Instant Ebook Access, One Click Away – Begin at ebookgate.

com

Continuum and solid mechanics concepts and

applications Victor Quinn

https://ebookgate.com/product/continuum-and-solid-mechanics-
concepts-and-applications-victor-quinn/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Get Instant Ebook Downloads – Browse at https://ebookgate.com

Click here to visit ebookgate.com and download ebook now
Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

Quantum Mechanics Concepts and Applications 1st Edition

Nouredine Zettili

https://ebookgate.com/product/quantum-mechanics-concepts-and-
applications-1st-edition-nouredine-zettili/

ebookgate.com

Soil Mechanics Concepts and Applications 2nd Edition

William Powrie

https://ebookgate.com/product/soil-mechanics-concepts-and-
applications-2nd-edition-william-powrie/

ebookgate.com

Continuum Mechanics using Mathematica Fundamentals

Applications and Scientific Computing 2006th Edition
Antonio Romano
https://ebookgate.com/product/continuum-mechanics-using-mathematica-
fundamentals-applications-and-scientific-computing-2006th-edition-
antonio-romano/
ebookgate.com

Solid Phase Organic Synthesis Concepts Strategies and

Applications 1st Edition Patrick H. Toy

https://ebookgate.com/product/solid-phase-organic-synthesis-concepts-
strategies-and-applications-1st-edition-patrick-h-toy/

ebookgate.com
Continuum Mechanics 1st Edition Andrus Koppel

https://ebookgate.com/product/continuum-mechanics-1st-edition-andrus-
koppel/

ebookgate.com

Elements of Continuum Mechanics and Thermodynamics 1st

Edition Joanne L. Wegner

https://ebookgate.com/product/elements-of-continuum-mechanics-and-
thermodynamics-1st-edition-joanne-l-wegner/

ebookgate.com

Principles of Continuum Mechanics A Study of Conservation

Principles with Applications 1st Edition J. N. Reddy

https://ebookgate.com/product/principles-of-continuum-mechanics-a-
study-of-conservation-principles-with-applications-1st-edition-j-n-
reddy/
ebookgate.com

Adhesives Types Mechanics and Applications Types Mechanics

and Applications 1st Edition Jack S. Doyle

https://ebookgate.com/product/adhesives-types-mechanics-and-
applications-types-mechanics-and-applications-1st-edition-jack-s-
doyle/
ebookgate.com

Geometric Continuum Mechanics Advances in Mechanics and

Mathematics 42 Band 42 1 ed. 2020 Edition Reuven Segev
(Editor)
https://ebookgate.com/product/geometric-continuum-mechanics-advances-
in-mechanics-and-mathematics-42-band-42-1-ed-2020-edition-reuven-
segev-editor/
ebookgate.com
First Edition, 2012

ISBN 978-81-323-0854-6

© All rights reserved.

Published by:
Academic Studio
4735/22 Prakashdeep Bldg,
Ansari Road, Darya Ganj,
Delhi - 110002
Email: [email protected]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Continuum Mechanics

Chapter 2 - Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 3 - Stress (Mechanics)

Chapter 4 - Deformation (Mechanics)

Chapter 5 - Finite Strain Theory

Chapter 6 - Peridynamics

Chapter 7 - Viscoelasticity

Chapter 8 - Plasticity

Chapter 9 - Fracture Mechanics

Chapter 10 - Bending

Chapter 11 - Failure Theory (Material)

Chapter 12 - Hooke's Law

Chapter 1

Continuum Mechanics

Continuum mechanics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the analysis of the
kinematics and the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather
than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin Louis Cauchy was the first
to formulate such models in the 19th century, but research in the area continues today.

Modeling an object as a continuum assumes that the substance of the object completely
fills the space it occupies. Modeling objects in this way ignores the fact that matter is
made of atoms, and so is not continuous; however, on length scales much greater than
that of inter-atomic distances, such models are highly accurate. Fundamental physical
laws such as the conservation of mass, the conservation of momentum, and the
conservation of energy may be applied to such models to derive differential equations
describing the behavior of such objects, and some information about the particular
material studied is added through a constitutive relation.

Continuum mechanics deals with physical properties of solids and fluids which are
independent of any particular coordinate system in which they are observed. These
physical properties are then represented by tensors, which are mathematical objects that
have the required property of being independent of coordinate system. These tensors can
be expressed in coordinate systems for computational convenience.

The concept of a continuum

Materials, such as solids, liquids and gases, are composed of molecules separated by
empty space. On a macroscopic scale, materials have cracks and discontinuities.
However, certain physical phenomena can be modeled assuming the materials exist as a
continuum, meaning the matter in the body is continuously distributed and fills the
entire region of space it occupies. A continuum is a body that can be continually sub-
divided into infinitesimal elements with properties being those of the bulk material.

The validity of the continuum assumption may be verified by a theoretical analysis, in

which either some clear periodicity is identified or statistical homogeneity and ergodicity
of the microstructure exists. More specifically, the continuum hypothesis/assumption
hinges on the concepts of a representative volume element (RVE) (sometimes called
"representative elementary volume") and separation of scales based on the Hill-Mandel
condition. This condition provides a link between an experimentalist's and a theoretician's
viewpoint on constitutive equations (linear and nonlinear elastic/inelastic or coupled
fields) as well as a way of spatial and statistical averaging of the microstructure.

When the separation of scales does not hold, or when one wants to establish a continuum
of a finer resolution than that of the RVE size, one employs a statistical volume element
(SVE), which, in turn, leads to random continuum fields. The latter then provide a
micromechanics basis for stochastic finite elements (SFE). The levels of SVE and RVE
link continuum mechanics to statistical mechanics. The RVE may be assessed only in a
limited way via experimental testing: when the constitutive response becomes spatially
homogeneous.

Specifically for fluids, the Knudsen number is used to assess to what extent the
approximation of continuity can be made.

Major areas of continuum mechanics

Elasticity
Describes materials that return to their rest shape
Solid mechanics after an applied stress.
The study of the physics Plasticity
Continuum of continuous materials Describes materials that
mechanics with a defined rest shape. permanently deform Rheology
The study of the after a sufficient applied The study of materials
physics of stress. with both solid and
continuous materials fluid characteristics.
Fluid mechanics Non-Newtonian
The study of the physics fluids
of continuous materials
which take the shape of Newtonian fluids
their container.
Formulation of models

Figure 1. Configuration of a continuum body

Continuum mechanics models begin by assigning a region in three dimensional

Euclidean space to the material body being modeled. The points within this region are
called particles or material points. Different configurations or states of the body
correspond to different regions in Euclidean space. The region corresponding to the
body's configuration at time is labeled .

A particular particle within the body in a particular configuration is characterized by a

position vector

,
where are the coordinate vectors in some frame of reference chosen for the problem.
This vector can be expressed as a function of the particle position in some reference
configuration, for example the configuration at the initial time, so that

This function needs to have various properties so that the model makes physical sense.
needs to be:

• continuous in time, so that the body changes in a way which is realistic,

• globally invertible at all times, so that the body cannot intersect itself,
• orientation-preserving, as transformations which produce mirror reflections are
not possible in nature.

