CANCER

CAUSES AND
TREATEMENT

20th February 2025

 Index
1) OVERVIEW

2) CAUSES OF CANCER

Genetic Variables
Elements of the Environment
Aspects of the Lifestyle
Aspects of the Biology

3)Treatment of the Cancer

Surgery
Treatment with radiation
Immunotherapy
Body’s defense against Cancer
Transplanting Stem Cells

PAGE 1
One of the most deadly and complicated diseases that impact
people is cancer. It involves aberrant cells growing out of control
and invading and destroying healthy body tissue. Cancer is
thoroughly examined in this report, including its causes, forms,
symptoms, diagnostic methods, available treatments, and
preventative measures.

Overview

Millions of individuals are impacted by cancer each year, making

it a major global public health concern. It ranks second only to
cardiovascular disorders as a major cause of death. The disease is
caused by genetic mutations that cause cells to proliferate out of
control. For efficient management and prevention, it is essential to
comprehend its causes and available treatments.

Causes Of Cancer
Genetic mutations that interfere with normal cell control are the
cause of cancer. These mutations are caused by a number of
causes, including:

a. Genetic Variables
1.Gene mutations that are inherited (e.g., BRCA1
and BRCA2 for breast cancer)
Numerous factors, such as spontaneous mistakes made during
DNA replication, exposure to hazardous environmental substances,
or parental inheritance, can result in gene mutations. Every cell in

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the body has inherited mutations, sometimes referred to as
germline mutations, which can greatly raise the risk of getting
cancer. For example, the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are in charge
of maintaining genetic stability and fixing damaged DNA.
However, these genes' activity is compromised by mutations,
which raises the risk of ovarian and breast malignancies and causes
unchecked cell growth.

In addition to BRCA1 and BRCA2, other genes like TP53, PTEN,

and MLH1 have been connected to colorectal, prostate, and
melanoma cancers. These gene mutations increase the risk of
developing cancer by interfering with regular cellular functions
like DNA repair and tumor suppression. As a result, people who
have a family history of cancer may be predisposed to the disease
by inheriting faulty genes.

2.Cancer in the family history

A powerful predictor of genetic risk is a family history of cancer.
An inherited genetic mutation is suggested when several family
members from different generations are diagnosed with the same
or related cancers. Individuals who inherit a defective gene are
more likely to acquire cancer at an earlier age than those who do
not inherit such genetic predispositions, as genetic differences are
passed down through generations.

For instance, people who have Lynch syndrome, which is brought

on by mutations in the mismatch repair genes (MLH1, MSH2,
MSH6, PMS2), are more likely to develop endometrial and
colorectal malignancies. Similarly, TP53 gene mutations that cause
Li-Fraumeni syndrome are linked to an increased risk of brain

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tumors, leukemia, and breast cancer, among other cancers. Using
family history to identify these genetic risks can

b. Elements of the Environment

1.Exposure to carcinogens such as formaldehyde,
benzene, and asbestos
The development of cancer is significantly influenced by exposure
to carcinogens in addition to genetic predispositions. Carcinogens
are chemicals that change the DNA of cells or encourage
unchecked cell division, which can result in cancer. The most well-
known carcinogens include asbestos, benzene, and formaldehyde.

Formaldehyde, which is frequently present in construction

materials, industrial products, and domestic goods, has been
identified as a carcinogen since it has been linked to
nasopharyngeal and leukemia cancer. Leukemia and other blood
diseases have been related to benzoene, a molecule found in
gasoline, tobacco smoke, and industrial pollutants. Long-term
inhalation of asbestos, which was once commonly used in building
materials, can result in lung cancer and mesothelioma.
High levels or prolonged exposure to these carcinogens raise the
risk of genetic alterations that could result in the development of
cancer. These hazards can be increased by lifestyle choices like
smoking, environmental pollution, and occupational exposure.
Minimizing the occurrence of cancer requires reducing exposure to
carcinogens through personal precautions, workplace safety
regulations, and regulatory actions.

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2.Exposure to radiation (nuclear, X-ray, and UV
radiation from the sun)

Another important environmental element that might cause cancer

is radiation exposure. Radiation can cause mutations in cellular
DNA, which could lead to unchecked cell proliferation. The three
main radiation sources that have been connected to cancer are
ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, X-ray radiation, and
nuclear radiation.

