EXPERIMENT No.

I
CALLIPERS
USE OFVERNIER
Aim: To determine volume of a solidI sphereand ahollowcylinder by using Vernier callipers.
Mparatus: Vernier callipers, solid sphere, hollow cylinder
Diagram:
tan

Main scale (cm)

mimiuimtuintunl
-Vernier scale -Main scak

Sphere
-Vernier scak
Jaws Vernier callipers

Main Scale
E
M
5 7 10

D s m

Fig. (b) -Beaker

-Beaker Fig. (c)

Fig.1.1 Vernier calliper

Formula:
(Smallest division on the main scale of vernier callipers)
1. Least count (L.C.)= (Total number of divisions on vernier scale)
2. Volume of solid sphere = R,
Where R- Radius of sphere
3. Volume of cylinder =arh, Where r- Radius of Cylinder, h- Height of Cylinder
Observations:
Least count of Vernier calliper:
1. Smallest division on main scale = S=...0.!...cm.
2. Total number of divisions on Vernier scale =N=...
3. Least count =L.C. == ...9.:01..cm.
N

I. To find the zero error:

Bring the two jaws of Vernier callipers in contact. Observe and conclude according to the
following given conditions.
4
 Position of main Scale Observation Conclusion

Main scale 1cm

Ifzero division of the There is no
(a) main scale coincides zero error
No zero with zero division of
error
5 10 Vernier scale
Vernier scale

If zero division of Negative zero

the Vernier scale is error
Main scale
(b) 1cm on right side of zero =-(N - m) x L.C
Negat1ve division of main
zero eror scale and if mh
5 10
division of Vernier
Vernier scale
scale coincides with
same division of
main scale.

If zero ivision of Positive zero error

Vernier scale is on =+m x L.C
0 Main scale 1cm
(c) left side of zero
positive division of main
zero error scale and if mth
0 5 10
division of Verni
Vernier scale er scale coincides
with same division
on main scale.

Zero error Z=..O......cm.

(with sign)
II. To determine volume of sphere:
1. Hold the given solid sphere between the lower jaws of Vernier callipers. as shown in fig 1.1.
2. Note the position of zero mark of Vernier scale on the mainscale. Let the reading be 'A':
3. Note the Vernierdivision (B) that coincides with some division on the main scale.
4. Then calculate the total reading (T) with formula T=A+(B XL.C.)
5. Take at least three independent reading for different positions of sphere.
6. Apply correction according to zero error (T+ Z) and find the mean value of diameter (D)and

caleulate radius of sphere =r 2

III. To find the inner diameter and length of the hollow cylinder. (Use upper jaws for
measuring inner diameter)

5
Observation Iable:
Object Obs. Dimensions Main Coin Vernier Total Corrected
No. Seale cident scale Reading Reading Mean
Reading Vernier reading
A Seale C- (B
T=
A+C T- Z.E(em) Reading
(em) divisionX L.C) (cm) (cm)
B (em)
Sphere Diameter (D) 6 0-06 2 46 244 1:34
24 0:05243 3
3 243
215 0:03
Cylinder Inner 3-1 8 O08 318 216
Diameter (d) 31
3
3"1 2 0 02
ylinder Depth/ 3:4 5 345 345 10 35
2 Length (h) o05 345
3
3:4 3 45

Calculations:
1. Radius of sphere (R) = D =...!:22.......cm.

.J.22.Cm.

2. Volume of sphere (V) =3 R'=....38...cm.

.*.:.3A.3A.X.I:31..7.:.38.(m..

3. Inner radius of Cylinder (r)=...58.....cm.

.3-10

=98.Cm.