For the mathematical formulation of the model, is also assumed to be twice

continuously differentiable, so that differential equations describing the motion may be
formulated.

Forces in a continuum
Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies, as opposed to rigid bodies. A solid
is a deformable body that possesses shear strength, sc. a solid can support shear forces
(forces parallel to the material surface on which they act). Fluids, on the other hand, do
not sustain shear forces. For the study of the mechanical behavior of solids and fluids
these are assumed to be continuous bodies, which means that the matter fills the entire
region of space it occupies, despite the fact that matter is made of atoms, has voids, and is
discrete. Therefore, when continuum mechanics refers to a point or particle in a
continuous body it does not describe a point in the interatomic space or an atomic
particle, rather an idealized part of the body occupying that point.

Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, the motion of a material body is
produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds:
surface forces and body forces . Thus, the total force applied to a body or to a
portion of the body can be expressed as:

Surface forces or contact forces, expressed as force per unit area, can act either on the
bounding surface of the body, as a result of mechanical contact with other bodies, or on
imaginary internal surfaces that bound portions of the body, as a result of the mechanical
interaction between the parts of the body to either side of the surface (Euler-Cauchy's
stress principle). When a body is acted upon by external contact forces, internal contact
forces are then transmitted from point to point inside the body to balance their action,
according to Newton's second law of motion of conservation of linear momentum and
angular momentum (for continuous bodies these laws are called the Euler's equations of
motion). The internal contact forces are related to the body's deformation through
constitutive equations. The internal contact forces may be mathematically described by
how they relate to the motion of the body, independent of the body's material makeup.

The distribution of internal contact forces throughout the volume of the body is assumed
to be continuous. Therefore, there exists a contact force density or Cauchy traction field
that represents this distribution in a particular configuration of the body at a
given time . It is not a vector field because it depends not only on the position of a
particular material point, but also on the local orientation of the surface element as
defined by its normal vector .

Any differential area with normal vector of a given internal surface area ,
bounding a portion of the body, experiences a contact force arising from the contact
between both portions of the body on each side of , and it is given by

where is the surface traction, also called stress vector, traction, or traction vector,.
The stress vector is a frame-indifferent vector.

The total contact force on the particular internal surface is then expressed as the sum
(surface integral) of the contact forces on all differential surfaces :

In continuum mechanics a body is considered stress-free if the only forces present are
those inter-atomic forces (ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) required to hold the
body together and to keep its shape in the absence of all external influences, including
gravitational attraction. Stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific
configuration are also excluded when considering stresses in a body. Therefore, the
stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of
the body, sc. only relative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute values of
stress.

Body forces are forces originating from sources outside of the body that act on the
volume (or mass) of the body. Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies
that the interaction between different parts of the body (internal forces) are manifested
through the contact forces alone. These forces arise from the presence of the body in
force fields, e.g. gravitational field (gravitational forces) or electromagnetic field
(electromagnetic forces), or from inertial forces when bodies are in motion. As the mass
of a continuous body is assumed to be continuously distributed, any force originating
from the mass is also continuously distributed. Thus, body forces are specified by vector
fields which are assumed to be continuous over the entire volume of the body, i.e. acting
on every point in it. Body forces are represented by a body force density (per unit
of mass), which is a frame-indifferent vector field.

In the case of gravitational forces, the intensity of the force depends on, or is proportional
to, the mass density of the material, and it is specified in terms of force per unit
mass ( ) or per unit volume ( ). These two specifications are related through the
material density by the equation . Similarly, the intensity of electromagnetic
forces depends upon the strength (electric charge) of the electromagnetic field.

The total body force applied to a continuous body is expressed as

Body forces and contact forces acting on the body lead to corresponding moments of
force (torques) relative to a given point. Thus, the total applied torque about the origin
is given by

In certain situations, not commonly considered in the analysis of the mechanical behavior
or materials, it becomes necessary to include two other types of forces: these are body
moments and couple stresses (surface couples, contact torques). Body moments, or body
couples, are moments per unit volume or per unit mass applied to the volume of the body.
Couple stresses are moments per unit area applied on a surface. Both are important in the
analysis of stress for a polarized dielectric solid under the action of an electric field,
materials where the molecular structure is taken into consideration (e.g. bones), solids
under the action of an external magnetic field, and the dislocation theory of metals.

Materials that exhibit body couples and couple stresses in addition to moments produced
exclusively by forces are called polar materials. Non-polar materials are then those
materials with only moments of forces. In the classical branches of continuum mechanics
the development of the theory of stresses is based on non-polar materials.

Thus, the sum of all applied forces and torques (with respect to the origin of the
coordinate system) in the body can be given by
Kinematics: deformation and motion

Figure 2. Motion of a continuum body.

A change in the configuration of a continuum body results in a displacement. The

displacement of a body has two components: a rigid-body displacement and a
deformation. A rigid-body displacement consist of a simultaneous translation and rotation
of the body without changing its shape or size. Deformation implies the change in shape
and/or size of the body from an initial or undeformed configuration to a current or
deformed configuration (Figure 2).

The motion of a continuum body is a continuous time sequence of displacements. Thus,

the material body will occupy different configurations at different times so that a particle
occupies a series of points in space which describe a pathline.

There is continuity during deformation or motion of a continuum body in the sense that:

• The material points forming a closed curve at any instant will always form a
closed curve at any subsequent time.
 • The material points forming a closed surface at any instant will always form a
closed surface at any subsequent time and the matter within the closed surface
will always remain within.

It is convenient to identify a reference configuration or initial condition which all

subsequent configurations are referenced from. The reference configuration need not be
one that the body will ever occupy. Often, the configuration at is considered the
reference configuration , . The components of the position vector of a
particle, taken with respect to the reference configuration, are called the material or
reference coordinates.

When analyzing the deformation or motion of solids, or the flow of fluids, it is necessary
to describe the sequence or evolution of configurations throughout time. One description
for motion is made in terms of the material or referential coordinates, called material
description or Lagrangian description.

Lagrangian description

In the Lagrangian description the position and physical properties of the particles are
described in terms of the material or referential coordinates and time. In this case the
reference configuration is the configuration at . An observer standing in the
referential frame of reference observes the changes in the position and physical properties
as the material body moves in space as time progresses. The results obtained are
independent of the choice of initial time and reference configuration, . This
description is normally used in solid mechanics.

In the Lagrangian description, the motion of a continuum body is expressed by the

mapping function (Figure 2),

which is a mapping of the initial configuration onto the current configuration

, giving a geometrical correspondence between them, i.e. giving the position vector
that a particle , with a position vector in the undeformed or reference
configuration , will occupy in the current or deformed configuration at time
. The components are called the spatial coordinates.

Physical and kinematic properties , i.e. thermodynamic properties and velocity,

which describe or characterize features of the material body, are expressed as continuous
functions of position and time, i.e. .

The material derivative of any property of a continuum, which may be a scalar,

vector, or tensor, is the time rate of change of that property for a specific group of
particles of the moving continuum body. The material derivative is also known as the
substantial derivative, or comoving derivative, or convective derivative. It can be thought
as the rate at which the property changes when measured by an observer traveling with
that group of particles.

