachers who teach Social Sciences,
Other documents randomly have
different content
 A agua cahia n’um improvisado tanque, de que já não restam
vestigios, por uma calha de barro, cantando como uma ama
somnolenta, que, já fatigada, acalenta uma creança rebelde ao
somno.
Uma branda sensação de mollesa parecia cahir da sombra do
arvoredo e do despenho monotono da agua sobre o tanque. A paz
campesina envolvia a atmosphera no longo espreguiçamento d’um
corpo são que adormece entre branco linho muito fresco depois de
um banho consolador.
Anninhas tinha nos labios côr de rosa a eloquencia espontanea
que as mulheres namoradas possuem na primeira inspiração do
amor—volata do coração que accorda em extasi.
José Maximo, como todos os homens que surprehendem os
encantos d’essa eloquencia maravilhosa n’um colloquio tranquillo,
ouvia-a n’uma embriaguez de fascinação.
As palavras que até ahi havia trocado com D. Anna de
Vasconcellos, no Outeiro ou no Porto, sempre a medo e de relance,
não lhe tinham annunciado essa verbosidade apaixonada, essa
fluencia de phrases simples e carinhosas, que affluem aos labios de
uma mulher quando pela primeira vez pode dizer, n’uma liberdade
honesta, quanto tem sentido e sonhado.
Mas o coração humano contém em si mesmo o segredo de
atormentar-se na felicidade, que nunca chega a ser completa por
isso mesmo.
O homem, mais do que a mulher, obedece a uma fatalidade
torturante, que o leva a procurar as preoccupações dolorosas nos
momentos em que a paz e a esperança pareciam apostadas em
sorrir-lhe. Uma subita desconfiança invade-lhe a alma, como um
veneno de lento effeito, que vae a pouco e pouco anesthesiando a
sua victima.
Foi José Maximo quem se lembrou de consultar o oráculo, que,
segundo a superstição dos amantes, falla nas folhas das plantas,
quando consultadas por elles.
 Estava ali perto um tufo verdejante de trevo, que adivinha os
segredos do amor.
—Para nós sermos inteiramente felizes, dissera José Maximo, só é
preciso que as folhas do trevo confirmem as tuas doces palavras.
E o oráculo, consultado folha a folha, affirmára o amor de D. Anna
de Vasconcellos.
Ella rira crystallinamente no seu triumpho como uma alma sincera,
que não se teme do segredo dos oráculos. José Maximo riu tambem,
entre envergonhado do riso de Anninhas e contente do resultado da
consulta.
Frei Simão voltou-se de subito, sorrindo por contagio, com um
olhar alegremente investigador.
—É o sr. José Maximo, disse Anninhas, que está consultando as
folhas do trevo como cá fazem os camponezes.
E, de repente, como que arrependida da sua propria franqueza,
córou de pejo.
Frei Simão ficou encantado com o primitivo bucolismo d’aquelle
casto idyllio amoroso e, para salvaguardar a sua auctoridade de
irmão mais velho, procurou illudir o sentido da resposta, dizendo:
—Ah! o sr. José Maximo lembrou-se de consultar o futuro! Pois o
futuro, meu amigo, pertence a Deus.
E Anninhas acudiu de prompto como se quizesse valorisar a
resposta do oráculo, que lhe tinha sido favoravel:
—Mas quem faz nascer as plantas senão Deus?
Frei Simão, comprehendendo o lance, respondeu:
—Tens razão, Anninhas!
E curvou-se de novo a regar as flores e a pensar em que jámais,
na sua vida monótona e árida, tinha tido motivo para consultar os
oráculos do amor.
José Maximo disséra baixinho a Anna de Vasconcellos:
É
 —É verdade! Consultemos o futuro.
E, desfolhando o trevo, dizia: Feliz, infeliz.
A ultima folha respondeu: Infeliz.
—É notavel! exclamou José Maximo, lembrando-se subitamente da
cantiga que tinha ouvido ali em Cezár, quando descansára por
alguns momentos, havia seis annos, sob a sombra de uma faya, na
estrada. É notavel, repisava elle, a insistencia de um ruim agoiro!
E repetiu a Anninhas a cantiga que então tinha ouvido:

Quem quer ver um infeliz,

Que nasceu ao pé da faya?
Não ha desgraça nenhuma,
Que n’este infeliz não caia!

Anna de Vasconcellos, para dissipar as apprehensões aziagas de

José Maximo, procurou rir com esforço.
Frei Simão perguntou de longe:
—Tornou a fallar o oráculo?
E Anninhas respondeu:
—O mano quer saber?! O sr. José Maximo ficou agora muito triste
porque o trevo lhe disse que não havia de ser feliz!
—Nunca vi homem intelligente, replicou frei Simão, que não fosse
supersticioso. Chega a parecer ás vezes que a intelligencia,
descontente de si mesma, quer nivelar-se com a fé céga dos
ignorantes ingenuos!
—Ouviste? perguntou Anninhas a José Maximo.
José Maximo não respondeu, de preoccupado que estava.
Angustiava-o a tortura que elle proprio inventára. A serenidade
rural em que o pomar umbroso pareceria adormecido no fundo de
um stereoscopo, se não fosse o vôo inquieto das borboletas brancas
e das abelhas loiras, encontrava no peito de José Maximo uma forte
resistencia, que já lhe não deixava tranquillo o coração como meia
hora antes.
 XIV
Á Porta Férrea
 É inveterado costume, e lei
Academico-Escolastica, que todo e
qualquer Novato leve a sua investida, e
pague a sua patente: Não resista vossa
mercê a nenhuma d’estas cousas; o que
deve pedir é, que seja suave: para o que
quanto aos dicterios e injurias bôca
tapada, e quanto á patente, mão á bolsa.
Silveira Malhão—«Vida e feitos», tomo
II.