High-energy particles released by nuclear radiation, which is

frequently connected to atomic bomb explosions, nuclear power
plants, and radiation therapy, enter cells and change DNA.
Leukemia, thyroid cancer, and lung cancer are among the cancers
that have been connected to prolonged exposure to nuclear
radiation. Workers in radiation-intensive areas and survivors of
nuclear accidents are more likely to get these illnesses.
Ionizing radiation from X-rays, which are frequently employed in
medical imaging techniques, can damage DNA if exposed to it for
an extended period of time or in excess. Even if exposure levels
are reduced by current medical procedures, those who get regular
X-ray scans without taking the required measures may be more
susceptible to cancer, especially in regions where cells divide
quickly.

One of the most common causes of radiation exposure is the sun's

UV rays. Long periods of unprotected UV exposure harm skin
cells, resulting in genetic changes that raise the chance of
developing skin malignancies such as melanoma, squamous cell
carcinoma, and basal cell carcinoma. Concentrated UV radiation
from tanning beds is another major hazard.

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c. Aspects of Lifestyle
1.Tobacco usage and smoking (which can cause
malignancies of the mouth, throat, and lungs)
One of the main causes of cancer in the globe is tobacco use,
especially smoking. Thousands of dangerous compounds, many of
which are carcinogenic, are found in cigarettes. These harmful
chemicals directly reach the cells lining the mouth, throat, and
lungs when tobacco smoke is inhaled, causing a series of cellular
damaging events that may result in cancer.

Benzopyrene, a strong carcinogen that binds directly to DNA and

causes mutations that impede normal cell growth and function, is
one of the most hazardous substances found in tobacco smoke.
These mutations build up over time, causing unchecked cell
division, which is a defining feature of cancer. The body's natural
defenses are weakened by prolonged exposure to carcinogens in
the mouth, throat, and lungs, making healing more challenging.
Smoking also produces reactive oxygen species (ROS), which
contribute to oxidative stress and further genetic changes as well as
inflammation. In addition to causing aberrant cell growth, smoke's
long-term irritation of tissues raises the risk of developing
squamous cell carcinoma in the mouth and throat.

Cigarette smoke contains carcinogenic components that damage

the cilia and protective epithelial lining of the lungs, which are in
charge of expelling noxious substances. Small-cell and non-small-
cell lung cancers are the most prevalent types brought on by
smoking, and this damage fosters an environment that is favorable
to malignant growths. Heavy smokers have a far higher chance of
getting lung cancer than non-smokers, and the risk is increased

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with prolonged exposure.

Secondhand smoke exposure, sometimes referred to as passive

smoking, presents a serious risk because

2.Obesity and poor diet (associated with

pancreatic, breast, and colon cancer)

Poor eating habits and obesity have been closely associated with a
higher chance of developing breast, colon, and pancreatic cancer,
among other cancers. An environment that is favorable to tumor
growth is created by insulin resistance, hormonal abnormalities,
and chronic inflammation, all of which are facilitated by excess
body weight.

Pro-inflammatory cytokines secreted by fat tissue, especially

visceral fat around internal organs, have the ability to damage
DNA and interfere with regular cellular activity. Persistent
inflammation puts cells under constant stress, which raises the risk
of mutations and the development of cancerous tumors.
Furthermore, obesity is linked to higher levels of insulin and
insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which both encourage cell
division and prevent planned cell death, so permitting unchecked
expansion of malignant cells.
A diet heavy in processed foods, refined carbohydrates, and bad
fats increases the risk of developing cancer. Overconsumption of
red and processed meats has been associated with colorectal cancer
because cooking produces carcinogenic substances such polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines. Low fiber
consumption can also cause digestion to lag, which exposes the
intestinal lining to toxic substances for longer.