In the Lagrangian description, the material derivative of is simply the partial

derivative with respect to time, and the position vector is held constant as it does not
change with time. Thus, we have

The instantaneous position is a property of a particle, and its material derivative is the
instantaneous velocity of the particle. Therefore, the velocity field of the continuum is
given by

Similarly, the acceleration field is given by

Continuity in the Lagrangian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal

continuity of the mapping from the reference configuration to the current configuration of
the material points. All physical quantities characterizing the continuum are described
this way. In this sense, the function and are single-valued and continuous,
with continuous derivatives with respect to space and time to whatever order is required,
usually to the second or third.

Eulerian description

Continuity allows for the inverse of to trace backwards where the particle currently
located at was located in the initial or referenced configuration . In this case the
description of motion is made in terms of the spatial coordinates, in which case is called
the spatial description or Eulerian description, i.e. the current configuration is taken as the
reference configuration.

The Eulerian description, introduced by d'Alembert, focuses on the current configuration

, giving attention to what is occurring at a fixed point in space as time progresses,
instead of giving attention to individual particles as they move through space and time.
This approach is conveniently applied in the study of fluid flow where the kinematic
property of greatest interest is the rate at which change is taking place rather than the
shape of the body of fluid at a reference time.

Mathematically, the motion of a continuum using the Eulerian description is expressed by

the mapping function

which provides a tracing of the particle which now occupies the position in the current
configuration to its original position in the initial configuration .

A necessary and sufficient condition for this inverse function to exist is that the
determinant of the Jacobian Matrix, often referred to simply as the Jacobian, should be
different from zero. Thus,

In the Eulerian description, the physical properties are expressed as

where the functional form of in the Lagrangian description is not the same as the
form of in the Eulerian description.

The material derivative of , using the chain rule, is then

The first term on the right-hand side of this equation gives the local rate of change of the
property occurring at position . The second term of the right-hand side is the
convective rate of change and expresses the contribution of the particle changing position
in space (motion).

Continuity in the Eulerian description is expressed by the spatial and temporal continuity
and continuous differentiability of the velocity field. All physical quantities are defined
this way at each instant of time, in the current configuration, as a function of the vector
position .
Displacement field

The vector joining the positions of a particle in the undeformed configuration and
deformed configuration is called the displacement vector , in the
Lagrangian description, or , in the Eulerian description.

A displacement field is a vector field of all displacement vectors for all particles in the
body, which relates the deformed configuration with the undeformed configuration. It is
convenient to do the analysis of deformation or motion of a continuum body in terms of
the displacement field, In general, the displacement field is expressed in terms of the
material coordinates as

or in terms of the spatial coordinates as

where are the direction cosines between the material and spatial coordinate systems
with unit vectors and , respectively. Thus

and the relationship between and is then given by

Knowing that

then

It is common to superimpose the coordinate systems for the undeformed and deformed
configurations, which results in , and the direction cosines become Kronecker
deltas, i.e.

Thus, we have
or in terms of the spatial coordinates as

Governing equations
Continuum mechanics deals with the behavior of materials that can be approximated as
continuous for certain length and time scales. The equations that govern the mechanics of
such materials include the balance laws for mass, momentum, and energy. Kinematic
relations and constitutive equations are needed to complete the system of governing
equations. Physical restrictions on the form of the constitutive relations can be applied by
requiring that the second law of thermodynamics be satisfied under all conditions. In the
continuum mechanics of solids, the second law of thermodynamics is satisfied if the
Clausius–Duhem form of the entropy inequality is satisfied.

The balance laws express the idea that the rate of change of a quantity (mass, momentum,
energy) in a volume must arise from three causes:

1. the physical quantity itself flows through the surface that bounds the volume,
2. there is a source of the physical quantity on the surface of the volume, or/and,
3. there is a source of the physical quantity inside the volume.

Let Ω be the body (an open subset of Euclidean space) and let be its surface (the
boundary of Ω).

Let the motion of material points in the body be described by the map

where is the position of a point in the initial configuration and is the location of the
same point in the deformed configuration.

The deformation gradient is given by

Balance laws

Let be a physical quantity that is flowing through the body. Let be

sources on the surface of the body and let be sources inside the body. Let
be the outward unit normal to the surface . Let be the velocity of the
physical particles that carry the physical quantity that is flowing. Also, let the speed at
which the bounding surface is moving be un (in the direction ).

Then, balance laws can be expressed in the general form

Note that the functions , , and can be scalar valued, vector valued,
or tensor valued - depending on the physical quantity that the balance equation deals
with. If there are internal boundaries in the body, jump discontinuities also need to be
specified in the balance laws.

If we take the Lagrangian point of view, it can be shown that the balance laws of mass,
momentum, and energy for a solid can be written as

In the above equations is the mass density (current), is the material time
derivative of ρ, is the particle velocity, is the material time derivative of ,
is the Cauchy stress tensor, is the body force density, is the
internal energy per unit mass, is the material time derivative of e, is the heat
flux vector, and is an energy source per unit mass.

With respect to the reference configuration, the balance laws can be written as

In the above, is the first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor, and ρ0 is the mass density in the
reference configuration. The first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor is related to the Cauchy
stress tensor by

We can alternatively define the nominal stress tensor which is the transpose of the
first Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor such that
Then the balance laws become

The operators in the above equations are defined as such that

where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of an
orthonormal basis in the current configuration. Also,

where is a vector field, is a second-order tensor field, and are the components of
an orthonormal basis in the reference configuration.

The inner product is defined as

The Clausius–Duhem inequality

The Clausius–Duhem inequality can be used to express the second law of

thermodynamics for elastic-plastic materials. This inequality is a statement concerning
the irreversibility of natural processes, especially when energy dissipation is involved.

Just like in the balance laws in the previous section, we assume that there is a flux of a
quantity, a source of the quantity, and an internal density of the quantity per unit mass.
The quantity of interest in this case is the entropy. Thus, we assume that there is an
entropy flux, an entropy source, and an internal entropy density per unit mass (η) in the
region of interest.

Let Ω be such a region and let be its boundary. Then the second law of
thermodynamics states that the rate of increase of η in this region is greater than or equal
to the sum of that supplied to Ω (as a flux or from internal sources) and the change of the
internal entropy density due to material flowing in and out of the region.

Let move with a velocity un and let particles inside Ω have velocities . Let be the
unit outward normal to the surface . Let ρ be the density of matter in the region, be
the entropy flux at the surface, and r be the entropy source per unit mass. Then the
entropy inequality may be written as

The scalar entropy flux can be related to the vector flux at the surface by the relation
. Under the assumption of incrementally isothermal conditions, we
have

where is the heat flux vector, s is a energy source per unit mass, and T is the absolute
temperature of a material point at at time t.

