UNIT -1

INTRODUCTION
Electric power is normally generated at 11-25 kV in a power station. To transmit over long
distances, it is then stepped-up to 220-kVor 400kV as necessary. Power is carried through
a transmission network of high voltage lines. Usually, these lines run into hundreds of
kilometers and deliver the power in to a common power pool called the grid. The grid is
connected to load centers (cities) through a sub-transmission network normally 132kV (or
sometimes 66kV)lines. These lines terminate into a 132kV (or 66kV) substation, where the
voltage is stepped-down to 33kV or11kV for power distribution network of lines at 11kV
and lower.

T&D System

The power network, which generally concerns the common man, is the distribution
network of 11kV lines or feeders downstream of the 33kV substations. Each 11kV
feeder, which emanates from the 33kV substation branches further into several
subsidiary 11kV feeders to carry power close to the load points (localities, industrial
areas, villages, etc..). At these load points, a transformer further reduces the voltage
from 11kV to 415kV to provide the last-mile connection through 415v feeder (also called
as Low Tension (LT) feeders) to individual customers, either at 240v(as single-phase
supply)or at 415v(as three-phase supply).A feeder could be either an overhead line or
an underground cable. In urban areas, owing to the density of customers, the length of
an 11kV feeder is generally up to 3km.On the other hand, in rural areas, the feeder
length is much larger(up to 20km).A415v feeder should normally be restricted to about
0.5-1.0 km unduly long feeders lead to low voltage at the consumer end.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESENT DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
In the initial stages of power development in our country, power supply facilities
and transmission and distribution system were built mainly catering to urban
areas/towns to feed mostly domestic and commercial loads. With the thrust of rural
electrification programmed and large-scale energisation of pump sets from the third
five-year plan onwards, the sub transmission and distribution networks were expanded

1
rapidly. While extension both the high voltage transmission system in the country (from
110kV and above)has been made on the basis of systematic load flow and system
studies, the extensions in the sub- transmission and distribution systems(66kV and
below)have been made to meet immediate requirements without a proper planning and
system studies to evolve optimal network, size, location of substations, adequacy of
back-up network etc. Instead, the distribution network has developed in an unplanned
and haphazard manner. This characterizes the existing distribution system as follows:
• Development of distribution system dominated by radial networks. Due to
radial nature, various problems emerged, viz..,
- For example, in many parts of our country, like Bihar, U.P, Maharastra etc,
almost a radial link right from 132kV and below feeds supply to a large
number of areas. Thus a fault at any part of the radial link would disrupt
the supply to entire area. hence, makes unreliability in power supply.
- Difficulties in augmentation/maintenance of system. For example, re-
conductoring of the line, replacement of rusted pole etc.., for which shut
down of a section of the line need to be taken which would affect the power
supply to the remaining feeding areas.
• Difficulties in voltage regulation: As per the guide lines, sub- transmission
and distribution voltage need to be regulated within
10 to 5% depending upon the voltage level. However, during peak times,
due to huge power flows over long radial link, substantial voltage drop beyond
permissible limits occur. On the country, during off-peak times (when demand
reduces),shunt capacitors used for load compensation remain connected in
the network and thus leads to higher voltages.
• Inadequacy in system: Due to non-systematic planning for growth of the
network without considering long-term requirement, many parts of the sub-
transmission and distribution network are loaded heavily without adequate
redundancies. This inadequacy causes frequent tripping as well as high
technical losses.
• Development of long LT lines: Distribution network all over the country
uncharacteristically have mesh of long low tension (LT) lines with inadequate
transformer capacity. This leads to substantial voltage drop, high technical
losses, unreliability in supply etc..
• Absence of proper energy accounting system/audit: This makes actual
estimation of losses and ratio of technical and commercial losses difficult,
thus high loss areas, specific elements etc, remain unidentified.
• Poor quality of equipment and lack of proper maintenance, accounts for the
high level of technical losses at the distribution stage. Further, improper load
management and inadequate reactive compensation at load points also lead
to high losses.
In addition to above, distribution system is also suffering from high level
of commercial losses due to poor billing, revenue collection and theft of power
by various users. These constitute a large component of overall losses. There
are also losses on account of defective/slow energy meters, burnt meters, no
metering etc. In fact that the energy loss in EHV transmission system only
around 4-5% whereas, about 40-45% of the total energy loss takes place in
sub- transmission and distribution system. This is the most crucial area as
the cost of energy at the distribution stage is about Rs 2.75 per unit-the most
value added stage in the entire power sector. Further, the rise in industrial
and agricultural pumping loads increased the reactive power requirements.
Adequate attention has not been given to compensate this reactive demand,
2
 which resulted in poor voltage conditions and increased losses. Therefore,
attentions need to be p[aid to make the distribution system financially viable
through improvement of distribution system efficiency. It can be achieved only
through reduction in losses, improvement in revenue collections, improved
customer satisfaction etc.