Matriculado na faculdade de leis e canones, cujo curso era

commum até ao terceiro anno, José Maximo não passou
impunemente pela Porta Férrea, segundo a tradição academica.
Já Nicolau Tolentino havia dito referindo-se a Coimbra e ás
caçoadas, por que os novatos tinham de passar:

Povo revoltoso, e ingrato

Dentro em seus muros encerra;
Em vão de adoçal-o trato,
É um titulo de guerra
A chegada de um novato.

José Maximo conhecia de sobra a vida de Coimbra, e esperava por

isso a troça; mas, pelo facto de ser já conhecido, julgava-se a
coberto das maximas torturas de que o Palito metrico fallava:

........... tum cœtera turba

Rodeat miserum; truxque investida comecat.
Principio quatuor mandat aparare sopapos,
Et simul haud cessant miseri cuspire bigotes,
Donec sella chegat lumbo imponenda rebeldi.

Manuel Rodado combinára porem com outros segundanistas que

José Maximo fosse o principal alvo da troça feita aos novatos. Queria
iniciar a sua vingança, e, como era rico, remunerava bisarramente a
adhesão dos condiscipulos aos seus planos. Era elle quem na borga
pagava as despezas de comes e bebes, as merendas de manjar
branco «no fresco pateo de Cellas», as ceias na estalagem do Paço
do Conde ou na tasca do Alexandre Ramalhaes ao fundo da rua das
Sollas; d’aqui o seu prestigio, porque em primasias de intelligencia
não se assignalava Manuel Rodado. A academia, sempre alegre e
epigrammatica, pozera-lhe uma alcunha feliz, que ao mesmo passo
alludia á garridice e á pecunia do sujeito: era o Narciso doirado.
José Maximo passou á Porta Férrea por entre duas filas de
segundanistas, entre os quaes estava o filho do brazileiro.
Não reagiu contra a tradição academica do canellão, no primeiro
dia de aulas, apesar de perfeitamente ter distinguido, na hilaridade
dos trocistas, as risadas alvares, muito sarcasticas, de Manuel
Rodado, o qual, vendo a submissão de José Maximo, julgou que
podia exceder-se sem perigo de resistencia.
Não obstante ter grande amor ás costellas, entendeu que José
Maximo, a julgar pelo seu retraimento e submissão, não era homem
que tivesse coragem de repetir em Coimbra, no seio da academia, a
pimponice valentona do Campo de Santo Ovidio.
Por isso, no immediato dia lectivo, quando José Maximo recebia, á
Porta Férrea, a segunda dóse de canellão, ouzou passar-lhe a mão
pela cara.
Teve resposta prompta. José Maximo fez pé atraz, e descarregou-
lhe na face uma sonora bofetada, que deixou aturdido o filho do
brazileiro.
Armou-se uma baralha de mil diabos. Muitos segundanistas
cahiram sobre José Maximo, que, cego de colera, respondia
energicamente com murros e pontapés. Tamanha coragem exhibiu
no maior apêrto do tumulto, fazendo frente ao grupo dos
aggressores, que alguns estudantes dos ultimos annos intervieram
em favor de José Maximo, defendendo-o.
Um d’elles, que se chamava Jayme de Carvalho, quintanista de
direito, por alcunha o Sam Bartholomeu, cobriu José Maximo com a
pasta.
A academia temia o valor d’este quintanista, cujas idéas liberaes
justificavam a alcunha que os estudantes absolutistas lhe pozeram
por allusão ironica ao dia 24 de agosto, em que a Egreja celebra a
festa de Sam Bartholomeu, e em que, trez annos antes, rebentára
no Porto o movimento constitucional.
José Maximo, quando a pasta protectora de um quintanista temido
lhe permittiu explicar o seu procedimento, disse que tinha dado
sobejas provas de submetter-se á troça e de sujeitar-se ao canellão,
mas que a sua dignidade não lhe permittia tolerar as provocações de
um inimigo pessoal, que, para vingar-se de um incidente particular
occorrido entre ambos, se acobertava cobardemente com a tradição
academica e com o auxilio dos condiscipulos.
Esta leal explicação causou no auditorio uma impressão
excellente. Todos os veteranos, Jayme de Carvalho em primeiro
logar, applaudiam o procedimento de José Maximo. E muitos dos
segundanistas, que o tinham aggredido, acabaram por dar-lhe razão.
Discutia-se animadamente o caso nos grupos da Porta Férrea,
quando appareceu um verdeal que, por ordem do conservador
Cabaças, vinha averiguar o que se tinha passado de extraordinario.
Como José Maximo estivesse ainda rodeado pelo grupo mais
numeroso, que o escutava com agrado, foi a José Maximo que o
verdeal se dirigiu, abrindo caminho atravez do grupo.
Interrogado, José Maximo respondeu que por sua parte nada
sabia do que se tinha passado, mas que estavam alli muitos
estudantes que poderiam informar, querendo, o sr. conservador.
Nenhum se mexeu; todos encolheram os hombros sorrindo, menos
Manuel Rodado. Jayme de Carvalho acabou por dizer ao verdeal que
se fosse em paz, porque não havia motivo para qualquer
procedimento.
A academia, onde o elemento aristocratico era sanhudamente
absolutista, deixou-se impressionar de uma subita sympathia por
José Maximo, a quem, desde essa hora, ficou conhecendo pela
alcunha de Martim Moniz, em memoria da sua façanha da Porta
Férrea: façanha que no enthusiasmo do primeiro momento fôra
pelos estudantes igualada á do heroe da porta do Castello de Lisboa
no tempo de Affonso Henriques.
Manuel Rodado sentiu-se corrido. Desappareceu. Mas nunca o seu
rancor a José Maximo fôra maior do que quando, ao pensar nos