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In the case of breast cancer, obesity and high-fat diets raise
estrogen levels, which promote the development of tumors that are
hormone-receptor-positive. Women who have too much body fat,
especially after menopause, are more vulnerable because adipose
tissue continuously produces estrogen, which promotes the growth
of breast cancer.
A further cancer linked to obesity and bad diet is pancreatic cancer.
An environment where pancreatic cells are continuously stimulated
increases the likelihood of malignant mutations. Insulin resistance,
a typical result of obesity, leads the pancreas to overproduce
insulin.

A balanced diet full of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean

proteins is one aspect of a healthier lifestyle that can dramatically
reduce the risk of cancer. In order to avoid obesity-related cancers,
it is essential to maintain a healthy weight, lower inflammation,
and control hormone levels through regular physical activity.

3.Overindulgence in alcohol

An important risk factor for a number of cancers, including

colorectal, esophageal, breast, and liver cancers, is excessive
alcohol use. Alcohol's metabolic byproducts, its function in
producing oxidative stress, and its effect on the body's capacity to
repair DNA damage are just a few of the ways it can contribute to
the development of cancer.

Acetaldehyde is a poisonous and cancer-causing chemical that is

produced when alcohol is broken down in the body. Acetaldehyde
has the ability to attach to proteins and DNA, resulting in
mutations that cause unchecked cell proliferation. Heavy drinkers
are more likely to develop liver cancer because the liver, which is

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primarily in charge of metabolizing alcohol, is especially
susceptible to this damage.

Additionally, drinking alcohol causes oxidative stress, which

results in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that
harm DNA and other biological components. The risk of mutations
and the emergence of cancer is raised by this oxidative damage.
Alcohol also hinders the body's absorption of vital nutrients,
including folate, which is involved in DNA synthesis and repair.
The risk of developing cancer is significantly increased by a lack
of essential nutrients.

Alcohol affects estrogen levels in breast cancer, which encourages

hormone-driven tumor growth. According to studies, even
moderate alcohol use can raise estrogen levels, which puts women
at higher risk of developing hormone-receptor-positive breast
tumors. Alcohol can also impair immunity, making it harder for the
body to identify and eliminate malignant cells before they spread.
The incidence of alcohol-related malignancies can be considerably
decreased by cutting back on alcohol use or abstaining completely.
Overall cancer prevention can be achieved by limiting alcohol use
to moderate levels, as advised by health organizations, and by
leading a healthy lifestyle and eating a balanced diet.

d. Aspects of Biology
1.viral infections (e.g., Hepatitis B and C for liver
cancer, Human Papillomavirus (HPV) for cervical
cancer)

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There is a considerable correlation between the development of
cancer and some viral infections. By introducing genetic material
into host cells, viruses can cause unchecked cell development and
interfere with regular cellular functions. Hepatitis B and C, which
are connected to liver cancer, and Human Papillomavirus (HPV),
which is linked to cervical cancer, are among the most well-
established viruses that cause cancer.

The liver is the primary organ affected by the hepatitis B and C

viruses (HCV and HBV), which raise the risk of hepatocellular
cancer and liver cirrhosis and cause chronic inflammation. These
viruses are transferred by unprotected sexual contact, sharing of
needles, and receiving blood transfusions. They are spread by
blood and bodily fluids. Long-term liver damage, DNA changes,
and the eventual emergence of malignant cells are all
consequences of chronic infection.
Nearly all occurrences of cervical cancer are caused by the
sexually transmitted virus known as the human papillomavirus
(HPV). Some high-risk HPV strains, such HPV-16 and HPV-18,
cause mutations that cause unchecked cell division by integrating
their genetic material into human cells. HPV is associated with
vaginal, anus, and throat malignancies in addition to cervical
cancer. Regular screenings, such Pap tests, and HPV vaccination
can greatly lower the risk of malignancies linked to HPV.

2.Prolonged inflammation
Cancer has been found to be significantly influenced by chronic
inflammation. Although inflammation is the body's normal
reaction to damage or illness, it can cause detrimental cellular
alterations if it persists over an extended period of time. A
microenvironment that fosters tumor genesis, growth, and

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metastasis is produced by chronic inflammation.