DISTRIBUTION SYTEM LOSSES

It has been established that 70% of the total losses are occurring in the primary
and secondary distribution system, while transmission and sub- transmission lines
account for only 30% of the total losses. Distribution losses are 15.5% of generation
capacity and the target level is 7.5% .Therefore ,the primary and secondary
distribution system must be properly planned to ensure losses within the acceptability
limits.
Factors Effecting Distribution System Losses
Factors contributing to the increase in the line losses in the primary and secondary
distribution system are:
(a) Inadequate size of conductor: As stated above, rural load are usually
scattered and generally fed by radial feeders. The conductor size of the feeders must
be adequate. The size of the conductor should be selected on the basis of km-kVA
capacity of the stranded conductors.
(b) Feeder Length: In practice, 11kV and 415V lines in rural areas are widely
extended radially over long distances to feed loads scattered over large areas. This
results in high line resistance, low voltage and high current and therefore leads to
high I2R losses in the line.
(c) Location of distribution transformers: Often the distribution transformers
are not located centrally with respect to the customer. Consequently, the end
customers obtain an extremely low voltage even though a reasonably good voltage level
is maintained at the transformer secondary. This again leads to higher line losses.
Therefore in order to reduce the voltage drop in the line to the further consumers, the
distribution transformer should be located at the load center to keep voltage drop
within permissible limits.
(d) Use of over rated distributed transformers: Studies on 11kV feeders have
revealed that often the rating of distribution transformers (DTs) is much higher than
the maximum kVA demand on the low tension (LT) feeder. Over rated transformer
produces an unnecessarily high iron loss.
From the above it is clear that the rating of distribution transformer (DT) should
be judiciously selected to keep the losses with the permissible limits. (e)Low Voltage:
Whenever the voltage applied to an induction motor deviates from rated voltage, its
performance is adversely affected. Reduced voltage in case of an induction motor
results in higher currents drawn for the same output, which leads to higher losses.
This can be overcome by adjusting the tap changer at power transformer and at
distribution transformer, if available.
(f) Low power factor: In most of the LT distribution systems, it is found that the power
factor varies from as worse as 0.65 to 0.75. A low power factor contributes towards
high distribution losses. For a given load, if the power factor is low, the current drawn
is high, consequently the losses proportional to square of the current, will be more.
Thus, line losses owing to the poor power factor can be reduced by
improving the power factor. This can be done by application of shunt capacitor.

3
Methods for the Reduction of Line Losses
As explained in the previous section as the losses in Indian power system are
on the higher side, the Government of India has decided to reduce the line losses and
set a target for reduction of T&D losses by 1% per annum in order to realize an overall
reduction of 5% in the national average by the end of 8th five year plan.
The following methods are adopted for reduction of distribution system losses.

(ii)Feeder reconfiguration
(iii)Reinforcement of the feeder
(iv)Grading of conductor
(v) Construction of new substation
(vi)Reactive power compensation
(i) HV distribution system: The low voltage distribution system contributes about
1/3 of the total losses. The main contributing factors for the losses in this system are
the wrong distribution system practice chosen by our country coupled with the non-
adherence of prescribed norm for voltage drops. The LT distribution system, based on
European practice where loads are concentrated in small areas with high load
densities and that too with high power factor and load factor is most ill suited to cater
the scattered highly inductive load with very low load densities, low power factor and
load factor common in our country .The situation prevailing is that LV lines are
extended irrespective of voltage drops up to full capacity of the distribution
transformer, sometimes over and above the transformer capacity. Hence, no purpose
will be served by prescribing low kVA- km loading limits for LV lines when the existing
norms are not adhered to at all. The only practice and feasible solution is to eliminate
or minimize LV lines by switching over to single –phase high voltage distribution. By
adopting HV distribution, the losses in the LV distribution can be reduced by 85%.
Advantages of HV distribution system:

• It will eliminate losses on lengthy LT lines

• It will give better voltage regulation
• It will improve the power factor as starting and running capacitors are inherently
provided to single-phase motors
• It will improve the supply reliability
• It virtually eliminates pilferage by direct tapping of energy from LT over head lines.
• Line losses will reduced by 85% of the line losses.
(ii) Feeder reconfiguration: Feeder reconfiguration is defined as the process of altering
the topological structure of distribution feeders by changing the open/closed status
of the sectionalizing and ties switches. Feeder reconfiguration allows the transfer of
loads from heavily loaded feeders to less heavily loaded feeders. Such transfers are
effective not only in terms of altering the levels of loads on the feeders being switched,
but also in improving the voltage profile along the feeders and effecting reduction in
the overall system power losses.
(iii) Reinforcement of the feeder: Studies on several distribution feeders have indicated
that first few main sections(usually 3 to5) of the feeder contributes to 60% to 80%
of the feeder total losses. This is mainly due to the fact that the conductor size used
at the time of erection of feeders is no more optimal with reference to the increased