acontecimentos d’aquelle dia, percebeu que tinha indirectamente
concorrido para dar vantajosa evidencia ao novato, que pela
segunda vez o desfeiteára.
E fôra effectivamente assim. Durante o resto do dia e á noite não
se fallou em outra coisa nos varios cenáculos de conversação
academica. José Maximo tornára-se conhecido de todos, e estimado
de muitos. Era já, na linguagem escolastica, geralmente designado
por «Martim Moniz». Alguns estudantes absolutistas, com a
versatilidade propria da juventude, pareciam querer mudar de
opinião, qualificando de insolente reacção o procedimento de José
Maximo, que tinha esbofeteado a academia na pessoa de Manuel
Rodado. Mas outros, mais persistentes na primeira impressão
recebida, replicavam que José Maximo respeitára as praxes
universitarias submettendo-se ao canellão, e que apenas tomára
como offensa pessoal a provocação que partira de um seu antigo
inimigo. Accrescentavam que não era no meio da collectividade
academica que deviam liquidar-se as pendencias individuaes. Posta a
questão n’estes termos, ninguem ouzava quebrar lanças em publica
defesa de Manuel Rodado, suspeito de cobarde. A pusillanimidade é
o sentimento que mais repugna ao espirito dos novos, sejam quaes
fôr as suas tendencias politicas e sympathias pessoaes.
Alem d’isto, os apologistas de José Maximo punham em relevo a
correcção da sua resposta ao verdeal, quando appellára para o
testemunho da academia; e contrastavam esse nobre procedimento
com o de Manuel Rodado, que nem sequer tivera a coragem
apparente de sorrir disfarçando um mesquinho resentimento.
O incidente da Porta Férrea estabelecêra ligações de amisade
entre Jayme de Carvalho e José Maximo. A intimidade cresceu de
pressa, porque não é proprio de gente moça moderar as suas
expansões.
E cada dia uma nova revelação vinha estreitar os laços de amisade
que uniam aquelles dois academicos, attraidos um para o outro pela
coincidencia das suas inclinações politicas e valorosas aventuras.
José Maximo contou a Jayme de Carvalho a historia do seu amor
por D. Anna de Vasconcellos para explicar a causa remota do
conflicto com Manuel Rodado. Dezenhou-lhe o perfil insinuante de
frei Simão, o destemido liberal de Cezár. Jayme de Carvalho ouvia-o
sorrindo, sem comtudo mostrar-se surprehendido.
—Esse frade, disse Jayme, tem um irmão que está agora preso em
Aveiro por vingança de um silveirista de Chaves, que se tem valido
da politica para o perseguir por motivos particulares. Não é verdade?
—É verdade! Mas como sabes tu isso?
—Esse irmão do frade ama uma menina, que está no convento de
Arouca. Não é tambem verdade?
—É verdade! Mas explica-te! Como sabes tu isso?
—E essa menina tem no convento uma unica amiga, que, alem de
minha prima, é minha noiva. Sabias?
—Não sabia!
—Pois é isto mesmo.
—Ó homem, dá cá um abraço! exclamou «Martim Moniz»
caminhando de braços abertos para «Sam Bartholomeu». Não ha
coincidencias absurdas. O acaso é mais engenhoso nas suas
combinações do que a chimica!
E depois d’esta affectuosa expansão de recente amisade, que
parecia já tão solida como se fosse muito antiga, entraram em
pormenores.
José Maximo disséra a Jayme de Carvalho:
—Põe-me ahi a tua vida em pratos limpos. Quero saber tudo.
 —Eu sou pobre, disse Jayme.
—E eu tambem, disse José Maximo.
—Mas eu sou mais pobre do que tu.
—Mais pobre do que eu não ha ninguem: nem mesmo tu.
—Recebo subsidio da Casa Pia.
—E eu da Intendencia. Quem t’o arranjou?
—Foi o conde de Rio Maior. E a ti?
—Foi frei Simão de Vasconcellos por intervenção de um frade
absolutista de Alcobaça.
—Outra coincidencia: somos dois pobretões subsidiados.
—É verdade! Parece que tinhamos nascido para ser amigos!
—Tens razão. Eu sentia-me só em Coimbra, disse Jayme de
Carvalho, no meio d’esta grande récova de burros arreatados á
Universidade.
—Mas vamos á historia dos teus amores com a amiga da Flor do
Támega.
—Quem é a Flor do Támega?
—É a menina de Chaves tão desgraçadamente amada pelo irmão
de frei Simão de Vasconcellos.
—Eu sabia apenas que se chamava Margarida Candida.
—Pois chama. Mas foi Antonio da Silveira, o apóstata de Canellas,
que lhe poz a alcunha de Flor do Támega.
—Não sabia. E pôde sahir do bestunto de um Silveira uma tão
delicada alcunha?
—Parece incrivel, mas é verdade!
—Por morte de meu pae achei-me na impossibilidade de concluir o
curso.
—Que pena seres já tu quintanista, quando eu ainda sou novato!
 —Deixa lá! Quando dois homens nascem fadados para amigos,
não é a formatura que os pode separar.
—Tambem tens razão.
—Mas se a morte de meu pae me prejudicou, maior prejuizo
causou ainda a minha tia e minha prima Ernestina, de quem meu
pae era o unico amparo. Minha prima, graças ainda á protecção do
conde de Rio Maior, entrou no mosteiro de Arouca, aonde eu, logo
que possa, a irei buscar para ser minha mulher. Olha que é uma
linda rapariga, minha prima!
—Faço ideia.
—Fazes ideia? Pois eu não faço.
—Como assim?!
—Não faço ideia como ella estará agora, atormentada, flagellada
pelo despotismo politico das venerandas madres de Arouca, que
nem sequer a deixam escrever-me só porque minha prima pertence
a uma familia liberal, apezar de eu ser o seu noivo.