4. Inner volume of cylinder V=R' h=...26.:97.....cm'.

22X(1:s9)x.3:45
3:4x.41.X.3:45.
6:91.
6
 Result:
1. Volume of sphere = .....38....n".
2. Volume of cylinder =...268}.....n.
Precautions:

1. Hold the object tightly between the jaws;do not press the jaws too hard.
2. Take observations for diameter at different positions of the
object.
3. Eye should be exactly perpendicular to the Vernier scale while observing reading.
Additional Experinment you can do:
Procedure: Take a small mug or cylindrical glass having thick bottom. Measure its inner
diameter by using upper ends of the jaws. Measure depth by using depth measurement strip.
Hence, calculate capacity (inner volume) of the mug or glass.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. If smallest division on the main scale of Vernier Callipers is 0.05cm and number of
division
on the Vernier scale is 25, the L.C. of Vernier Callipers is ..Q:042..
a) 0.0002 cm bf0.002 cm c) 0.001cm d) 0.0lcm
2. Upper jaws are used to find
a)outer diameter b) inner diameter o length d) thickness
Questions
1. What is zero eor Anas:
ib.a tyPs
.a..tading.whenhl.rue.3 scading gt that. tim.
is.ZexoIH.Case...Vpim,..calper
-.a..JRA0..00.h..min. Ut..a(cs.
(ale.,.docs..not..cojnide...(ith.
.a.LerO..0)...VNe. cale... Js..called...as..IexD..CrToT.
ot.Vemier.

2. How do you apply the correction due to zero error?

Ansoeh Conut Measuamant.oith.Vemies..CalliPeTA.

.hun.a.
trom.
rading
(ouet sading zobimyd
Remark and sign of teacher:

7
 EXPERIMENT No. 2
GAUGE
USEOF MICROMETER SCREW
Aim: To measure
arca of cross section
T Tne diameter of agiven wire and calculate its
2. Thickness of glass plate.
Apparatus: Screw gauge, Wire, glass plate
Diagram :

Stud Screw Pitch scale (M.S.) Thimble

Circular scale Ratchet

Frame
(C.S.)

Fig. 2.1 Micrometer Screw gauge

Formula:
1. Least Count of the Screw Gauge
Pitch
Least Count =
Total number of division on the circular scale
2. Area of cross section of wire :
A=nr? Where r is radius.

Zero Error and Zero Correetion

To get the correct measurement the zero error must be taken into account. For this purpose,
the screw is rotated forward, until the screw just touches the anvil and the edge of cap is on the
zero mark of the pitch scale. The Screw gauge is held keeping the pitch scale vertical with its zero
down wards.
When this is done, anyone of the following three situations can arise:
1. The zero mark of the circular scale comes on the reference line. In this case, the zero error and
the zero correction, both are nil.
2. The zero mark of the circular scale remains above the reference line and does not cross it. In
this case, the zero error is positive and the zero correction is negative depending on how many
divisions it is above the reference line.
3. The zero mark of the head scale is below the reference line. In this case, the zero error is
negative and the zero correction is positive depending on how many divisions it is below the
reference line.
10
 C,S. C.S. C.S.
10
-0

95 0 90
M.S. M.S. M.S.
(a) (b (C)
No zero cerror Positive zero error Negative zero error

Fig. 2.2 Zero error

Procedure :
1. Determine the pitch and least count of the screw gauge using the formula.
2. Bring the anviland screw in contact with each other and find the zero error. If there is no zero
error, then record 'zero error nil'.
3. Move the screw away from the anvil and place the wire and move the screw towards the anvil
using the ratchet head. Stop when the ratchet slips without moving the screw.
4. Note the number of divisions on the main scale that is visible and uncovered by the edge of the
cap. The reading A is called the main scale reading.
5. Note the number (B) of the division on the circular scale lying over the reference line.
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 for two different positions of the wire. Record the observations in the
tabular column.
7. Findtotalreading using the formula and apply zero correction in each case.
8. Take the mean of different values.

Note: Place the other objects like wire, glass plate etc. between the screw and the anvil and follow
the above procedure to find the measurenment.
Observations :

1. Determination of Least Count of the Serew Gauge

a) Smallest division on main scale, S = 1 mm. 1x 10 m

b) Number of full rotations given to screw, n = 10

c) Distance moved by the screw on main scale, D = 10 mm.