4
 total load. The total cost is the sum of fixed cost of investment of the line and variable
cost of energy losses in the conductor due to the power flow.
Addition of a new load on existing feeder is limited by its current carrying
capacity. So if the existing feeder gets overloaded, the alternative for catering the extra
load is only reinforcement of the feeder. This method is considered to be good for short
term planning measures.
Reinforcement of conductor is considered necessary as the smaller sized conductor’s
results in high loses due to non-standard planning. However, at the time of
reinforcement much supply interruption will take place, which leads in loss of revenue.
(iv) Grading of conductor: In normal practice, the conductor is used for radial
distribution feeder is of uniform cross-section. However, the load magnitude at the
substation is high and it reduces as we proceed on to the tail end of the feeder .This
indicates that the use of a higher size conductor, which is capable of supplying load
from the source point, is not necessary at tail end point. Similarly use of different
conductor cross-section for intermediate section will lead to a minimum both in
respect of capital investment cost and line loss point of view.
The use of larger number of conductors of different cross-section will result in increased
cost of inventory. A judicious choice can, however be made in the selection of number
of size of cross-section for considering the optimal design.
If tie lines are existed already it is the most economical method to reduce losses
but in practice in rural India tie-lines are uncommon. Constructing new tie lines for
small excess loads leads to unnecessary increase in capital investment.
(v) Construction of new substation: If a new substation is to be constructed and
connected to an existing network, several possible solutions are to be studied
.These solutions may include various connection schemes of the substation and several
feasible locations, while the principle connection scheme is defined by a limited number
of possibilities. The number of possible sites of the newly constructed HT(33kV) line and
thus its location determines the cost of their construction and operation. Due to large
number of possible sites, an economical comparison may overlook the optimum
technical solution. The final decision is usually influenced by additional factors such as
topography; land ownership, environment considerations etc,. The optimum site for a
substation is defined as that location which will result in minimum cost for construction
and minimum losses. These include both the investments for the 11kV and 33kV voltage
systems and the cost of operating the system.
So, by constructing a new substation at load center, the line losses will be
reduced due to improvement in voltage profile and reduction in length of the lines. But
for an excess small quantum of load, the decision for constructing of new substation
cannot be made as the capital investment is high and the substation will run on under
load condition for a long time resulting in poor return on the capital. In such situations,
alternate arrangements can be attempted.
(vi) Reactive power compensation: It is universally acknowledged that the voltage
reactive power control function has vital role to play in the distribution automation. The
problem of reactive power compensation can be attempted by providing static
capacitors.
The present practice to compensate reactive power component is to increase
reactive power by increasing the terminal voltage of the generator (or) By increasing the
field current of the synchronous machine in condenser mode at generating stations.
5
This procedure is not effective because the power system losses will be further increased
due to increase of reactive power in the transmission system. An alternate method for
compensating the reactive power is the use of capacitor in distribution systems at
customer points.
Shunt capacitors supply the amount of reactive power to the system at the
point where they are connected .Mainly capacitors are used to develop reactive power
near the point of consumption. By capacitor compensation at load ,the user gets the
same advantage as the power utility for higher power factor on small scale. Also, if each
load is compensated, the power factor remains relatively constant since in plants, loads
are switched on and off and the dangers of over – compensation do not exist. If a power
factor has been corrected only at the service entry, system power can make relatively
wide swings, as heavy loads are switches on and off. Suitable capacitor banks at grid or
main substation are desirable to feed reactive power of lines, transformers and domestic
consumers, etc. Who have no capacitors at terminals?
There are two methods in capacitors compensation viz.,
1. Series compensation (capacitors are placed in series with line)
2. Shunt compensation (capacitors are placed in parallel with load)
The fundamental function of capacitors, whether they are series or shunt in a power
system is to generate reactive power to improve power factor and voltage, thereby
enhancing the system capacity and reducing lossless. In series capacitors the reactive
power is proportional to the square of the load current, where as in shunt capacitors it
is proportional to the square of the voltage.

LOAD MODELLING AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS LOAD

MODELLING

Many electric appliances and devices have an electrical load that varies as the
supply voltage is changed and the loads are grouped into three categories depending
on how their demand varies as a function of voltage, viz.., constant power (demand is
constant regardless of voltage)or as a constant impedance (power is proportional to
square of voltage).The load at a particular point might be a mixture of some proportion
of all these.

It is quite important in both planning and engineering to model the voltage

sensitivities of load correctly. For example, incandescent lighting, resistive water
heaters cooking loads shunt compensation and many other loads are constant
impedance loads .On a feeder with a 7.5 % voltage drop from substation to feeder end
a constant impedance load will vary upto 14.5% depending upon where it is located on
the feeder. The same set of incandescent light that creates 1kW of load at the feeder
head would produce only 844 watts at the feeder end .Induction motors, controlled
power supplies as well as tap changing transformers in the power systems are
relatively constant power loads.

In general, these load static models can be written as:

P=P0(V/V0)k1 …(1.2)
Q=Q0(V/V0)k2 …(1.3)

6
 Where P0,Q0=Nominal values of real and reactive power loads

V0=Voltage at nominal load

K1 and k2 values for different type of loads as given in table 1.2

TABLE 1.2 Typical values of k1 and k2 for different static load models

S no Type of load K1 K2

1 Battery charge 2.59 4.06

2
3 Fluorescent lamps 2.07 3.21
4
Constant impedance 2 2
5
6 Air-conditioner 0.5 2.5
7
8 Constant current 1 1
9 2 0
10 Resistance space heater 0.08 1.6

11 Pumps, fans other motors 1.54 0

12
13 Incandescent lamps 1 0.35
Compact fluorescent lamps 0.1 0.6
Small industrial motors 0.05 0.5
Large industrial motors
Constant power 0 0
1 3
Fluorescent lighting

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOAD MODELS

The response of nearly all loads to voltage changes can be represented by some
combination of constant impedance, constant current and constant power(or
MVA).Actually, the constant current model is unnecessary as it is nearly equivalent to
50% constant impedance load combined with 50% constant power load. It has been
found convenient to retain the constant current model as it is easily comprehended
and is frequently used in the absence of more complete data. Figures show the
relationships of load current and power with voltage for three simple load types from
equations