—E apesar de seres o seu noivo, talvez que te não seja facil tiral-a
do convento quando a quizeres ir buscar. Pelo menos hão de
empregar dilações, exigir longas formalidades só para contrariar-te e
contrarial-a. O absolutismo é como as feras: não larga facilmente
uma victima.
—Ora essa! Minha prima pertence á sua familia! Para que servem
então as leis, que nós vimos estudar em Coimbra?! O convento de
Arouca não é uma cadea legal; não tem maiores privilegios do que
as outras casas monasticas.
—Em conventos, meu amigo, não ha que fiar e escolher: são
todos mais absolutistas do que o infante D. Miguel e sua mãe.
—Nem minha prima poude escolher, porque veio de Lisboa licença
para entrar no de Arouca. Precisava ir para um: foi para aquelle que
lhe designaram.
 —Mas se tua prima não póde escrever-te, como sabes tu o caso
da Flor do Támega?
—Minha prima escreveu á mãe apenas dois bilhetes desde que
está em Arouca, e se o conseguiu fazer foi porque um almocreve e
um pastor levaram os bilhetes ao seu destino. No primeiro, contava
a perseguição politica de que estava sendo victima dentro do
convento; na segundo insistia sobre o assumpto e participava que já
tinha uma companheira de desgraça, certa menina de Chaves,
Margarida Candida, que ali entrára por castigo de namorar um
capitão de dragões, muito liberal, irmão de um celebre frade,
tambem liberal, residente em Cezár. Minha tia recebeu esses dois
bilhetes, e não tornou a receber nenhum outro. Mandou saber da
abbadeça se minha prima passava bem de saude. A abbadeça
respondeu que Ernestina gosava a melhor saude d’este mundo, que
estava excellentemente, e que em havendo alguma novidade a
participaria, mas que só a ella, na qualidade de prelada, pertencia
avaliar a opportunidade das relações epistolares das suas
subordinadas com os respectivos parentes. Dize-me agora se
acabaram realmente os carceres e torturas da Inquisição ou se
continuam funccionando, sempre em nome de Deus, no mosteiro de
Arouca, para honra e lustre da religião catholica, apostolica, romana.
—Ha effectivamente ainda muito que derrubar e combater!
accrescentou José Maximo, pensativo. A arvore da tyrannia,
comquanto abalada desde o seculo passado pelos vendavaes
revolucionarios, tem raizes profundas, que não poderão ser
extirpadas facilmente. Mas eu já não me proponho auxiliar essa
empresa demolidora. Toda a minha ambição é obter pacificamente
uma carta de bacharel em leis e ir depois esconder-me n’algum
canto da provincia com Anninhas e com a tranquilla felicidade da
minha consciencia.
—Meu amigo, tu ainda cá tens que ficar durante cinco annos, e
olha que te não ha de ser facil resistir impunemente a todas as
provocações politicas, a todas as insolencias irritantes com que os
altaneiros realistas, que ahi passeiam de grimpa levantada,
procuram açular a nossa colera para esmagar-nos depois.
—Hei de conseguil-o; sabel-o-has.
—Elles não pensam senão em irritar-nos com successivos reptos.
Agora lembraram-se de imitar o exemplo dos lentes secundando o
famoso prestito de José Caetano com um outeiro na sala grande dos
actos e não sei que mais festanças provocadoras.
—Deixal-os! Eu não quero saber d’isso.
Effectivamente, os academicos absolutistas planearam
commemorar solemnemente a quéda do constitucionalismo. O plano
vingou, de accôrdo com os lentes.
Em fevereiro de 1824 um triduo de ruidosas festas foi como um
novo cartel arremessado á face dos estudantes liberaes pelos
absolutistas. A provocação chegou a ponto de convidarem o famoso
dominico Rochinha, muito constitucional, e cathedratico de
theologia, para recitar a oração congratulatoria. Queriam
compromettel-o pela recusa. Mas o doutor Rocha acceitou,
comquanto o machiavelismo do convite irritasse profundamente o
animo dos liberaes. D’este propositado rastilho nasceu o incendio.
Emquanto na sala grande dos actos se celebrava o annunciado
outeiro com tumultuosos incidentes, no páteo da Universidade,
vistosamente illuminado, a festa era perturbada pela expansão do
despeito liberal.
Ao passo que no outeiro os estudantes constitucionaes, como um
que se chamava Antonio Feliciano de Castilho, recitavam
composições poeticas, em que o amor da liberdade transparecia
ouzadamente, promovendo tumulto entre as duas facções
adversarias, no páteo da Universidade os retratos da familia real e
os emblemas allusivos á Restauração eram derrubados por mão
desconhecida.
Castilho tinha conquistado um logar saliente no seio da academia
pela circumstancia de ser cego e poeta. Estudava pelos olhos dos
irmãos, e avantajava-se aos irmãos no boleio dos versos e na
delicadesa da inspiração, sendo que todos os Castilhos eram
apaixonados cultores das bellas-lettras.
Antonio Feliciano descobrira a veia poetica de José Maximo, e
instou-o para que concorresse com elle ao outeiro. Procurou
demovel-o com a leitura do Sonho de Fénelon, que escrevera
expressamente como protesto contra os intuitos absolutistas
d’aquella commemoração litteraria. José Maximo resistiu,
desculpando-se com a insufficiencia do seu éstro indigno de
hombrear com o do joven Milton portuguez. Mas prometteu a
Castilho ir ouvil-o, e foi.
 XV
Politica de estudantes
 São cousas de moços.
Gil Vicente—Farça do «Juiz da Beira.»