D (10 mm)
d) Hence, pitch p = -=0.1 mm.
n 10

e) Number of divisions on circular

zl scale, N= 100
(Imm)
f) Hence, least count, L.C.= N
= 0.0l mm = 0.001 cm.
100

<11
2. Zero Error
Zero error= Z= -.........n= -.........-cm
(with sign)
Object Obs Main Scale Coincident circular Scale Total Reading
No. Reaing (A) divisions Reading Observed |Corrected
(cm) on cireularC- (Bx L.C)Do=A+C (em) D-D,-Z.E (em)
scale (B) (cm)
Mean
Wire 01 Cm 0-075 0175 Cn
oI78
0 1cm 18 0-048 053:
3 O(85
01cm 85 o-085
Glass 1 3 0-003 0203
Plate
Cm.
2 03crm 2 P-o02 O202 0
3 03crm 3 0 203 0 202

Calculations :
1. Mean Diameter of the wire, D=1k-cm.
2. Radius of wire, r =D9:04cm
2

3. Area of cross section of the wire. A= r² =02A1..cm.

4. Thickness of the glass plate, t = Q:20tcm.

Result:
1. Diameter of the wire. D=:3O...
--m.

2. The area of cross section ofthe given wire is, A=. 0:0.23..cm.
3. Thickness of the glass plate, t= 20.. cIm.
Precautions :
1. Rotate the screw in one direction to avoid backlash error.
2. Do not apply undue pressure while turnjng the micrometer screw.

Additional Experiment youcan do : Find the volume of the small ball bearing/ metal sphere.
Multiple-choice Questions:
1. What is the zero error as shown in the figure?
S0.6 mm b) 0.06 mm c) 6mm d) 60 mm
2. Precision of micrometer screw gauge is-------n-
a) 0.1 cm b0.01 mm c)0.1 mm d) 0.01 m 5 10

12
 Questions
1. Define the terms pitch and least count.

piBch:- The qatio ol unid c maln cale do the

Amber o'division" na. Jingie unit
Liask Counti lt¡t Cant he magnikde f the
Amallest.maatment.had Can be
makind y an. insdumcrt.acurakly
Ltabt.counto. Aortud. gaugs.
pidtch
Total. no.tdiviion.on.themain. Scale.
2. What is the backlash error? How do you peduce it?

h.on.anaing. the. dinckion raBation he thimale.

...

dinchion.at..one.but.A.umains..gtationarto.a
..aation..thi.,Coustd...go..n.te..!.
part
cbaurvaion:. uhich..ia. calledthe. balash.eroT..
T0. avaid the.backlash ty0L ahilkJaing dthe, maLUrYunda
he.saw.. hauld. be.gotad. in. ale diation.ony.. I iÀ
jnd to.o.changs.. tha dicdion..satat ian:.au..do
not..chang. inion. sadation.at onc, "Mors the
..bw. stM funthu..so.Jn gar.a.uhil. then.rotat Jt
Jn.h...cVSIA.rstion

Remark and sign of teacher:

13
 EXPERIMENTNO. 3
USE OFSPHEROMETER
surface using a spherometer.
Aim: To determine the radius of ccurvature ofa spherical
or
plate/mirror spherical mirror or lens curved glas.
Apparatus: Aspherometer, a plane gglass
Diagram:
Main Scale (Pitch Scale) M.S.
Head
Circular Sclae
(Head Scale )
C.S.

/Circular Disk
Screw
Metal Frame

Fig. 3.1Spherometer
Legs
Main Scale (Pitch Scale)
Circular Disk Main Scale (Pitch Scale)
Circular Disk
Nut
Metal Frame Nut
-Metal Frame

Fig. 3.2 Determination of the radius of curvature of a sphericalsurface

Formula:
Radius of curvature of the spherical surface. , R =
Procedure:
1. Determine the L.C. of spherometer
2. Record the average distance between three legs of spherometer by taking their impressionst
a plane paper.
3. Keep the spherometer on the plane glass plate/mirror and rotate the screw till its tip just toute
the plane surface. Note the spherometer reading. Repeat the same once more at a dife
location.
16
 4. Keep the spheromcter on the spherical surface of lens kept on the plane mirror. Adjust
the spherometer screvw so that its tip just touches the center of spherical surface. Note the
spherometer rcading. Repeat the same once at a different central location.
Observations:

1. To find average distance between the legs

A, ..1.crm..
42cm
a .42... cm,
(a, + a, +a, )
a,..4.....cm, cm,

a=
3 413....cm.
I. To find the L.C. of spherometer
1. Value of one division on the main scale, S=....94..cm.
2. Number of divisions on the circular scale, N=.A09...
3. Distance through which the screw advances on the main scale in n rotations of the circular
scale =D=...6........cm.
4. n= number of rotations given to the circular scale =-..D..
D
5. Pitch of the screw = P= n -...... cm.