7
 FIG RELATION BETWEEN LOAD CURRENT AND NODE VOLTAGE
FOR SIMPLE LOAD TYPES

FIG 1. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOAD MVA AND NODE VOLTAGE FOR

SIMPLE LOAD TYPES
The constant power type load representation is the most severe representation
from the system stability point of view because of the affect in amplifying voltage
oscillations. For example, a drop in voltage will cause an increase in load current
resulting further voltage drop.
Conversely, constant impedance load have a decided damping
effect on voltage oscillations.
The three phase un-balanced load models developed are to be used in the
iterative process of load flow technique where the load voltages are initially assumed.
One of the results of the load flow analysis is to replace the assumed voltages with the
actual operating load voltages. All models are initially defined by a complex power and

8
 as assumed line to neutral voltage (star load) or an assumed line-to-line voltage (delta
load).

STAR CONNECTED LOADS:

The model of the star connected load is shown in the figure below

The complex power and voltages are represented as:

CONSTANT POWER LOADS:

The line currents of load model is given by:

In this model, the line to neutral or phase voltages while change during each
iteration until convergence is achieved.
CONSTANT CURRENT MODEL:
In this model the magnitudes of currents are computed using ILR equation and are
then held constant while the angle of voltage ( changes, resulting in a change
angle on the current so that the power factor of the load remain constant

CONSTANT IMPEDANCE MODEL:

9
 In this model first determine constant load impedance from the specified complex
power and assumed phase voltages.

The load currents as a function of the constant load impedances are given by:

- -

10
In this model the phase voltages will change during each iteration, but impedance
determined from ZR, ZY, ZR will remain constant.
Similarly the load models are determined for the delta connected loads by
considering line-to-line voltage instead of phase to neutral voltage.
Definition of terms
Several terms are used in connection with power supply to an area, whether it be
for the first time or subsequently. These terms are explained below:
(i) Connected load : a consumer, for example a domestic consumer, may have
several appliances rated at different wattages. The sum of these ratings is
called his connected load.
Connected load is defined as the sum of ratings (W,KW or MW)of the
apparatus installed on a consumer premises.
(ii) Maximum demand: It is quite portable that the consumer does not use all the
appliances at time, though he has the libert to do so. The maximum amoung
the loads utilized by a consumer at a time is called maximum demand.
Maximum demand is defined as the maximum load used by a consumer at
any time.
(iii) Demand Factor: The ratio of maximum demand and connected load is called
the demand factor.
(iv) Demand
Load averaged over a specific period of time
Load can be kW, kvar, kVA, or VA
Must include the time interval
Example: The 15 min kW demand is 100 kW
(v) Maximum demand
Greatest of all demands that occur during a specific time
Must include demand interval, period, and units
Example: The 15 min maximum kW demand for the week was 150 kW
(vi) Average demand
The average of the demands over a specified period (day, week, month, etc.)
Must include demand interval, period, and units
Example: The 15 min average kW demand for the month was 350 kW3
(vii) Load curve: From out the load connected, a consumer uses different fractions
of the total load at various times of the day as per his requirements. Since a
power system is to supply load to all such consumers, the load to be supplied
varies continuously with time and does not remain constant the load curve is
a plot of the load demand on Y axis verses the time on the X axis in the
chronological order.
(viii) Diversified demand
a. Sum of demands imposed by a group of loads over a particular period
b. Must include demand interval, period, and units
c. Example: The 15 min diversified kW demand in the period ending at 9:30
was 200 Kw
(ix) Maximum diversified demand
a Maximum of the sum of the demands imposed by a group of loads
over a particular period
11
 b Must include demand interval, period, and units
c Example: The 15 min maximum diversified kW demand for the week
was 500 kW
(x) Maximum noncoincident demand
a For a group of loads, the sum of the individual maximum demands
without any restriction that they occur at the same time
b Must include demand interval, period, and units
c Example: The maximum noncoincident 15 min kW demand for the
week was

FIG Daily load curve of domestic consumer

If a time period of 24 hours only is considered, hence the resulting load curve is called
daily load curve. However to predicate the annual requirements of energy ,the occurrence
of load at different hours and days in a year and in the power supply economics, the
annual load curves are used .A load curve is nothing but a plot of the load demand of the
consumer against time in hours of the year (1 year=8760 hours)
Load Factor: The power supply authorities realize the revenue by selling their product,
viz.., units of the electrical energy to the consumers, who are granted with the right of
using energy as per their requirements at any hour of the day. The ratio of average load of
the maximum demand during a given period is known as load factor.

12
 The load factor may be daily load factor, monthly load factor or annual load factor.
The load factor always less than 1 because average load is smaller than the maximum
demand.

(v) Diversity Factor: The ratio of the some individual maximum demands to the
maximum demand on the power system is known as diversity factor.

Diversity factor =

A power system supplies load to various types of consumers whose maximum

demands generally do not occur at the same time. Therefore the maximum demand on
the power system is always less than the sum individual maximum demands of the
consumers.