We then have the Clausius–Duhem inequality in integral form:

We can show that the entropy inequality may be written in differential form as

In terms of the Cauchy stress and the internal energy, the Clausius–Duhem inequality
may be written as
Chapter 2

Fluid Mechanics

Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids and the forces on them. (Fluids include liquids,
gases, and plasmas.) Fluid mechanics can be divided into fluid kinematics, the study of
fluid motion, and fluid dynamics, the study of the effect of forces on fluid motion, which
can further be divided into fluid statics, the study of fluids at rest, and fluid kinetics, the
study of fluids in motion. It is a branch of continuum mechanics, a subject which models
matter without using the information that it is made out of atoms, that is, it models matter
from a macroscopic viewpoint rather than from a microscopic viewpoint. Fluid
mechanics, especially fluid dynamics, is an active field of research with many unsolved
or partly solved problems. Fluid mechanics can be mathematically complex. Sometimes
it can best be solved by numerical methods, typically using computers. A modern
discipline, called computational fluid dynamics (CFD), is devoted to this approach to
solving fluid mechanics problems. Also taking advantage of the highly visual nature of
fluid flow is particle image velocimetry, an experimental method for visualizing and
analyzing fluid flow.

Brief history
The study of fluid mechanics goes back at least to the days of ancient Greece, when
Archimedes investigated fluid statics and buoyancy and formulated his famous law
known now as the Archimedes Principle. Rapid advancement in fluid mechanics began
with Leonardo da Vinci (observation and experiment), Evangelista Torricelli (barometer),
Isaac Newton (viscosity) and Blaise Pascal (hydrostatics), and was continued by Daniel
Bernoulli with the introduction of mathematical fluid dynamics in Hydrodynamica
(1738). Inviscid flow was further analyzed by various mathematicians (Leonhard Euler,
d'Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Poisson) and viscous flow was explored by a multitude
of engineers including Poiseuille and Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen. Further
mathematical justification was provided by Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel
Stokes in the Navier–Stokes equations, and boundary layers were investigated (Ludwig
Prandtl), while various scientists (Osborne Reynolds, Andrey Kolmogorov, Geoffrey
Ingram Taylor) advanced the understanding of fluid viscosity and turbulence.
Relationship to continuum mechanics
Fluid mechanics is a subdiscipline of continuum mechanics, as illustrated in the
following table.

Elasticity
Describes materials that return to their rest shape
Solid mechanics after an applied stress.
The study of the physics of Plasticity
Continuum continuous materials with a Describes materials that
mechanics defined rest shape. permanently deform Rheology
The study of the after a sufficient applied The study of materials
physics of stress. with both solid and
continuous fluid characteristics.
materials Fluid mechanics Non-Newtonian
The study of the physics of fluids
continuous materials which
take the shape of their Newtonian fluids
container.

In a mechanical view, a fluid is a substance that does not support shear stress; that is why
a fluid at rest has the shape of its containing vessel. A fluid at rest has no shear stress.

Assumptions
Like any mathematical model of the real world, fluid mechanics makes some basic
assumptions about the materials being studied. These assumptions are turned into
equations that must be satisfied if the assumptions are to be held true. For example,
consider an incompressible fluid in three dimensions. The assumption that mass is
conserved means that for any fixed closed surface (such as a sphere) the rate of mass
passing from outside to inside the surface must be the same as rate of mass passing the
other way. (Alternatively, the mass inside remains constant, as does the mass outside).
This can be turned into an integral equation over the surface.

Fluid mechanics assumes that every fluid obeys the following:

• Conservation of mass
• Conservation of energy
• Conservation of momentum
• The continuum hypothesis, detailed below.

Further, it is often useful (at subsonic conditions) to assume a fluid is incompressible –

that is, the density of the fluid does not change. Liquids can often be modelled as
incompressible fluids, whereas gases cannot.

Similarly, it can sometimes be assumed that the viscosity of the fluid is zero (the fluid is
inviscid). Gases can often be assumed to be inviscid. If a fluid is viscous, and its flow
contained in some way (e.g. in a pipe), then the flow at the boundary must have zero
velocity. For a viscous fluid, if the boundary is not porous, the shear forces between the
fluid and the boundary results also in a zero velocity for the fluid at the boundary. This is
called the no-slip condition. For a porous media otherwise, in the frontier of the
containing vessel, the slip condition is not zero velocity, and the fluid has a discontinuous
velocity field between the free fluid and the fluid in the porous media (this is related to
the Beavers and Joseph condition).

The continuum hypothesis

Fluids are composed of molecules that collide with one another and solid objects. The
continuum assumption, however, considers fluids to be continuous. That is, properties
such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at
"infinitely" small points, defining a REV (Reference Element of Volume), at the
geometric order of the distance between two adjacent molecules of fluid. Properties are
assumed to vary continuously from one point to another, and are averaged values in the
REV. The fact that the fluid is made up of discrete molecules is ignored.

The continuum hypothesis is basically an approximation, in the same way planets are
approximated by point particles when dealing with celestial mechanics, and therefore
results in approximate solutions. Consequently, assumption of the continuum hypothesis
can lead to results which are not of desired accuracy. That said, under the right
circumstances, the continuum hypothesis produces extremely accurate results.

Those problems for which the continuum hypothesis does not allow solutions of desired
accuracy are solved using statistical mechanics. To determine whether or not to use
conventional fluid dynamics or statistical mechanics, the Knudsen number is evaluated
for the problem. The Knudsen number is defined as the ratio of the molecular mean free
path length to a certain representative physical length scale. This length scale could be,
for example, the radius of a body in a fluid. (More simply, the Knudsen number is how
many times its own diameter a particle will travel on average before hitting another
particle). Problems with Knudsen numbers at or above unity are best evaluated using
statistical mechanics for reliable solutions.

Navier–Stokes equations
The Navier–Stokes equations (named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel
Stokes) are the set of equations that describe the motion of fluid substances such as
liquids and gases. These equations state that changes in momentum (force) of fluid
particles depend only on the external pressure and internal viscous forces (similar to
friction) acting on the fluid. Thus, the Navier–Stokes equations describe the balance of
forces acting at any given region of the fluid.

The Navier–Stokes equations are differential equations which describe the motion of a
fluid. Such equations establish relations among the rates of change of the variables of
interest. For example, the Navier–Stokes equations for an ideal fluid with zero viscosity
states that acceleration (the rate of change of velocity) is proportional to the derivative of
internal pressure.

This means that solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations for a given physical problem
must be sought with the help of calculus. In practical terms only the simplest cases can be
solved exactly in this way. These cases generally involve non-turbulent, steady flow
(flow does not change with time) in which the Reynolds number is small.

For more complex situations, such as global weather systems like El Niño or lift in a
wing, solutions of the Navier–Stokes equations can currently only be found with the help
of computers. This is a field of sciences by its own called computational fluid dynamics.

General form of the equation

The general form of the Navier–Stokes equations for the conservation of momentum is:

where

• is the fluid density,

• is the substantive derivative (also called the material derivative),

• is the velocity vector,
• is the body force vector, and
• is a tensor that represents the surface forces applied on a fluid particle (the stress
tensor).

Unless the fluid is made up of spinning degrees of freedom like vortices, is a symmetric
tensor. In general, (in three dimensions) has the form:

where

• are normal stresses,

• are tangential stresses (shear stresses).