6. Least Count of spherometer = P . ... cm.

N 100
Surface Obs. Main scale Coincjdent Circular scale Total read- Mean
no. reading divisions on reading (cm) ing = A+C reading
A (cm) circular scale BC= (BX L.C.) (cm) (cm)
Plane X=
O'080 0080
Mirror
2 15 0-075 0 075
Curyed o1 85 O085 0lgsY=
surface O0 65 O16g0-475
2 65
ohiI. To find sagitta (h) :
Sagita of thespherical surface =h=|X-Y |= .Cnm

Caleulations:
For radius of curvature.
symbol value log
a' h
R=
a
413
6h +2 413 +o 46b
I741too49 232o -N
h O038 -9912
-o-098 =2:59|2 2. +D
2 a/6h ste.2408 +N-D
o049

Result: Radius of curvatureof spherical surface = Cm.

17
Precautions:
Wmle tking reading with spheronmcter consider the lowest division on the main scale as zero.
2. Rotate the screw in one direction to avoid
backlash error.
3. Take care that tip of the screw and tip of thrce legs just touch the surface.
Additional Experinment voucan do:
the
Detemine the sagita by placing the spherometer on the concave surface. Hence, determine
Radius of curvature.

Multiple-choice
1. The
Questions
radius of curvature of a flat surface is cm

a) 0 byinfîinity c) 1 d) 100

2. If the number of divisions on the circular scale are 50 then the L. C. of the spherometer
whose pitch is 0.5cm, will be Cm
a) 0.001 b)0.01 c) 0.05 d).005
Questions
1. How do you determine the pitch of aspherometer?

L.Not.on. pah Jcale dilision.".on vernik, 4al.

frtral.Jcrw).
.2.Takt..onpich. 5.atationd qn, he
9:.Measuhe.dDtang...noral gLra).
A:.Hene..pita..= diaana akd

2. What is radius of curyatsre of the lens?

.The dilane. bekran. the paiipa foud
(uTvatur. o.a.ans..)...calikats.adid..
.CuTUatu:..

What is sagita of a spherometer?

Bhe(unvud.mata.Auntast.uith.hgh.aana(..h
Qan. mukter, both a pasidindy.a ngati
. ditane

Remark and sign of teacher:

18
 FOR ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENT and Notes

4e9:3 A0,04.

.6:932 2.60.2

3932.
2E.ni.(.4.:.3933
..3.9.20X1o
...0..3.,9.2.0.
0'080

.....

Jog.dag.0:48t1o9.23:4< o)55.
=1:6312t.395.
..J.0.S5.
3orti.leosls
M26

2)0.155

J2320 xoD6|25
.a4,.. .........

19
 EXPERIMENT NO,4
VECTORS
PARALLELOGRAM LAWOF
body.
weight ofagiven
Aim: To Verify parallelogramlaw and find the twO
(GraveCsand's apparatus),thin
Apparatus: Parallelogram
white drawing paper*sheet, wooden
apparatus
Law of Forccs whose weight is to be determined, hangers
pins, mirror strip, sharp pencil, half meter scale.strset
drawing block)
wit
ongsquare,
thtea
slotted weights, a body (a
protractor.
Diagram :

C
B_

P
A

Fig 4.IParallelogram of forces

Fig. 4.2 Actual set up of parallelogram law of forces

P1

Pa150g Ö=1509
P2 Q2
S1

S=200g
s24
P
D
S

Determination of weight of a wooden block

Fig.4.3 Determination of weight of awooden block
20
Formula :