A high diversity factor implied that with a smaller maximum demand on the
station, it is possible to cater to the needs of several consumers with varying
maximum demands occurring at different hours of the day. A high diversity factor and
a high load factor are the desirable characteristics of the load on power station

(vi) Coincidence factor: It is the ratio of the observed peak of the group of consumers
to the sum of the individual peaks.

13
.

And Ci the contribution factor of the ith load to the group maximum demand

Peak load per consumer is generally a strictly decreasing value as a function of

the number of consumers in a group. Therefore, the maximum value of C.F. is only
about 0.25 to 0.3.

Distribution engineers use the factor inverse of C.F.., which is known as the
diversity factor.

14
 Therefore, coincides factor is equal to the average contribution factor.

Therefore, coincidence factor is equal to the contribution factor.

(vii)Utilization Factor: The utilization factor is the ratio of maximum demand of a

system to the rated capacity of the system.

Utilization factor=

(ix) Loss factor: It is defined as the ratio of the average power losses over a specified
period of time to the peak loss during the same period. While it is relatively easy to
determine load factor, it is difficult to determine loss factor because average system
losses cannot be easily determined. The reason for this is, in part ,due to the fact that
system losses vary as the square of the current. The evaluation of energy losses is of
prime important, for it represents the loss of a real saleable product.

15
 Load factor, Diversity Factor, and Capacity Factor Solved Examples
Example 1. A power station has a maximum demand of 150 MW with an annual load
factor of 30%. Calculate the electrical energy generated per annum.
Solution : Given data,
Maximum demand (MD) = 150 MW
Load factor (LF) = 50%
We have
Load Factor=Energy generated in a given periodMaximum Demand ×Hours of operation
given periodLoad Factor=Energy generated in a given periodMaximum Demand ×Hours o
f operation given period
Energy generated/annum = Load factor x maximum demand x No. of hours per annum
= L.F x M.D x 8760
= 0.5×150×106×87600.5×150×106×8760
= 657×106kWh657×106kWh units
Example 2 : A power station has a maximum demand of 20,000kW, an annual load
factor is 50%, and plant capacity factor, is 40% determine the reserve capacity of the
plant.
Solution : Given,
Maximum demand (MD) = 20 MW
Load factor (LF) = 50 %
Plant capacity factor, = 40 %
Load Factor=Average load Maximum Demand Load Factor=Average load Maximum Dema
nd
Average load = load factor x max demand x hours in use
=20,000×0.5×8760=20,000×0.5×8760
= 876 MWH
Load capacity = 0.5×20,0000.4=25 MWH0.5×20,0000.4=25 MWH
Reserve capacity = load capacity - Max demand
= 25 MWH - 20 MWH
= 5 MWH
Example 3: A power plant supplies the following loads to various consumers:
Industrial consumers = 1500 kW
Commercial established = 750 kW
Domestic power = 100 kW
Domestic Light = 450 kW

16
If the maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the no.of kWh generated/ year
is 45×10545×105. Determine the diversity factor and annual load factor.
Solution : Given,
Maximum demand = 2500 kW
No.of units generated per year = 45×10545×105
Diversity Factor=Sum of individual Maximum DemandsMaximum Demand of Power Stat
ionDiversity Factor=Sum of individual Maximum DemandsMaximum Demand of Power S
tation
Diversity Factor=1500+750+100+4502500Diversity Factor=1500+750+100+4502500
= 1.12
Average load=no. ofunits generatedhours in workingAverage load=no. ofunits generatedh
ours in working
Average load=45×1058760=513.69 kWAverage load=45×1058760=513.69 kW
load factor=513.698760=0.205load factor=513.698760=0.205
the average load to the maximum demand of a power station during a certain period of
time.
Load Factor=Average load (Demand)Maximum Demand (peak load)
Example 4:The maximum demand on apower station is 100MW .If the annual load
factornis 40 %,calculate the total energy generated in a year.
Energy
generated/year =Max.demand *L.F.*Hours in ayear
=(100 *10 3)*(0·4)*(24 *365 )kWh
=3504 *10 5kWh

17
LOAD GROWTH:

The load growth of the geographical area served by a utility company is the most
important factor influencing the expansion of the distribution system .Therefore,
forecasting of load increase is essential to the planning process.
Fitting –trend after transformation of data is a common practice in technical
forecasting. An arithmetic straight line that will not fit the original data, for example,
the algorithms of the data as typified by the exponential trend.
Y=abx

This expression is sometimes called growth equation, since it is often used to

explain the phenomenon of growth with time. For example, if the load growth is known
,the load at the end of the nth year is given by

PLn= PLo (1+g)n.

QLn= QLo (1+g)n
Where PLn , QLn =Real and reactive power load at the end of nth year

PLo ,QLo=Real and reactive power load at the base year

g=Annual growth rate, generally 7.5%

n=Number of years, in general for developing countries 7 to 10

years are considered for designing.
LOAD CHARACTERISTICS:
The following load characteristics are discussed in the following sections:
Nature of loads
It is necessary to know the general nature of load, which is characterized by the
demand factor, load factor, diversity factor, utilization factor and power factor.
Types of loads
In general, the types of load can be divided into the following categories:

18
(i) Domestic loads: This type of loads mainly consists of domestic appliances such as
lights ,fans, heaters, refrigerators, air conditioners, mixers, ovens, heating rangers and
small motors for pumping, various other small house hold appliances, etc. The daily load
curve (DLC) of week days of this type of load in terms of peak
load is shown in fig, the various factors are: demand factor 70-100%,diversity factor
1.2-1.3 and load factor 10-15%.