The above is actually a set of three equations, one per dimension. By themselves, these
aren't sufficient to produce a solution. However, adding conservation of mass and
appropriate boundary conditions to the system of equations produces a solvable set of
equations.
Newtonian versus non-Newtonian fluids
A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear
stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of shear. This definition means regardless of the forces acting on a fluid, it
continues to flow. For example, water is a Newtonian fluid, because it continues to
display fluid properties no matter how much it is stirred or mixed. A slightly less rigorous
definition is that the drag of a small object being moved slowly through the fluid is
proportional to the force applied to the object. (Compare friction). Important fluids, like
water as well as most gases, behave — to good approximation — as a Newtonian fluid
under normal conditions on Earth.

By contrast, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can leave a "hole" behind. This will gradually
fill up over time – this behaviour is seen in materials such as pudding, oobleck, or sand
(although sand isn't strictly a fluid). Alternatively, stirring a non-Newtonian fluid can
cause the viscosity to decrease, so the fluid appears "thinner" (this is seen in non-drip
paints). There are many types of non-Newtonian fluids, as they are defined to be
something that fails to obey a particular property — for example, most fluids with long
molecular chains can react in a non-Newtonian manner.

Equations for a Newtonian fluid

The constant of proportionality between the shear stress and the velocity gradient is
known as the viscosity. A simple equation to describe Newtonian fluid behaviour is

where

τ is the shear stress exerted by the fluid ("drag")

μ is the fluid viscosity – a constant of proportionality

is the velocity gradient perpendicular to the direction of shear.

For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition, depends only on temperature and
pressure, not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible and viscosity is
constant across the fluid, the equation governing the shear stress (in Cartesian
coordinates) is

where
 τij is the shear stress on the ith face of a fluid element in the jth direction
vi is the velocity in the ith direction
xj is the jth direction coordinate.

If a fluid does not obey this relation, it is termed a non-Newtonian fluid, of which there
are several types.

Among fluids, two rough broad divisions can be made: ideal and non-ideal fluids. An
ideal fluid really does not exist, but in some calculations, the assumption is justifiable. An
Ideal fluid is non viscous- offers no resistance whatsoever to a shearing force.

One can group real fluids into Newtonian and non-Newtonian. Newtonian fluids agree
with Newton's law of viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids can be either plastic, bingham
plastic, pseudoplastic, dilatant, thixotropic, rheopectic, viscoelatic.
Chapter 3

Stress (Mechanics)

Figure 1.1 Stress in a loaded deformable material body assumed as a continuum.

Figure 1.2 Axial stress in a prismatic bar axially loaded
Figure 1.3 Normal stress in a prismatic (straight member of uniform cross-sectional area)
bar. The stress or force distribution in the cross section of the bar is not necessarily
uniform. However, an average normal stress can be used

Figure 1.4 Shear stress in a prismatic bar. The stress or force distribution in the cross
section of the bar is not necessarily uniform. Nevertheless, an average shear stress is
a reasonable approximation.
In continuum mechanics, stress is a measure of the internal forces acting within a
deformable body. Quantitatively, it is a measure of the average force per unit area of a
surface within the body on which internal forces act. These internal forces are produced
between the particles in the body as a reaction to external forces applied on the body.
Because the loaded deformable body is assumed to behave as a continuum, these internal
forces are distributed continuously within the volume of the material body, and result in
deformation of the body's shape. Beyond certain limits of material strength, this can lead
to a permanent change of shape or physical failure.

However, treating physical force as a "one dimensional entity", as it is often done in

mechanics, creates a few problems. Any model of continuum mechanics which explicitly
expresses force as a variable generally fails to merge and describe deformation of matter
and solid bodies, because the attributes of matter and solids are three dimensional.
Classical models of continuum mechanics assume an average force and fail to properly
incorporate "geometrical factors", which are important to describe stress distribution and
accumulation of energy during the continuum.

The dimension of stress is that of pressure, and therefore the SI unit for stress is the
pascal (symbol Pa), which is equivalent to one newton (force) per square meter (unit
area), that is N/m2. In Imperial units, stress is measured in pound-force per square inch,
which is abbreviated as psi.

Introduction
Stress is a measure of the average force per unit area of a surface within a deformable
body on which internal forces act. It is a measure of the intensity of the internal forces
acting between particles of a deformable body across imaginary internal surfaces. These
internal forces are produced between the particles in the body as a reaction to external
forces applied on the body. External forces are either surface forces or body forces.
Because the loaded deformable body is assumed to behave as a continuum, these internal
forces are distributed continuously within the volume of the material body, i.e. the stress
distribution in the body is expressed as a piecewise continuous function of space
coordinates and time.

Normal , shear stresses and virial stresses

For the simple case of a body axially loaded, e.g., a prismatic bar subjected to tension or
compression by a force passing through its centroid (Figures 1.2 and 1.3) the stress , or
intensity of internal forces, can be obtained by dividing the total normal force ,
determined from the equilibrium of forces, by the cross-sectional area of the prism it is
acting upon. The normal force can be a tensile force if acting outward from the plane, or
compressive force if acting inward to the plane. In the case of a prismatic bar axially
loaded, the stress is represented by a scalar called engineering stress or nominal stress
that represents an average stress ( ) over the area, meaning that the stress in the cross
section is uniformly distributed. Thus, we have
A different type of stress is obtained when transverse forces are applied to the
prismatic bar as shown in Figure 1.4. Considering the same cross-section as before, from
static equilibrium the internal force has a magnitude equal to and in opposite direction
parallel to the cross-section. is called the shear force. Dividing the shear force by
the area of the cross section we obtain the shear stress. In this case the shear stress is
a scalar quantity representing an average shear stress ( ) in the section, i.e. the stress
in the cross-section is uniformly distributed. In materials science and in engineering
aspects the average of the ""scalar"" shear force ( ) are true for crystallized materials
during brittle fracture and operates through the fractured cross-section or stress plane.

In Figure 1.3, the normal stress is observed in two planes and of the
axially loaded prismatic bar. The stress on plane , which is closer to the point of
application of the load , varies more across the cross-section than that of plane
. However, if the cross-sectional area of the bar is very small, i.e. the bar is
slender, the variation of stress across the area is small and the normal stress can be
approximated by . On the other hand, the variation of shear stress across the section
of a prismatic bar cannot be assumed to be uniform.

Virial stress is a measure of stress on an atomic scale. It is given by

where

• k and are atoms in the domain,

• Ω is the volume of the domain,
• m(k) is the mass of atom k,
• is the ith component of the velocity of atom k,
• is the jth component of the average velocity of atoms in the volume,
• is the ith component of the position of atom k, and
• is the ith component of the force between atom k and .

At zero kelvin, all velocities are zero so we have

 .

This can be thought of as follows. The τ11 component of stress is the force in the 1
direction divided by the area of a plane perpendicular to that direction. Consider two
adjacent volumes separated by such a plane. The 11-component of stress on that interface
is the sum of all pairwise forces between atoms on the two sides....

Stress modeling (Cauchy)

In general, stress is not uniformly distributed over the cross-section of a material body,
and consequently the stress at a point in a given region is different from the average stress
over the entire area. Therefore, it is necessary to define the stress not over a given area
but at a specific point in the body (Figure 1.1). According to Cauchy, the stress at any
point in an object, assumed to behave as a continuum, is completely defined by the nine
components of a second-order tensor of type (0,2) known as the Cauchy stress tensor,
:

The Cauchy stress tensor obeys the tensor transformation law under a change in the
system of coordinates. A graphical representation of this transformation law is the Mohr's
circle of stress distribution.