Cytokines and free radicals, which can harm DNA and cause
mutations, are released by inflammatory cells. Chronic hepatitis,
inflammatory bowel disease, and recurring infections are among
the conditions that raise the risk of cancer in the affected organs.
For instance, Helicobacter pylori infection-induced chronic
gastritis is a recognized risk factor for stomach cancer. Likewise,
chronic colon inflammation brought on by Crohn's disease or
ulcerative colitis increases the chance of colorectal cancer.
Prolonged inflammation aids cancer cells in obtaining oxygen and
nutrients, which promotes their growth by encouraging
angiogenesis, or the creation of new blood vessels. Furthermore,
inflammatory mediators prevent the immune system from getting
rid of aberrant cells, which lets tumors grow unchecked.

3.Unbalanced hormones

The development of cancer may be significantly influenced by

hormonal abnormalities. Hormones control a number of vital body
processes, such as cell division and growth. Hormone-sensitive
malignancies like breast, prostate, and ovarian cancer are more
likely to occur when hormone levels are out of balance, which can
happen naturally, as a result of drugs, or as a result of medical
problems.

For instance, endometrial and breast malignancies have been

connected to women's high estrogen levels. Similarly, men's
elevated testosterone levels may play a role in the development of

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prostate cancer. Obesity, endocrine diseases, and hormonal
treatments can all lead to hormone imbalances, which raises the
risk of cancer.

PAGE 12
Cancer Treatment
The kind, stage, and general health of the patient all influence the
available treatment options. Typical techniques consist of:

a. Surgery
1.Tumor and impacted tissue removal
Removing tumors and affected tissues surgically is still one of the
best ways to treat cancer. Surgery seeks to eradicate the main cause
of cancer and stop the disease from spreading by removing
malignant cells. Different surgical approaches, such as minimally
invasive treatments and sophisticated resections, may be employed
depending on the kind, stage, and location of the cancer.
To get the best results, surgery is frequently used in conjunction
with other forms of treatment including radiation and
chemotherapy. Debulking surgery may be used to shrink the tumor
and increase the effectiveness of further treatments when the entire
tumor cannot be removed. Tumor excision can greatly boost
survival rates and enhance quality of life for people who receive an
early diagnosis.

2.The use of chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a popular cancer treatment that uses potent
medications to destroy cancer cells that divide quickly. These
medications, which can be given intravenously or orally, stop
tumor growth and spread by interfering with the process of cell
division. To increase its effectiveness, chemotherapy is frequently
combined with other therapies including radiation therapy and

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surgery. Chemotherapy is a vital treatment for cancer, but because
it affects healthy cells, it can also have negative consequences like
nausea, exhaustion, and hair loss. Targeted medicines that
efficiently battle cancer while minimizing injury to healthy tissues
have been made possible by advancements in chemotherapy
procedures.

3.Using medications to kill cancer cells

The unchecked proliferation of aberrant cells is a hallmark of
cancer, a potentially fatal illness. Medication has been a key
component of many cancer therapies developed throughout the
years as a result of advances in medical research. These drugs
function by either killing malignant cells, stopping their
development, or strengthening the body's immune system. They
are mostly administered as hormone treatment, immunotherapy,
targeted therapy, and chemotherapy. In order to combat cancer, it
is essential to comprehend how these drugs work and how they
affect cancer treatment.
Chemotherapy is one of the most well-known cancer therapies.
Chemotherapy medications target cells that divide quickly, a
characteristic of malignant development. By interfering with the
cell cycle, these medications stop cancer cells from proliferating
and eventually cause them to die. Chemotherapy, however, also
damages healthy, rapidly proliferating cells, such those in the
digestive tract and hair follicles, resulting in adverse effects like
tiredness, nausea, and hair loss. Despite its side effects,
chemotherapy remains an effective tool in reducing tumor size and
eliminating cancer cells.
Targeted therapy has become a ground-breaking method of treating
cancer in addition to chemotherapy. Targeted treatment targets
certain molecules involved in the formation and progression of