(ii) Commercial loads: Commercial loads consist of lighting for shops, fans, air
conditioning, heating and other electrical appliances used in commercial establishments,
such as shops, restaurants, market places, etc. The daily load curve(DLC) of week days of
this type of load in terms of peak load is shown in fig 1.7 .The demand factor is usually
90-100%,diversity factor is 1.1-1.2 and load factor is poor and it may be taken as 25-30%.

FIG Commercial load curve in percentage of peak load

19
Industrial loads: This type of loads may be sub divided into small, medium and heavy
depending on the power range required. For example, small scale industries require load
upto 25kW, medium scale industries between 25 to 100kW, and heavy industries
require load more than 500kW.The chronological load curve for industrial load depends
on the type of industry because of shift operation etc. These loads are considered base
load that contain small weather dependent variation. The heavy industries the demand
factor is 85 -90% with a load factor of 70-80%.The daily load curve (DLC) of week days of
this type of load in terms of peak load is shown in fig .1.8.

FIG Industrial load curve in percentage of peak load

Municipal loads: Municipal load consists of street lighting, power requirement for water
supply and drainage purposes. This load is for street lighting and remains practically
constant through out the night. For this the demand factor is 100% while diversity factor
can be taken as 1.streetlights are required mainly at night but there may be the small
load of traffic signals throughout the day also. The load factor for street light is usually
taken as 25-30%.
Agriculture load: For this type of load the electric power needed for pumps driven by
motors to supply water to field. The load factor is generally taken as 20- 25%,the
diversity factor as 1.0-1.5 and the demand factor is 90-100%.
RATE STRUCTURE.
The rate structure, or tariff structure, for an electrical distribution system is a set of rules
and rates that apply to different groups of customers at different times and levels of
consumption. The rate structure is often made up of an energy charge and a demand
charge. The energy charge is based on the number of kilowatt-hours used during a billing
period, while the demand charge is based on the peak demand during that same period.
RATE STRUCTURE
Electricity tariff In electrical engineering is an important topic, and understanding the
various types of tariffs in power systems is very important for both consumers and
professionals. Electricity tariffs represent the pricing structures and mechanisms through
which electricity suppliers charge different categories of consumers. These tariffs ensure
that the costs associated with electricity generation, transmission, and distribution are
fairly distributed among users.
20
What is the Meaning of Electricity Tariff?
An electricity tariff is the method used to charge consumers for electric
power consumption. The tariff must cover the total cost of generating and supplying
electricity, including operation, maintenance, and reasonable profit for utilities. Tariffs
vary based on customer load profiles, demand, consumption patterns, and other technical
factors. Electricity tariff is the price charged by electricity suppliers for the use of electrical
energy. Tariffs are designed to recover the total cost of providing electricity services,
including operational expenses, maintenance, and capital investments.
Factors Affecting the Electricity Tariffs
Electricity tariffs are determined after considering various technical and economic factors
like consumer load type, maximum demand, power factor, time of usage, and amount of
energy consumed. The generation cost depends on the plant capacity required to meet
peak loads. Improving load factor through load management and time-of-use tariff can
reduce per-unit supply cost. A low power factor draws more current and causes higher
transmission losses, affecting tariffs.
Several factors influence the structure and rates of electricity tariffs. These include:
o Cost of Generation: The cost to produce electricity from various sources (coal,
natural gas, renewables, etc.).
o Transmission and Distribution Costs: Expenses related to the transportation of
electricity from generation plants to consumers.
o Consumer Type: Different rates for residential, commercial, and industrial users.
o Load Factor: The ratio of the average load to the peak load over a period.
o Demand Patterns: Seasonal and daily variations in electricity demand.
o Regulatory Policies: Government regulations and policies affecting tariff
structures.
Various Types of Tariffs in Power System
Understanding the various types of tariffs in the power system is essential for managing
costs and ensuring efficient energy use.
Below are the primary types of tariffs used in power systems:
1. Simple Tariff
2. Flat Rate Tariff
3. Block Rate Tariff
4. Two-Part Tariff
5. Maximum Demand Tariff
6. Power Factor Tariff
7. Three-Part Tariff
Simple Tariff
A simple tariff, also known as a uniform tariff, charges consumers a fixed rate per unit of
electricity consumed, regardless of the amount or time of usage. In this type of tariff, a
fixed rate is charged for each unit of energy consumed, regardless of the quantity used.
Known as a uniform tariff, it applies a constant price per unit (1 kWh) of electricity. The
energy consumption is measured using energy meters, and the rate per unit remains
unchanged regardless of the total energy used by the consumer.
Graphical representation of simple tariff:

21
 Fig- Graph of simple tariff
Advantages
o Simplicity: The easiest method to implement.
o Clarity: Easily understandable and straightforward to apply.
o Fairness: Charges consumers based on actual usage.
Disadvantages
o Uniformity: Does not differentiate between different types of consumers.
o High Cost: The cost per unit is relatively high.
o Lack of Incentives: No benefits for increased electricity usage.
o Fixed Costs: Suppliers cannot charge if no energy is consumed, despite ongoing
connection costs.
Application
o Commonly used for tube wells for irrigation purposes.
Flat Rate Tariff
The flat rate tariff categorizes consumers into different groups based on their usage
patterns and charges a fixed rate for each category. This type of tariff is commonly used
in domestic applications. The flat demand rate tariff is represented by the
equation C=AxC=Ax. In this tariff structure, the billing is based solely on the maximum
demand of the load rather than the total energy consumed.
It is particularly useful for applications such as street lighting, sign lighting, and irrigation,
where equipment operating hours are unpredictable. This type of tariff does not rely on a
metering system for calculation, making it suitable for scenarios with variable and
unknown usage patterns.