1 R=
P'+Q'+2PQ cos ,0<900
R=
P+Q°-2 PQ sin (0-90) , >90
3. R= P+Q°, =90
Where R isresultant vector, P and O are twovectors, and is the
vectors. angle between Pand Q
Procedure:
1. Fix the wooden board in a vertical position as
shown in
wooden board. Fix the white paper on the drawing board withfigure. the
Clamp the pulleys on the
help of drawing pins.
2. Pass a long string over the pulleys and a hanger at
each end. Tie another string at the cente of
the first string. Tie a hanger to the free end of this string as
3. Add suitable weights to the hangers so that the shown in figure.
O is near the centre of the board.
system is in equilibrium and the common point
4. Note the forces P, Q and S from diagram it can be seen
that p =
denotes the numerical value or magnitude of the total weight inwi,0=
W2 and S= W3 where w
5. Hold the plane mirror on the paper behind the string.
each case .
Mark two points on the paper at the ends
of the mirror such that string and its image in the plane
mirror coincide. The line joining the
points gives the line of action of the corresponding forces ( PQ or Q).Determine the lines of
action of all three forces in this manner
6. Remove the white paper from the board. Draw the lines through the
points and produce them
tomeet at the common point 0.
7. With a suitable scale( for e.g. Let 20 g=lcm) mark the points A and B
such that the lengths
OA and OB represent the magnitude of the forces Pand Qrespectively.
8. Complete the parallelogram OACB. Draw the diagonal 0C. Measure the length 0C and
determine the magnitude of R using the scale chosen.
9. Measure the angle AOB ( )between the forces P and Q. Calculate R using the
formula.
Compare it with the value obtained by calculation.
10.Take two readings by changing the weights added to the hangers. Replace w, by the object
(unknown) whose weight is to be found. Adjust w, and w, such that the system is in equilibrium
and the common point Ois near the centre of the board.
11. For unknown weight, following the earlier procedure complete the parallelogram. Find the
weight of the body by measuring the length of the diagonal passing through the point Oand
using the scale chosen.
Observations:

1. To find the actual weight of the unknown mass, Runknown.

1. Least count of spring balance =......0.

2. Zero error of spring balance =......O

3. Weight of unknown body by spring balance, R= unknown =....3............

21
I1. tuverit paralletogram law of vecters
Obs. Angle Resultant R(gw)
P(W,)
Observed Fromthe
gwt between P
And Q (,) diagram
Causifolernmuglulatthaee
2 13
2 64 136 13538
3 83 (35 133.35
vectorsScale
I. To tnd the weightof the unktown mass using parallelogram lawof
Obs. no P (w) Q(w:)Angle between R by measurement Rby caleulation
gwt gwt Pand Q. from the diagram
(diagonal x scale)
using the
gwt
formula
gwt

%0 42 131
2 0 135.3S
3 80 122 133.32

Caleulation : R=p² + + 2PQ cos 0

I. R= 3+4t2x3icas 69

R G.0? x20= 121.6S

22
 f v2rtlGt50x0: 1219

R= G.76JX 2O
19S.S80

1. Mean value of unknown weight R(using diagonal) = gwt.

2. Mean value of unknown weight, R(using angle ) =L2wt.
Result :

The unknown weight of given body =-.32.. gwt.

The result shows the error is within limits of the
experiment error.
Precautions:
Use frictionless pulleys. Hanger and pulley should not touch the board. Sufficient length of
string is preferred.
Additional Experiment you can do:
1. Ifscale pan or spring balance is available in laboratory student can compare weight of
unknown
object with calculated weight of unknown weight.
2. To determine the direction of resultant vector R as follows:
Measure the angle AOC(a) between Pand R. 'a' gives the direction of resultant vector.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. In the experiment, on finding the weight of a given body by the parallelogram law of vectors,
the student needs to use :

a) Three pulleys and two weights in all

b} Two pulleys and two weights in all
c) Two pulleys and three weights in all
d) Three pulleys and two weights in all

2. In above diagram if P=Sgwt,Q=7gt, O=45°, then a =...

a.) 26.40 with direction of P b) 26.40 with direction of Q
c) 450 with direction of P dt8.30with direction of P
23
 Questions

using Gravesand's apparatus ?

What are the main sources of crror in the experiment
1.
IloCan.be. he mane Sbur ce. ot.Omo.thle

..Cxpeimence.of..adon.n.thepuley
...t).Prpsen
tam.neas...tu..ngun. Socs..of...eN0.heae
...4.w....t1ed.d..he.htad.
hn..asd..9ur..n.exin..naleirg..tha pas.in.the
.*peaienh.Th.fricho...blem.in.pulyu.be. d
eplleys

paralleoram.2The.laa.of.p4aellela
Parallelogram offorces? ram. of.
2. State the law of
Axus..stats...at.if....b..veches..ac:
Lus.of.
Q...the.sama.tims.be..spayental..n.mAgNehude.
&.diecior..the.......adjasken.sices.af.a..
paalleloram.clxaun..tsm...poin.nagnehde.&
parallelograro trom
dution.b ..the..diahonal.