Na sala grande dos actos, José Maximo e Jayme de Carvalho,

sentados um ao pé do outro, assistiam ao outeiro.
N’um dos bancos anteriores estava Manuel Rodado no meio de um
grupo de estudantes absolutistas, que denunciavam uma
superabundancia de enthusiasmo, suspeita de copiosas libações
intencionalmente liberalisadas pelo filho do brazileiro.
Todo este grupo se voltava frequentes vezes para traz, olhando
zombeteiramente para os dois academicos constitucionaes, sorrindo
e fallando d’elles com escarneo.
José Maximo disse para Jayme de Carvalho:
—Eu cá faço de conta que não é nada comnosco.
—E eu tambem.
Quando os poetas absolutistas subiam ao estrado, a facção liberal
arrastava os pés ruidosamente.
O obéso conservador Cabaças, alcunha que resultára do seu feitio
espheroidal, rompia logo coxia acima, á frente dos verdeaes, para
surprehender em flagrante delicto os pateantes. Mas a pateada
cessava, para começar depois.
Ouviam-se vozes de—Fóra! fóra!
E o grupo de Manuel Rodado, pondo-se de pé, olhava
acintosamente para José Maximo e Jayme de Carvalho, como se
quizesse indicar ao conservador que elles eram os cabeças de
motim.
Mas os dois mantinham-se imperturbavelmente serenos, facto que
aliás era notado pelo corpo cathedratico, que occupava as tribunas
de honra. Uma vez aconteceu que o proprio reitor, vendo que o
Cabaças observava os dois amigos, lhe fizera signal de que o
tumulto partia de outro ponto da sala.
Os poetas liberaes eram festejados pelos seus correligionarios com
enthusiasticas manifestações de applauso. José Maximo e Jayme de
Carvalho abstinham-se, mas abriram excepção para Castilho, a quem
deram palmas, e que fôra obrigado a repetir muitas vezes o Sonho
de Fénelon.
Cresceu com esta ovação a colera dos absolutistas, a breve trecho
atiçada pela noticia, que logo circulára na sala, de que tinham sido
despedaçados os emblemas que ornamentavam o páteo da
Universidade.
O reitor entendeu que era mais prudente encerrar o outeiro, e a
onda dos estudantes galgou desordenada para o páteo, onde se
travaram pequenos conflictos, a que a ronda universitaria, Cabaças á
frente, logo acudia, varrendo adeante de si a multidão.
José Maximo e Jayme de Carvalho passaram indifferentemente
atravez da turba, seguidos a pequena distancia pelo grupo de
Manuel Rodado, que, vendo-os caminhar pausadamente, como
quem vae prevenido para uma aggressão, não ouzava atacal-os.
José Maximo chegára a dizer para Jayme de Carvalho:
—Não estamos armados. O melhor é irmos para casa.
—Pois vamos, mas de vagar. Salvo o caso...
—Bem sei que caso é, atalhou José Maximo; salvo o caso de nos
aggredirem.
Mas a aggressão não veio. José Maximo entrou em sua casa com
Jayme de Carvalho e, apenas acabavam de entrar, quando todas as
vidraças estalavam com uma rajada de pedras. Uma bala, entrando
por uma das janellas, zuniu sobre a cabeça de Jayme de Carvalho.
—Isto agora é mais serio! exclamou José Maximo. O ficarmos aqui
encurralados já não seria prudencia, era vergonha.
 Foi direito ao quarto de um condiscipulo, onde sabia haver um
bacamarte.
—Está carregado, felizmente! disse elle apossando-se da arma.
—E eu? perguntou Jayme de Carvalho.
—Tu? Procura por ahi um punhal, uma bengala, qualquer coisa.
Nova saraivada de calhaus bateu contra as portas das janellas,
fazendo tinir o pouco que restava das vidraças.
José Maximo desceu de um salto a escada, e abriu a porta. Jayme
de Carvalho, armado de um cacete, seguiu-o immediatamente.
Apenas José Maximo assomou ao limiar, foi agarrado pelos
estudantes absolutistas, que se perfilavam ás hombreiras. Jayme de
Carvalho, brandindo o cacete por sobre o grupo, descarregava
bordoada a torto e a direito n’um rapido sarilho de esgrima. José
Maximo poude libertar-se, mas o grupo, sentindo a pequena
distancia um extranho tropel, largou a fugir em debandada.
Vinham fugindo, em sentido opposto, alguns estudantes, que
corriam gritando:—Fujam! fujam! Mataram o Cabaças ao Arco do
Bispo.
Toda a caterva desappareceu como por encanto, e José Maximo e
Jayme de Carvalho entraram precipitadamente em casa, fechando a
porta.
Subindo á sala, disse Jayme sentando-se, muito fatigado, n’uma
cadeira de pinho:
—Ora aqui está no que vieram a dar os nossos planos de
prudencia!
—É verdade! Mas fomos provocados. Só se não tivessemos
sangue nas veias!
—E se effectivamente mataram o Cabaças, teremos alçada,
pagará o justo pelo peccador, quem sabe se não seremos tambem
arrastados na rêde?
 —Nós?! exclamou José Maximo. Mas o que temos nós com isso?!
—Temos que somos constitucionaes, e é o peior que podemos ser
n’esta occasião. Estamos á mercê das vinganças e das delações de
todo o fiel patife absolutista, como o Narciso doirado, e quejandos.
Pois olha que qualquer complicação me faria agora differença, no
quinto anno!
—E a mim, no primeiro! disse desalentadamente José Maximo,
que se lembrou de Anna de Vasconcellos, dos seus ternos pedidos
para que se abstivesse de politica, bem como dos prudentes
conselhos de frei Simão. Melhor eu não tivesse ido ouvir o Castilho!
—O que está feito, está feito! apostrophou Jayme de Carvalho.
Vou embora, preciso dormir.
—É mais prudente que fiques. Se mataram o Cabaças, e se te
apanham na rua, corres o risco de ser preso para investigações.
—Mas olha que não deixa de ser compromettedor o facto de não
ficar em casa!
—Tambem é verdade. Vou acompanhar-te.
—Não quero!
—Mas quero eu.
—É tolice. Dado o caso de eu encontrar a ronda, que necessidade
tens tu de ser tambem preso?
—Seguirei o teu destino.
—Muito obrigado. Mas se fôr preso, prefiro que tu o não sejas,
porque poderás mais facilmente justificar-me.
Perante este argumento, José Maximo deu-se por convencido.
Ficou. Deitou-se. Mas não poude conciliar o somno. A imagem de
Anninhas apparecia-lhe lacrimosa a lastimar-se de não terem sido
attendidas as suas supplicas. E a folha de trêvo, consultada como
oráculo, revoluteava no cerebro de José Maximo á semelhança de
uma borboleta negra, presaga.
 Jayme de Carvalho não teve pelo caminho qualquer mau encontro.
As ruas estavam desertas, dir-se-ia que o terror fizera dispersar toda
a academia, n’uma noite de festa e de luar, vespera de feriado.
—Alguma coisa grave se passou effectivamente! tinha pensado
Jayme de Carvalho.
Os seus companheiros de casa, que já haviam recolhido todos,