22
 Fig- Graphical representation of flat rate tariff
Advantages
o Fairness: More equitable for different consumers.
o Simplicity: Involves straightforward calculations.
Disadvantages
o Lack of Incentives: No benefits for increased energy usage.
o Complexity: Requires separate meters for different loads (light loads, power loads,
etc.), complicating and increasing the expense of the arrangement.
o Uniform Rates: Consumers within the same category are charged the same rates,
although it would be fairer if higher energy users were charged lower fixed rates.
Application
o Commonly used for domestic consumers.
Block Rate Tariff
In a block rate tariff, the consumption is divided into blocks, and each block has a different
rate. In a block rate tariff, energy consumption is divided into distinct blocks, each with a
fixed per-unit tariff. The cost per unit decreases with each subsequent block. The first
block has the highest rate, and the rates progressively decrease for the next blocks.
Example:
o First Block: Highest rate for initial units.
o Second Block: Slightly lower rate for the next set of units.
o Third Block: Lowest rate for the remaining units.
This structure encourages higher consumption at reduced rates as usage increases.
Advantages
o Single Meter Requirement: Only one energy meter is needed.
o Consumer Incentives: Reduced rates encourage higher energy usage, improving the
load factor and lowering generation costs.
Disadvantages
o Fixed Costs: If no energy is consumed in a month, the supplier cannot charge the
consumer, despite ongoing connection costs.
Application
o Common Usage: Typically applied to residential and small commercial consumers.
Two-Part Tariff
The two-part tariff consists of a fixed charge plus a variable charge based on the energy
consumed. The fixed charge covers the cost of maintaining the supply infrastructure, while
the variable charge is based on actual usage. The first one is the fixed charge and the
second is the running charge. The fixed charge is because of the maximum demand and
the second charge depends on the energy consumption by the load.
C=Ax+ByC=Ax+ByC=A(kW)+B(kWh)C=A(kW)+B(kWh)
A and B Factors, may be constant and vary according to some sliding.
This tariff is widely used for commercial and industrial applications.
Advantages
o Fixed Charges Return: Suppliers receive a return equal to the fixed charges even if
no energy is consumed.
Disadvantages
o Regular Fixed Charges: Consumers must pay fixed charges regularly, even if no
electricity is used.
o Demand Assessment Issues: The maximum demand is not determined accurately,
leading to potential conflicts between the supplier and the consumer.

23
Application
o Industrial Use: Commonly applied to industrial consumers with significant
maximum demand.
Maximum Demand Tariff
This tariff is based on the maximum demand recorded over a specific period, along with a
charge for the total energy consumed.
Accurate Demand Calculation: The maximum demand is accurately calculated using a
maximum demand meter, eliminating conflicts between the supplier and the consumer,
similar to a two-part tariff.
Application
It is commonly used for industrial consumers to manage peak loads and encourage load
management.
Power Factor Tariff
A power factor tariff is a type of electricity tariff that varies based on the power factor of
the load. It is mainly categorized into two types:
1. KVA Maximum Demand Tariff
2. Sliding Scale or Average Power Factor Tariff
KVA Maximum Demand Tariff:
Charges are based on the maximum demand in KVA and the power factor, encouraging
consumers to maintain a higher power factor to reduce charges.
This is also a two part tariff:
Total charges= A(kVA)+B(kWh)
If the power factor is lower then it will increase the load KVA.
kWh and kVarh Tariff:
In this tariff structure, the bill is calculated based on the sum of the kWh (kilowatt-hour)
and kVarh (kilovolt-ampere reactive hour) ratings of the load. The kVarh component is
inversely proportional to the power factor of the load, meaning that as the power factor
improves, the kVarh decreases, leading to potentially lower overall charges.
Totalcharges=A1(kWh)+B1(kVarh)Totalcharges=A1(kWh)+B1(kVarh)
Here, the power factor of the load is inversely proportional to the kVar.
Application
o Industrial Use: Typically applied to industrial consumers to incentivize maintaining
a high power factor and efficient energy usage.
Sliding Scale or Average Power Factor Tariff:
In an average power factor tariff, a specific power factor value is used as a reference. If the
consumer's power factor is lower than this reference, they incur additional charges.
Conversely, if the power factor exceeds the reference value, the consumer receives a
discount. This system incentivizes consumers to maintain a higher power factor,
promoting more efficient energy usage.
Power factor tariffs include penalties or incentives based on the power factor of the
consumer's load. A low power factor increases losses in the power system, and this tariff
encourages consumers to improve their power factor, thereby enhancing efficiency.
Three-Part Tariff
The three-part tariff includes a fixed charge, a semi-fixed charge based on maximum
demand, and a running charge based on the energy consumed.
C= A_{x}+B_{y}+ D