The Cauchy stress tensor is used for stress analysis of material bodies experiencing small
deformations where the differences in stress distribution in most cases can be neglected.
For large deformations, also called finite deformations, other measures of stress, such as
the first and second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensors, the Biot stress tensor, and the
Kirchhoff stress tensor, are required.

According to the principle of conservation of linear momentum, if a continuous body is

in static equilibrium it can be demonstrated that the components of the Cauchy stress
tensor in every material point in the body satisfy the equilibrium equations (Cauchy’s
equations of motion for zero acceleration). At the same time, according to the principle of
conservation of angular momentum, equilibrium requires that the summation of moments
with respect to an arbitrary point is zero, which leads to the conclusion that the stress
tensor is symmetric, thus having only six independent stress components instead of the
original nine.

There are certain invariants associated with the stress tensor, whose values do not depend
upon the coordinate system chosen or the area element upon which the stress tensor
operates. These are the three eigenvalues of the stress tensor, which are called the
principal stresses. Solids, liquids, and gases have stress fields. Static fluids support
normal stress but will flow under shear stress. Moving viscous fluids can support shear
stress (dynamic pressure). Solids can support both shear and normal stress, with ductile
materials failing under shear and brittle materials failing under normal stress. All
materials have temperature dependent variations in stress-related properties, and non-
Newtonian materials have rate-dependent variations.

Stress analysis

Stress analysis means the determination of the internal distribution of stresses in a

structure. It is needed in engineering for the study and design of structures such as
tunnels, dams, mechanical parts, and structural frames, under prescribed or expected
loads. To determine the distribution of stress in a structure, the engineer needs to solve a
boundary-value problem by specifying the boundary conditions. These are displacements
and forces on the boundary of the structure.

Constitutive equations, such as Hooke’s Law for linear elastic materials, describe the
stress-strain relationship in these calculations.

When a structure is expected to deform elastically (and resume its original shape), a
boundary-value problem based on the theory of elasticity is applied, with infinitesimal
strains, under design loads.

When the applied loads permanently deform the structure, the theory of plasticity is used.

The stress analysis can be simplified when the physical dimensions and the distribution
of loads allow the structure to be treated as one-dimensional or two-dimensional. For a
two-dimensional analysis a plane stress or a plane strain condition can be assumed.
Alternatively, experimental determination of stresses can be carried out.

Approximate computer-based solutions for boundary-value problems can be obtained

through numerical methods such as the Finite Element Method, the Finite Difference
Method, and the Boundary Element Method. Analytical or closed-form solutions can be
obtained for simple geometries, constitutive relations, and boundary conditions.

Theoretical background
Continuum mechanics deals with deformable bodies, as opposed to rigid bodies. The
stresses considered in continuum mechanics are only those produced by deformation of
the body, sc. only relative changes in stress are considered, not the absolute values. A
body is considered stress-free if the only forces present are those inter-atomic forces
(ionic, metallic, and van der Waals forces) required to hold the body together and to keep
its shape in the absence of all external influences, including gravitational attraction.
Stresses generated during manufacture of the body to a specific configuration are also
excluded.
Following the classical dynamics of Newton and Euler, the motion of a material body is
produced by the action of externally applied forces which are assumed to be of two kinds:
surface forces and body forces.

Surface forces, or contact forces, can act either on the bounding surface of the body, as a
result of mechanical contact with other bodies, or on imaginary internal surfaces that
bound portions of the body, as a result of the mechanical interaction between the parts of
the body to either side of the surface (Euler-Cauchy's stress principle). When a body is
acted upon by external contact forces, internal contact forces are then transmitted from
point to point inside the body to balance their action, according to Newton's second law
of motion of conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum (for continuous
bodies these laws are called the Euler's equations of motion). The internal contact forces
are related to the body's deformation through constitutive equations.

The concept of stress can then be thought as a measure of the intensity of the internal
contact forces acting between particles of the body across imaginary internal surfaces. In
other words, stress is a measure of the average quantity of force exerted per unit area of
the surface on which these internal forces act. The intensity of contact forces is related,
specifically in an inverse proportion, to the area of contact. For example, if a force
applied to a small area is compared to a distributed load of the same resultant magnitude
applied to a larger area, one finds that the effects or intensities of these two forces are
locally different because the stresses are not the same.

Body forces are forces originating from sources outside of the body that act on the
volume (or mass) of the body. Saying that body forces are due to outside sources implies
that the internal forces are manifested through the contact forces alone. These forces arise
from the presence of the body in force fields, (e.g., a gravitational field). As the mass of a
continuous body is assumed to be continuously distributed, any force originating from the
mass is also continuously distributed. Thus, body forces are assumed to be continuous
over the entire volume of the body.

The density of internal forces at every point in a deformable body are not necessarily
equal, i.e. there is a distribution of stresses throughout the body. This variation of internal
forces throughout the body is governed by Newton's second law of motion of
conservation of linear momentum and angular momentum, which normally are applied to
a mass particle but are extended in continuum mechanics to a body of continuously
distributed mass. For continuous bodies these laws are called Euler’s equations of
motion. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles, each governed by
Newton’s laws of motion, then Euler’s equations can be derived from Newton’s laws.
Euler’s equations can, however, be taken as axioms describing the laws of motion for
extended bodies, independently of any particle structure.
Euler–Cauchy stress principle

Figure 2.1a Internal distribution of contact forces and couple stresses on a differential
of the internal surface in a continuum, as a result of the interaction between the two
portions of the continuum separated by the surface

Figure 2.1b Internal distribution of contact forces and couple stresses on a differential
of the internal surface in a continuum, as a result of the interaction between the two
portions of the continuum separated by the surface
Figure 2.1c Stress vector on an internal surface S with normal vector n. Depending on the
orientation of the plane under consideration, the stress vector may not necessarily be
perpendicular to that plane, i.e. parallel to , and can be resolved into two components:
one component normal to the plane, called normal stress , and another component
parallel to this plane, called the shearing stress .

The Euler–Cauchy stress principle states that upon any surface (real or imaginary) that
divides the body, the action of one part of the body on the other is equivalent
(equipollent) to the system of distributed forces and couples on the surface dividing the
body, and it is represented by a vector field T(n), called the stress vector, defined on the
surface S and assumed to depend continuously on the surface's unit vector n.

To explain this principle, we consider an imaginary surface S passing through an internal

material point P dividing the continuous body into two segments, as seen in Figure 2.1a
or 2.1b (some authors use the cutting plane diagram and others use the diagram with the
arbitrary volume inside the continuum enclosed by the surface S). The body is subjected
to external surface forces F and body forces b. The internal contact forces being
transmitted from one segment to the other through the dividing plane, due to the action of
one portion of the continuum onto the other, generate a force distribution on a small area
ΔS, with a normal unit vector n, on the dividing plane S. The force distribution is
equipollent to a contact force ΔF and a couple stress ΔM, as shown in Figure 2.1a and
2.1b. Cauchy’s stress principle asserts that as ΔS becomes very small and tends to zero
the ratio ΔF/ΔS becomes dF/dS and the couple stress vector ΔM vanishes. In specific
fields of continuum mechanics the couple stress is assumed not to vanish; however, as
stated previously, in classical branches of continuum mechanics we deal with non-polar
materials which do not consider couple stresses and body moments. The resultant vector
dF/dS is defined as the stress vector or traction vector given by T(n) = Ti(n) ei at the point
P associated with a plane with a normal vector n:
This equation means that the stress vector depends on its location in the body and the
orientation of the plane on which it is acting.