contaram-lhe que a ronda da Universidade fôra atacada a tiros de
bacamarte no Arco do Bispo, mas que o Cabaças não morrêra, como
a principio constára. Apenas o meirinho e alguns verdeaes tinham
ficado feridos. O caso, porém, não deixava de ter gravidade.
—Quem foi que atacou a ronda? perguntou Jayme de Carvalho.
—Vá lá saber-se! Fomos nós, foste tu, foram todos os que não são
absolutistas. É o que ha de dizer-se.
—Eu não ataquei ninguem; mas olhem que fui atacado.
—Foste atacado?? perguntaram-lhe.
—Pelo grupo do Narciso doirado, que apedrejou a casa de José
Maximo. As pedras não passaram das vidraças, que ficaram partidas,
mas eu senti zunir uma bala por cima da cabeça.
—Patifes! disse um estudante.
—Vamos nós fazer o mesmo ás janellas do Narciso? propoz outro,
mais exaltado.
—Não sejam tolos! respondeu Jayme. Eu vou mas é deitar-me.
Boa noite, rapazes.
No dia seguinte corria em alguns circulos absolutistas a seguinte
versão:
Manuel Rodado e outros estudantes, que recolhiam do outeiro,
tendo encontrado ao Arco do Bispo um grupo que lhes pareceu
suspeito, perseguiram-n’o para reconhecel-o. Dois individuos d’esse
grupo entraram em casa de José Maximo, e como ahi mesmo
fossem vigiados, sahiram á rua armados de bacamarte e cacete.
Esses dois individuos tinham sido reconhecidos: eram José Maximo e
Jayme de Carvalho. O primeiro não poude fazer uzo do bacamarte,
porque o seguraram. O segundo descarregou muitas cacetadas
contra os seus perseguidores, um dos quaes, Manuel Rodado, ficára
ferido na cabeça.
Esta versão tinha por fim insinuar que José Maximo e Jayme de
Carvalho não eram extranhos á emboscada do Arco do Bispo.
A versão liberal contava os factos como elles realmente se tinham
passado e preconisava o denôdo dos dois amigos, que fizeram frente
a um grupo numeroso, abrindo a cabeça a muitos absolutistas.
Este acontecimento vinha coroar a reputação de valente, que José
Maximo tinha ganho á Porta Férrea. Pelo que respeitava a Jayme de
Carvalho, a sua reputação estava feita, e fôra elle proprio que
engrandecera a gloria do seu amigo divulgando os serviços
prestados á causa da liberdade no Porto e era Lisboa. José Maximo
havia-lhe contado, no decorrer do tempo, todos os episodios da sua
aventurosa existencia.
De todos esses episodios o que mais exaltara a imaginação da
rapaziada havia sido a metamorphose em criado de servir sob o
disfarce de Fresca Ribeira.
Muitos academicos liberaes foram a casa de José Maximo felicital-
o; entre outros, estivera ali Antonio Maria das Neves Carneiro,
natural do Fundão, seu patricio e amigo de infancia.
N’esse improvisado parlamento constitucional discutiram-se
durante longas horas os acontecimentos da vespera. Reconheceu-se
a necessidade de uma forte concentração de elementos partidarios
como nucleo de resistencia contra as insidias e perfidias da facção
contraria. Foram indicados os nomes de José Maximo e Jayme de
Carvalho como sendo os dos academicos que inspiravam maior
confiança para a organisação e direcção dos trabalhos do partido. E
d’esta acclamação unanime resultou achar-se José Maximo envolvido
nos negocios politicos da academia, que vinte e quatro horas antes
estava resolvido a evitar completamente.
 Um dos ultimos estudantes que sahiram foi Antonio Maria das
Neves Carneiro.
José Maximo, muito pallido, chamou-o de parte, e disse-lhe:
—Ó Antonio, tu viste por lá minha mãe?
E rebentaram-lhe as lagrimas, embaciando-lhe a vista.
—Vi, sim, respondeu Neves Carneiro. Vive muito atormentada por
tua causa. E encarregou-me, a occultas de teu pae, de te dar um
abraço, quando estivessemos sós.
José Maximo abriu os braços, e apertou Neves Carneiro contra o
coração.
N’esse momento, chorava copiosamente. Parecia-lhe que tinha
sentido palpitar, na dôr e na desolação, o coração de sua mãe.
O governo mandára uma alçada a Coimbra para syndicar dos
acontecimentos de fevereiro, que, segundo a phrase de um
chronista consciencioso[1], os odios e malevolencia do partido
absolutista adrede exageravam para se vingar dos seus adversarios.
Sabia-se, apesar do segredo da alçada, que José Maximo da
Fonseca e Jayme Henrique de Carvalho tinham sido compromettidos
pelo depoimento de Manuel Rodado e outras testemunhas
absolutistas.
Foram horriveis de anciedade os dias que para aquelles dois
estudantes decorreram, desde que chegou a alçada e morosamente
funccionou para que não ficasse por averiguar o menor delicto, até
que em 30 de abril se mallogrou em Lisboa o novo movimento
promovido pelo infante e pela rainha, recolhendo-se D. João VI a
bordo da nau ingleza Windsor Castle e sendo D. Miguel obrigado a
retirar-se para o extrangeiro.
O mallogro da abrilada pela intervenção da diplomacia causára
dolorosa impressão a todos os absolutistas, incluindo os de Coimbra,
que tinham julgado aberto o caminho da reacção sanguinaria pelo
assassinato do marquez de Loulé em Salvaterra.
 Lastimavam a ausencia do infante, e receiavam que se
robustecesse a politica moderada e conciliadora, adoptada nos
processos governativos depois da restauração de Villa Franca, e que
fôra a causa determinante do segundo movimento tentado por D.
Miguel.
Tinham razão para receiar, porque assim veio a acontecer.
A amnistia de 5 de junho de 1824 suspendeu as perseguições
politicas; deteve o gladio da vingança.
Ficaram por este motivo sem effeito os processos instaurados nas
devassas a que a alçada, que em fevereiro tinha ido a Coimbra,
procedeu rigorosamente.
José Maximo e Jayme de Carvalho poderam respirar desafogados.
Mas esse mesmo facto, que significava um tenue triumpho obtido
pelos liberaes sobre os absolutistas de Coimbra, fez augmentar o
prestigio politico de José Maximo, deu-lhe maior importancia
partidaria.
Estava livre, graças á amnistia, mas, infelizmente, a politica havia-
o empolgado de novo, fazia-se em torno do seu nome, de
preferencia a Jayme de Carvalho, uma atmosphera de celebridade
capitolina, porque José Maximo, como primeiranista, era o sol que
nascia, e Jayme de Carvalho, estudante do quinto anno, era o sol
que ia desapparecer.
A politica é sempre a mesma em toda a parte.
 XVI
Falso triumpho
 Não era a demissão de um simples
ministro que a regente assignava, era a
demissão da causa constitucional.
D. Antonio da Costa—«Historia do
marechal Saldanha».