24
This tariff structure provides a comprehensive approach to cost recovery and is used for
large industrial consumers.

PROBLEMS ON TARIFF
EXAMPLE 1. A consumer has a maximum demand of 200 kW at 40% load factor. If
the tariff is Rs. 100 per kW of maximum demand plus 10 paise per kWh, find the overall
cost per kWh.
Example 2: The maximum demand of a consumer is 20 A at 220 V and his total energy
consumption is 8760 kWh. If the energy is charged at the rate of 20 paise per unit for
500 hours use of the maximum demand per annum plus 10 paise per unit for
additional units, calculate : (i)annual bill (ii) equivalent flat rate.
Solution :

Distribution Transformer : Construction and Its Types

At present, discovering a convenient as well as a suitable area for installing a
distribution transformer is one of the main challenges faced by the distribution company.
Especially in urban areas, it is severe so power departments need to plan for an
appropriate place for installation by considering the load, load center, possibility & further
development, etc. This type of transformer can be arranged on a single pole or H pole
based on the size, weight, and requirements of the transformer. Accordingly, the choice
25
for installation of this transformer can be done by the distribution company depending on
the capability and availability of space.
What is a Distribution Transformer?
Definition: A distribution transformer is also known as a typical kind of isolation
transformer. The main function of this transformer is to alter the high voltage to the
normal voltage like 240/120 V to use in electric power distribution. In the distribution
system, there are different kinds of transformers available like single phase, 3-phase,
underground, pad-mounted, pole-mounted transformer.

Distribution-transformer

Generally, these transformers are available in different sizes with efficiencies along with
insulating oil. These transformers are available in various sizes and efficiencies. The
selection of this transformer mainly lies in the requirement and budget of the user. There
are four types of distribution transformer connections available like star-star, delta-
delta, star-delta, delta-star and Zig Zag/delta zigzag.
Distribution Transformer Construction
The designing of a distribution transformer can be done similarly to small size
transformers. The main parts of this transformer mainly include Oil Tank,
Conservator, Buchholz Relay, Breather Unit, Oil Indicator, Temperature Detector,
Pressure Relief Device, Thermal Relay, Radiator, and Bushing.
• The oil tank is used to soak the windings by placing it in.
• A conservator is arranged above the oil tank at the outside of the transformer frame.
It is connected to the main tank with the help of a metallic tube. The oil within the
tank can be easily contacted & enlarge throughout loading so that the temperature
of the oil can be increased & decrease.
• Buchholz relay is used when a conservator tank is used. Because it indicates errors
like loss of oil once it goes low, improper flow of oil between the tank & transformer.
• Breather Unit includes silica gel that absorbs moisture in the oil. It changes its color
from blue color to pink color it is not capable to absorb moisture in the oil.
• The oil indicator indicates the level of the oil within the conservatory unit.
• The temperature detector monitors the temperature of the oil. If the temperature of
the oil increases to a certain level then the transformer will be disconnected from
the service.
• Pressure relief device decreases the pressure within the transformer to avoid an
explosion of the transformer.
• Thermal relay is used as an indicator for the temperature of the winding
• The radiator is used to increase the transformer’s cooling efficiency.
• The bushing is used to connect the internal windings of the transformer with the
help of an exterior electrical network.
26
Types of Distribution Transformer
Based on the application or requirement, these transformers are categorized into different
types like single phase, three phases, underground, pad-mounted, pole-mounted
transformers.
Single Phase
These transformers are specially used for networks wherever a three-phase supply is not
required. Usually, these are used for repairing overhead distribution loads in residential.
These are also applicable in industrial lighting, light commercial loads & power
applications.

Single-phase-transformer
Three Phase
This kind of transformer is used to hold electrical energy from the main distribution circuit
to a minor distribution circuit. This type of transformer transmits the current to a
secondary distribution circuit and also reduces the voltage of the primary distribution
circuit. These transformers reduce the voltage supply for the primary circuit based on the
consumer requirement.

Three-phase-transformer
This voltage always changes & can be dissimilar for the users of commercial, residential
& light industry. These transformers work on different levels of voltage & frequency based
on the standards existing in different countries. These transformers are available in single-
phase & three phases. Single-phase is used in residential applications whereas 3-phase
with a pad is used in underground primary circuits.
Pad-Mounted
27
This type of transformer includes a locked steel cupboard that is arranged on a concrete
pad. This type of transformer is installed in places where they do not have space for a
fenced enclosure. This transformer is used with electric power distribution lines at an
overhead electrical line for reducing the primary voltage to supply for the customers. A
single transformer of this type can serve many homes/a large building. The power rating
of this transformer ranges from 75 kVA to 5000 kVA and includes fixed switches & fuses.

Pad-mounted
Pole Mounted
These transformers are mounted on an electrical service pole at the height of the overhead
cables. These are used for changing high distribution voltage to low like 120/240 volt
power. These types of transformers are used in a wide rural area, ranges from 16 kVA to
100kVA. These are available in small size and easy to fit on single-pole structures. These
transformers are reliable to harsh climates when they used in remote areas.

P
Pole-mounted
Tanks of the transformer can be shaped and protected from the corrosive materials &
accumulation of water. In coastal areas, tanks can be protect.

28