Remark and sign of teacher:

24
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5
COÐFFICIENT OrSTATIC FRICTION
normalreaction andto find
Aim: To study the relationship between force of limiting andsurface.
cocfficient of friction between a block and a horizontal
Apparatus: Horizontal plane with a pulley. Wooden block with a hook, string, weightbox, scale
pan etc.
Formula: P
W
two surfaces.
Where H= Coefficient of static friction between block(or effort)
the
P= Horizontal force required. justto slide
W= Weight of the block (or load)

Diagram:
R(Normal Reaction)
50g weight (w)
Pulley
Block W

Pan (P)
W+w
Table

Weight (P,)

friction
Fig. 5.1 Study for force of sliding

Procedure:
masses in g.wt).
1. Measure the weight of block and pan separately (respective cloth every time.
2. Clean the surface of block and horizontal plane with the clean attach the scale pa
3. Tie one end of the string to the hook of block, pass it over the pulley, and
to the other end.
suitable weights I
4. Keep same weight on the block, which is kept on horizontal surface.Add
the scale pan so that the block just starts moving and note dovwn the reading.
5. Repeat the same procedure for different values of loads and measure the corresponding efors

Observations :
Least count of spring balance= Zero error of spring balance =
1. Mass ofthe block= W, =.......D.S.........gwt.
2. Mass of the pan = P=...... ....gwt.
26
Observation Table:
Sr Mass on Total load Mass in the Total Efort Mean
No. the block P
W= (W,+W,) pan P, gwt P=P,+P) W
W,gwt gwt gwt
O.4762
62 $253
82 O.4156 0.4033
225 0.372G
200 log 0. 3S74

SO=0.4762 =6.4258
Caleulations : =WP los

225

B0S

T\ean 0 G 2 + 0i4 25R +04156+0.3726+ 0.3S7

=Ö,40 92
Mean Use 0.053

Graph :
Plota graph between load W(on X-axis) against effort P(on Y- axis) and find the slop of the
graph.

scale X= m=3o
Y= (m= l0

BC
Slope = AC
B

Effort P

(0,0) Load W
X

27
Result: calculation= =
1. Coefficient of static friction between the two surfaces by =4=...0».
2. Coefficient of static friction between thetwo surfaces by graph
Precautions :
I. Two surface in contact should be dry and clean. start moving.
just
2. Reading must be taken for the weight for which block
3. Pan and string should not touch the table.
4. String should be parallel to the horizontal surface.
gradually
Additional Esperiment you can do : on the plane surface.
Place the empty block (without pan) the blockjust beginsto
Now
slide down the increase
t
plane. ,
just
angle of inclination of the plan surface suchthat body kept on the tanQ begins to sli
plane
which the
minimum angle of inclination of the plane atDeterminethis angle. Than u=
down is known as the angle of repose (Q).
Multiple-choice Questions
friction is
1. The value of coefficient of static d) zero
c)equal to 1
wá) Greater than 1 b) less than 1 whena body does not slid
comes into play
is the force offriction which
2. force.
ofanother body under the effect ofan applied d) dynamic friction
on the surface
b) Kinetic friction e) staticfriction
a) Rolling friction
Questions
force of friction is a self adjusting force?
I. How can you say the
.mcnber.at. et.
fora is appli ed. he. stat'eihon fuuu
if an extmal he.maynecte,o f. tha tr feosl koca,
tsill be equal..ta Suprascd.he ihocihold..a.mahion,
urntll.it.tdpe

2, Onwhich factor the force of friction

depends?
fion.depends pat. on..he..Fsmoothneas. af..
D..move2ufacsoUre.peigdneacdd
the (ontrairg Cufae"
.ne..angthem..f they
aot.ghthan..i.they.gae smooth.

Remark and sign of teacher:

28
 PASTEGRAPIPAPER ERE

paste
Graph
Papey

01

(00) C0 (00 (20 J40 60 |R0 200 220 2G6 2G0 280 300

29