N’um dos ultimos dias de fevereiro de 1826, Jayme de Carvalho,

que havia mais de um anno tinha estabelecido banca de «lettrado»
na cidade d’Evora, para onde fôra advogar por suggestão de um
alemtejano seu contemporaneo em Coimbra, apresentava-se na
portaria do mosteiro de Arouca, acompanhado de uma senhora, a
reclamar a entrega de sua prima Ernestina.
A senhora que o acompanhava era a mãe da secular.
Jayme, que se estreiára com felicidade, e estava fazendo
importantes interesses, podéra preparar com um certo conforto o
seu lar conjugal.
Depois requereu ao respectivo prelado a licença indispensavel
para Ernestina sahir do convento. O prelado despachou
favoravelmente, e Jayme, munido d’essa licença e acompanhado de
sua tia, que tinha deixado o Porto para ir viver com elle em Evora,
foi a Arouca buscar a prima que queria desposar.
A abbadeça, irritada, como todos os miguelistas, pelo exilio do
infante, refinára em odio aos liberaes, e enfureceu-se sobremodo
com a visita d’um pedreiro-livre, que, de cabeça alta, com orgulhosa
altivez, ia dizimar-lhe o sagrado rebanho, arrancando uma victima ás
vinganças da politica monastica.
De mais a mais, creando difficuldades á sahida de Ernestina,
obstava á constituição odiosa de uma nova familia maçonica, no que
julgava prestar um dedicado serviço á causa do absolutismo e da
santa religião.
Portanto, vindo á grade receber essa impertinente visita,
peremptoriamente declarou que o documento apresentado, salvo o
respeito devido ao despacho episcopal, não era bastante a justificar
a entrega da educanda.
Disse que Ernestina de Carvalho fôra recebida por ordem do
governo, medeante auctorisação do prelado. Ora, o documento que
lhe apresentavam, se tinha authenticidade ecclesiastica, carecia de
sancção civil.
—Nos tempos que vão correndo agora, accrescentára a abbadeça
com rispido azedume, a desordem nas coisas publicas não pode ser
maior, porque todos querem mandar. Tenho aqui, é certo, a
auctorisação do nosso reverendo prelado. Mas se eu deixar sahir a
menina sem mais formalidades, e amanhã o governo do reino se
lembrar de perguntar-me o que fiz eu de uma secular que por elle
me fôra entregue, não sei o que hei de responder. Vá pois Vossa
Mercê entender-se em Lisboa com os ministros d’estado, traga da
chancellaria da côrte uma ordem que invalide a que me enviaram
para receber a educanda, e eu lh’a entregarei então sem o menor
impedimento. Nós, que fômos educadas a respeitar o poder real,
não estamos habituadas nem dispostas a fazer côro com os
revolucionarios que o pretendem abalar.
Jayme de Carvalho ficou fulminado com esta recusa formal. Quiz
argumentar, discutir com a abbadeça, que, sem mais explicações,
inclinou levemente a cabeça, e sahiu da grade.
—Não ha que ver! disse Jayme a sua tia. Tenho de ir a Lisboa!
José Maximo parece que adivinhava! Espero que não terei mais
demora do que chegar e voltar. Por isso resigne-se minha tia a ficar
aqui em qualquer casa que por alguns dias a queira receber,
evitando assim, na sua idade, os incommodos de uma segunda
jornada. Eu sou novo e forte, não me fatigarei, nem demorarei
muito.
Nenhuma das familias pobres de Arouca quiz receber a tia de
Jayme de Carvalho, quando se soube que ella era a mãe da secular
constitucional, originaria de maçons. Receiavam a colera da
abbadeça, e da communidade. Entre as familias nobres uma lhe
daria certamente pousada, era a da quinta do Outeiral; mas José
Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcellos estava a esse tempo em Cezár no
solar do Outeiro. Só em Sobrado de Paiva foi possivel encontrar
hospedagem, graças ao silencio que tia e sobrinho aprenderam a
guardar sobre o motivo da sua jornada.
Jayme de Carvalho chegou a Lisboa em tão má hora, que foi
encontrar agonisante, nos primeiros dias de março, el-rei D. João VI.
Os ministros não davam audiencia, nem despacho. Passavam o dia
na Bemposta, muito preoccupados com a magna questão politica da
successão ao throno.
Fóra do Paço boquejava-se que o rei já estava morto, mas que o
governo, para fazer vingar a hereditariedade de D. Pedro IV, e ter
tempo de nomear a regencia interina, occultava a sua morte.
Os constitucionaes contradictavam este boato, e os miguelistas
mostravam-se muito exaltados contra a postergação dos direitos de
D. Miguel, por isso que D. Pedro, depois da independencia do Brazil,
não era para Portugal mais do que um principe extrangeiro.