Depending on the orientation of the plane under consideration, the stress vector may not
necessarily be perpendicular to that plane, i.e. parallel to n, and can be resolved into two
components:

• one normal to the plane, called normal stress

where dFn is the normal component of the force dF to the differential area dS

• and the other parallel to this plane, called the shear stress

where dFs is the tangential component of the force dF to the differential surface
area dS. The shear stress can be further decomposed into two mutually
perpendicular vectors.

Cauchy’s postulate

According to the Cauchy Postulate, the stress vector T(n) remains unchanged for all
surfaces passing through the point P and having the same normal vector n at P, i.e.
having a common tangent at P. This means that the stress vector is a function of the
normal vector n only, and it is not influenced by the curvature of the internal surfaces.

Cauchy’s fundamental lemma

A consequence of Cauchy’s postulate is Cauchy’s Fundamental Lemma, also called the

Cauchy reciprocal theorem, which states that the stress vectors acting on opposite sides
of the same surface are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Cauchy’s
fundamental lemma is equivalent to Newton's third law of motion of action and reaction,
and it is expressed as

Cauchy’s stress theorem – stress tensor

The state of stress at a point in the body is then defined by all the stress vectors T(n)
associated with all planes (infinite in number) that pass through that point. However,
according to Cauchy’s fundamental theorem, also called Cauchy’s stress theorem, merely
by knowing the stress vectors on three mutually perpendicular planes, the stress vector on
any other plane passing through that point can be found through coordinate
transformation equations.

Cauchy’s stress theorem states that there exists a second-order tensor field σ(x, t), called
the Cauchy stress tensor, independent of n, such that T is a linear function of n:

This equation implies that the stress vector T(n) at any point P in a continuum associated
with a plane with normal vector n can be expressed as a function of the stress vectors on
the planes perpendicular to the coordinate axes, i.e. in terms of the components σij of the
stress tensor σ.

To prove this expression, consider a tetrahedron with three faces oriented in the
coordinate planes, and with an infinitesimal area dA oriented in an arbitrary direction
specified by a normal vector n (Figure 2.2). The tetrahedron is formed by slicing the
infinitesimal element along an arbitrary plane n. The stress vector on this plane is
denoted by T(n). The stress vectors acting on the faces of the tetrahedron are denoted as
T(e1), T(e2), and T(e3), and are by definition the components σij of the stress tensor σ. This
tetrahedron is sometimes called the Cauchy tetrahedron. From equilibrium of forces, i.e.
Euler’s first law of motion (Newton’s second law of motion), we have

Figure 2.2. Stress vector acting on a plane with normal vector n.

A note on the sign convention: The tetrahedron is formed by slicing a parallelepiped
along an arbitrary plane n. So, the force acting on the plane n is the reaction exerted by
the other half of the parallelepiped and has an opposite sign.
where the right-hand-side of the equation represents the product of the mass enclosed by
the tetrahedron and its acceleration: ρ is the density, a is the acceleration, and h is the
height of the tetrahedron, considering the plane n as the base. The area of the faces of the
tetrahedron perpendicular to the axes can be found by projecting dA into each face (using
the dot product):

and then substituting into the equation to cancel out dA:

To consider the limiting case as the tetrahedron shrinks to a point, h must go to 0

(intuitively, the plane n is translated along n toward O). As a result, the right-hand-side of
the equation approaches 0, so

Figure 2.3 Components of stress in three dimensions

Assuming a material element (Figure 2.3) with planes perpendicular to the coordinate
axes of a Cartesian coordinate system, the stress vectors associated with each of the
element planes, i.e. T(e1), T(e2), and T(e3) can be decomposed into a normal component and
two shear components, i.e. components in the direction of the three coordinate axes. For
the particular case of a surface with normal unit vector oriented in the direction of the x1-
axis, the normal stress is denoted by σ11, and the two shear stresses are denoted as σ12 and
σ13:

In index notation this is

The nine components σij of the stress vectors are the components of a second-order
Cartesian tensor called the Cauchy stress tensor, which completely defines the state of
stress at a point and is given by

where σ11, σ22, and σ33 are normal stresses, and σ12, σ13, σ21, σ23, σ31, and σ32 are shear
stresses. The first index i indicates that the stress acts on a plane normal to the xi-axis, and
the second index j denotes the direction in which the stress acts. A stress component is
positive if it acts in the positive direction of the coordinate axes, and if the plane where it
acts has an outward normal vector pointing in the positive coordinate direction.

Thus, using the components of the stress tensor

or, equivalently,
Alternatively, in matrix form we have

The Voigt notation representation of the Cauchy stress tensor takes advantage of the
symmetry of the stress tensor to express the stress as a six-dimensional vector of the
form:

The Voigt notation is used extensively in representing stress-strain relations in solid

mechanics and for computational efficiency in numerical structural mechanics software.

Transformation rule of the stress tensor

It can be shown that the stress tensor is a contravariant second order tensor, which is a
statement of how it transforms under a change of the coordinate system. From an xi-
system to an xi'-system, the components σij in the initial system are transformed into the
components σij' in the new system according to the tensor transformation rule (Figure
2.4):

where A is a rotation matrix with components aij. In matrix form this is

 Figure 2.4 Transformation of the stress tensor

Expanding the matrix operation, and simplifying some terms by taking advantage of the
symmetry of the stress tensor, gives

The Mohr circle for stress is a graphical representation of this transformation of stresses.

Normal and shear stresses

The magnitude of the normal stress component σn of any stress vector T(n) acting on an
arbitrary plane with normal vector n at a given point, in terms of the components σij of
the stress tensor σ, is the dot product of the stress vector and the normal vector:
The magnitude of the shear stress component τn, acting in the plane spanned by the two
vectors T(n) and n, can then be found using the Pythagorean theorem:

where
Equilibrium equations and symmetry of the stress
tensor

Figure 4. Continuum body in equilibrium

When a body is in equilibrium the components of the stress tensor in every point of the
body satisfy the equilibrium equations,

For example, for a hydrostatic fluid in equilibrium conditions, the stress tensor takes on
the form:
 ,

where p is the hydrostatic pressure, and is the kronecker delta.

At the same time, equilibrium requires that the summation of moments with respect to an
arbitrary point is zero, which leads to the conclusion that the stress tensor is symmetric,
i.e.

However, in the presence of couple-stresses, i.e. moments per unit volume, the stress
tensor is non-symmetric. This also is the case when the Knudsen number is close to one,
, or the continuum is a non-Newtonian fluid, which can lead to rotationally
non-invariant fluids, such as polymers.

Principal stresses and stress invariants

At every point in a stressed body there are at least three planes, called principal planes,
with normal vectors , called principal directions, where the corresponding stress vector
is perpendicular to the plane, i.e., parallel or in the same direction as the normal vector ,
and where there are no normal shear stresses . The three stresses normal to these
principal planes are called principal stresses.