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cancer, in contrast to chemotherapy, which affects both healthy
and malignant cells. These medications are more accurate,
efficient, and have fewer adverse effects because they inhibit the
aberrant signals that promote the growth of cancer. To increase the
effectiveness of treatment, drugs such as imatinib, for instance, are
made to target certain proteins that promote the growth of cancer
cells.
Immunotherapy is another important development in the treatment
of cancer. This technique uses the immune system of the body to
recognise and combat cancer cells. Immunotherapeutic approaches
include cancer vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and checkpoint
inhibitors. These drugs aid in the immune system's recognition of
cancer cells as dangers, enhancing its ability to eradicate them. For
individuals who might not react well to conventional therapies,
immunotherapy has shown promise in the treatment of
malignancies such as lung cancer and melanoma.
Another drug-based cancer treatment option is hormone therapy,
which works especially well for malignancies that are sensitive to
hormones, such as prostate and breast cancer. By blocking
hormone receptors or lowering hormone levels, these drugs slow
the growth of cancer. Oestrogen receptor-positive breast cancer is
frequently treated with medications like tamoxifen and anastrozole,
which greatly increase survival rates.
Even while these therapies are beneficial, problems still exist.
Variable patient responses, adverse effects, and drug resistance
need for ongoing study and development. To increase treatment
effectiveness and reduce adverse effects, combination medicines,
personalised medicine, and nanotechnology developments are
being developed. There is hope for improved treatment results in
the future as scientists and medical experts keep looking for
innovative methods to increase the efficacy of cancer drugs.

PAGE 15
b. Treatment with Radiation
Another important cancer treatment technique is radiation therapy,
which uses high-energy radiation to kill cancer cells. By causing
damage to the cancer cells' DNA, this therapy stops them from
proliferating and ultimately kills them. To increase its efficacy,
radiation therapy is frequently combined with other therapies like
chemotherapy or surgery.

External beam radiation and internal radiation (brachytherapy) are

the two main forms of radiation therapy. External beam radiation is
frequently used to treat brain, breast, and lung tumours by
delivering precise doses of radiation from outside the body to the
afflicted area. Brachytherapy, on the other hand, uses radioactive
sources that are placed inside or close to the tumour, offering a
tailored treatment that reduces harm to nearby healthy tissue.
Radiation therapy can have adverse effects, such as weariness, skin
irritation, and localised discomfort, even if it is a successful
treatment. However, improvements in medical technology, such
proton therapy and intensity-modulated radiation treatment
(IMRT), have decreased side effects and increased accuracy.

One of the best ways to find and destroy cancer cells is using high-
energy radiation. This treatment breaks the DNA of cancer cells,
preventing them from dividing and growing further, by
administering precise radiation dosages to the afflicted regions.
Radiation treatment targets certain tumour areas, reducing the

PAGE 16
impact on healthy tissues, in contrast to chemotherapy, which
affects the entire body.

Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) and Stereotactic

Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT), two recent developments in
radiation therapy, have greatly increased accuracy and guarantee
that cancer cells receive the highest possible therapeutic dosage
while the surrounding tissues are spared. Another cutting-edge
method is proton therapy, which reduces side effects and increases
treatment efficacy by directing very concentrated radiation beams
straight to the tumour.
Radiation therapy has the potential to cause side effects such
weariness, skin irritation, and localised discomfort, despite its great
effectiveness. Ongoing studies and technical developments,
however, keep improving these therapies, making them safer and
more efficient for patients.

c. Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy, which uses the body's immune system to identify

and eliminate cancer cells, has become a ground-breaking method
of treating cancer. Immunotherapy is a highly focused and
frequently less hazardous therapeutic option since it strengthens
the body's own defences against cancer cells, in contrast to
conventional therapies like chemotherapy and radiation that target
cancer cells directly.

Immunotherapy comes in a variety of forms, each with its own

PAGE 17
mode of action. Pembrolizumab and nivolumab are examples of
checkpoint inhibitors that function by inhibiting proteins that stop
immune cells from fighting tumours. T-cells are better able to
identify and eliminate cancer cells thanks to these inhibitors.
Monoclonal antibodies, another type of immunotherapy, are
proteins created in a lab that attach to certain antigens on cancer
cells, designating them for immune system destruction.
Immunotherapy also shows promise in the form of cancer
vaccinations. Cancer vaccines encourage the immune system to
identify and combat malignant cells, in contrast to conventional
immunisations that prevent diseases. Furthermore, altering a
patient's immune cells to improve their capacity to recognise and
eradicate cancer is a component of adoptive cell treatment, such as
CAR-T cell therapy. Leukaemia and lymphoma are two blood
malignancies that have responded very well to this treatment
method.