D. João VI fallecêra antes ou depois de ter apparecido o decreto,
que reconhecia a successão de D. Pedro e nomeava a regencia
provisoria. Mas a sua morte fôra declarada officialmente, e seguira-
se o funeral e o luto da côrte, de modo que Jayme de Carvalho não
poude obter uma audiencia da infanta regente.
Procurava todavia os ministros, expunha-lhes o estado da «sua
questão», e os ministros, que estavam a vêr no que paravam as
modas e que não queriam indispôr-se abertamente com nenhum dos
dois partidos militantes, respondiam que o assumpto era melindroso,
e que não podiam dar despacho sem levar primeiro o negocio ao
conhecimento da «senhora infanta D. Isabel Maria».
Jayme estava ainda em Lisboa, sem conseguir uma resolução do
poder executivo, quando chegou, pela corveta Lealdade, a noticia de
ter D. Pedro outorgado a Carta Constitucional.
 Apesar de muito contrariado por tão extranha demora, agora
prolongada pela ausencia da regente, que estava em tratamento nas
Caldas da Rainha, Jayme saudou com enthusiasmo a resurreição do
constitucionalismo que ia inaugurar, pensava elle, uma nova epocha
de felicidade para Portugal.
O ministerio e a regente receberam com dolorosa surpreza a
constituição que viera do Brazil, e adiavam de dia para dia não só o
juramento da Carta, mas tambem todos os negocios que podessem
augmentar o descontentamento dos miguelistas.
De modo que não foi possivel a Jayme de Carvalho obter um
despacho, simples na apparencia, mas que certamente desagradaria
á communidade de Arouca, porque era transparente a intenção
dilatoria da abbadeça.
De repente, porém, Saldanha, governador das armas no Porto,
Saldanha que, um anno antes, havia cavalgado em triumpho, na
volta de Villa Franca, ao lado do infante D. Miguel, arvorou-se em
defensor da Carta e principal propulsor do seu immediato juramento.
Logo que isto constou em Lisboa, surprehendendo o espirito
intransigente das primeiras familias da nobreza absolutista, com as
quaes Saldanha estava aparentado, Jayme de Carvalho metteu-se
n’um vapor, e sahiu de Lisboa para o Porto.
O seu fim era obter a protecção de Saldanha, a quem logo tratou
de procurar.
Foi recebido sem demora, e expôz ao general o «estado da
questão». Saldanha, caracter impressionavel e coração ardente,
muito impetuoso e algo romanesco, acolheu com viva sympathia o
jovem advogado, que implorava o seu valimento.
O general disse resolutamente a Jayme de Carvalho:
—Vou fazel-o acompanhar por um official da minha confiança, que
irá encarregado de dizer á madre abbadeça o seguinte: «Ou ella
entrega já a menina que acintosamente retém ou eu pessoalmente a
vou lá buscar».
 Jayme cahiu de joelhos deante do general, abraçou-lhe as pernas,
beijou-lhe a mão, não obstante Saldanha forcejar por levantal-o.
N’aquelle momento historico, Saldanha era o papão dos
miguelistas, que o odiavam mas temiam.
A abbadeça de Arouca, vendo na grade um official bigodoso a
intimar-lhe a ameaça de Saldanha, tremeu como varas verdes,
amaldiçoou a Carta, mas entregou Ernestina de Carvalho, e o
casamento effectuou-se alguns dias depois, em Evora.
Jayme escreveu para Coimbra uma longa carta a José Maximo
contando-lhe miudamente os trabalhos que passára para arrancar
Ernestina do convento, a intervenção magnanima de Saldanha, e o
triste destino de Margarida Candida que, segundo Ernestina lhe
revelára, fôra illudida para professar.
Acabava por congratular-se pela outorga da Carta, e estimulava-o
a mais do que nunca exercer a sua influencia sobre a academia para
combater á mão armada, se tanto fosse preciso, a opposição que,
segundo se dizia, os reaccionarios preparavam.
Saldanha conseguira impor-se á regente de modo a fazer jurar a
Carta e a ser chamado ao poder como ministro da guerra.
Os absolutistas preparavam, effectivamente, um golpe de mão. O
norte e o sul do paiz, agitado por elles, acclamavam D. Miguel rei de
Portugal. Em Traz-os Montes o marquez de Chaves soprava á
fogueira da reacção. O Algarve, imitando o Alemtejo, fazia um
pronunciamento militar, que Saldanha, já ministro da guerra, fôra
suffocar pessoalmente.
A academia de Coimbra não assistia indifferente ás luctas politicas
do momento.
José Maximo, o chefe constitucional da academia, entendera-se
com o deputado Alvares Pereira, que tinha ido áquella cidade
expressamente para mover os estudantes a armarem-se pela defesa
da Carta.
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