Immunotherapy has drawbacks even if it has several benefits,

including as longer-lasting results and fewer adverse effects than
chemotherapy. Inflammation of healthy tissues is one immune-
related adverse effect that some individuals may encounter.
Furthermore, not all tumours respond well to immunotherapy, and
studies are being done to increase its efficacy against additional
cancer types.

PAGE 18
d. The body's defenses against cancer

Increasing the body's natural defences to fight cancer more

successfully is one of the most promising therapy approaches. One
important tactic is to strengthen the immune system, which may be
accomplished in a number of ways, such as through modern
immunotherapies, medicinal treatments, and lifestyle changes.

When the immune system is operating properly, it can identify and

destroy aberrant cells before they become cancer. A healthy
immune system lowers the risk of cancer. This is achieved by
regular exercise, a balanced diet high in antioxidants, getting
enough sleep, and managing stress. Additionally, by preparing the
immune system to fight off infections, several vaccinations, such
the hepatitis B and HPV vaccines, can prevent malignancies
caused by viruses.

Immunotherapy is essential in the medical sector since it

strengthens the body's defences against cancer.
Enhancing the body's defences through a combination of
preventative measures and cutting-edge medicines gives patients
fresh hope as cancer therapy advances. Medical progress keeps
pushing the limits of what is feasible in the battle against cancer by
incorporating immune-strengthening techniques into cancer
treatment.

PAGE 19
1. Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint
inhibitors

Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors are two of the

most effective immunotherapy strategies for the treatment of
cancer. With the use of checkpoint inhibitors, the immune system's
natural "brakes" may be removed, enabling a more powerful
assault on cancer cells. These inhibitors target proteins that cancer
cells use to avoid immune detection, including PD-1, PD-L1, and
CTLA-4. Cancers include melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer,
and some forms of lymphoma have responded well to medications
like nivolumab and pembrolizumab.

Conversely, monoclonal antibodies are proteins that have been

created in a lab to identify and bind to certain antigens found on
cancer cells. These antibodies have the ability to either directly
inhibit the development of cancer cells or flag them for immune
system destruction. Certain monoclonal antibodies, like
trastuzumab, inhibit the signals that propel tumour growth by
targeting receptors like HER2 in breast cancer. Some, such as
rituximab, attach to B-cell lymphoma surface proteins and cause
immune-mediated destruction.
Monoclonal antibodies and checkpoint inhibitors have both
transformed the treatment of cancer by offering focused strategies
with fewer adverse effects than traditional medicines. They are not
without difficulties, though. Immune-related unfavourable
consequences, in which the immune system unintentionally targets

PAGE 20
healthy organs, can occur in certain people. The goal of ongoing
research is to improve these treatments so that a wider spectrum of
cancer patients may access them and they become more successful.

e. Transplanting stem cells

1.Restoring damaged bone marrow in

malignancies involving blood

For blood and bone marrow malignancies such leukaemia,

lymphoma, and multiple myeloma, stem cell transplantation is an
essential therapeutic option. Through this process, healthy stem
cells that have the potential to differentiate into new blood cells are
used to replace damaged or destroyed bone marrow. Restoring the
body's capacity to generate healthy blood cells following rigorous
therapies like chemotherapy or radiation is the main objective of
stem cell transplantation.
Autologous and allogeneic stem cell transplantation are the two
primary varieties. The patient's own stem cells, which are extracted
before to treatment and reinfused following therapy, are employed
in autologous transplantation. This method lowers the possibility
of immunological rejection. In contrast, allogeneic transplantation
can help replace damaged bone marrow with healthy cells by using
stem cells from a suitable donor. Graft-versus-host disease, in

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which the donor cells target the patient's tissues, is a danger
associated with this procedure.

Haematologic cancer treatment has been transformed by stem cell

transplantation, which has greatly increased survival rates. The
efficacy of stem cell treatments in the treatment of cancer is being
further increased by new methods like gene editing and immune-
modulating tactics as research progresses.

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