The components of the stress tensor depend on the orientation of the coordinate
system at the point under consideration. However, the stress tensor itself is a physical
quantity and as such, it is independent of the coordinate system chosen to represent it.
There are certain invariants associated with every tensor which are also independent of
the coordinate system. For example, a vector is a simple tensor of rank one. In three
dimensions, it has three components. The value of these components will depend on the
coordinate system chosen to represent the vector, but the length of the vector is a physical
quantity (a scalar) and is independent of the coordinate system chosen to represent the
vector. Similarly, every second rank tensor (such as the stress and the strain tensors) has
three independent invariant quantities associated with it. One set of such invariants are
the principal stresses of the stress tensor, which are just the eigenvalues of the stress
tensor. Their direction vectors are the principal directions or eigenvectors.

A stress vector parallel to the normal vector is given by:

where is a constant of proportionality, and in this particular case corresponds to the

magnitudes of the normal stress vectors or principal stresses.

Knowing that and , we have

This is a homogeneous system, i.e. equal to zero, of three linear equations where are
the unknowns. To obtain a nontrivial (non-zero) solution for , the determinant matrix
of the coefficients must be equal to zero, i.e. the system is singular. Thus,

Expanding the determinant leads to the characteristic equation

where

The characteristic equation has three real roots , i.e. not imaginary due to the symmetry
of the stress tensor. The three roots , , and are the
eigenvalues or principal stresses, and they are the roots of the Cayley–Hamilton theorem.
The principal stresses are unique for a given stress tensor. Therefore, from the
characteristic equation it is seen that the coefficients , and , called the first,
second, and third stress invariants, respectively, have always the same value regardless
of the orientation of the coordinate system chosen.
For each eigenvalue, there is a non-trivial solution for in the equation
. These solutions are the principal directions or eigenvectors
defining the plane where the principal stresses act. The principal stresses and principal
directions characterize the stress at a point and are independent of the orientation of the
coordinate system.

If we choose a coordinate system with axes oriented to the principal directions, then the
normal stresses will be the principal stresses and the stress tensor is represented by a
diagonal matrix:

The principal stresses may be combined to form the stress invariants, , , and .The
first and third invariant are the trace and determinant respectively, of the stress tensor.
Thus,

Because of its simplicity, working and thinking in the principal coordinate system is often
very useful when considering the state of the elastic medium at a particular point.

Principal stresses are often expressed in the following equation for evaluating stresses in
the x and y directions or axial and bending stresses on a part. The principal normal
stresses can then be used to calculate the Von Mises stress and ultimately the safety
factor and margin of safety.

Using just the part of the equation under the square root is equal to the maximum and
minimum shear stress for plus and minus. This is shown as:
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 lactabitur usque dum accrescat ei caput majus in Eneade terciumque
minus, eruntque sibillancia a Germanis usque Tyrum. Et dabitur ei galina
una ex Mauris alteraque orientalis et duo pulli ex quibus vorabit unum
ecc. I sexaginta pedes, che il Bréholles non sa spiegare, noi già
sappiamo dai passi del pseudo-Gioacchino surriferiti che vogliono dire 60
anni, perchè la fine dell'Impero si calcolava per il 1260, e la profezia si
suppone fatta nel 1200.

532.
Fol. 44, col. 2. Satis congruum est ut cardinales et etiam summus
pontifex immendaces praedicatores veritatis percutiant affligendo et
(ponant in nervum) silentium eis imponendo ne eis annuncient mala
futura in clero a Romano Imperio. Ivi, col. 4: Masculus (Hier. xx, 15) est
ordo seraphicus in ecclesia oriundus, pater summus pontifex, ubi
doctores cardinalesque prelati de illorum ortu et profectu valde
dolebunt, tanquam eorum solicitudine subvertentur adulterantes verbum
Dei. Fol. 47, col. 1: Sed quia summus pontifex superbiae nititur, ab
exauditione repellitur.

533.
Fol. 9, col. 4. Igitur Romana ecclesia ac si altera tribus Juda recessit a
Christo .... Quod etiam negasse Petrum et redisse ad pompas Diaboli et
mundi illecebras hujus, seu principes saeculares, cum quibus est polluta
per munera, contaminata per suffragia, fornicata per fastigia dignitatum
.... Fol. 49, col. 1: Hi (pastores) sunt Lazarus quatriduanus, qui jam
mortui sunt in tribus, in avaritia, in perfidia, in superbia, quarto loco
scatent et fetent in luxuria. Fol. 52, col. 2. Aut enim prava vita, et
doctrina ecclesiae latinae, quae est Romae, intelligenda est ipsa pollutio
.... dominam babylonem ecclesiam, quae magistra est omnium
meretricum.

534.
Fol. 43, col. 2. Sed nunc predicatores Evangelii aeterni frangent
doctrinam doctorum fidelium sacraeque scripturae in conspectu
ecclesiae generalis. Fol. 51, col. 3: per omnem orbem et fere omnibus
regnis terrae praedicabitur Evangelium eternum.

535.
Fol. 53, col. 1: Agitur enim nunc 1197 annus ut extendetur ista vexatio
in 64 annos deteriores prioribus. Vedi fol. 45, col. 3-4, ove invece appare
scritto il 1200: 42 menses 42 generationes sunt in quibus affligendus est
populus christianus et terminatur in anno Christi 1260 .... in 60 annis
terminabitur afflictio ecclesiae.
536.
Fol. 7, col. 4. Videat Romanum capitulum si non fiet eis arundineus
baculus potentia gallicana, cui si quis innititur perforat manus ejus. Cfr.
fol. 59, col. 2. Necessario Francia .... videbitur ecclesie adhaerere, quod
quanto divine voluntati et dispositioni displiceat ex consilio perpenditur
Hieremiae .... Habet enim hoc diffidentiae humana debilitas ut magis
confidet in nomine quam in Deo, et iccirco, unde sperat auxilium, justo
judicio corruat.

537. Il Salimbene infatti a pag. 176 cita questo finale del commento a
Geremia. Ecce Cesar, virgam furoris Domini. Sufficenter est Jeremias
explicitus, qui in replicandis afflictionibus saeculi ubique cernetur
implicitus, utinam et tu non usque expers sis divinae formidinis, cum ad
radicem imperialis arboris ponenda sit evangelica jam securis. Il finale
stampato è ben diverso, e più determinato l'accenno alla ruina
dell'impero. In ipso quoque finitur imperium, quia etsi successores
Christi fuerunt, tamen imperiali vocabulo ex romano fastigio privabuntur.
Cum decies et 1300 anni Antichristus nascetur demone plenus post
partum Virginis alme.

538.
Riproduco il principio di quest'opuscolo che si trova nel cod. XI, plut. IX,
dext. Santa Croce, carte 54 tergo: De ultimis tribulationibus disputantes
in opusculis nostris posuimus diversorum opiniones et nostram; sed quia
sicut aliquando brevitas, ita nonnunquam multiplicitas verborum parit
obscuritatem, praesertim ubi non est impetus aliquid absolute dicendi
sed exponendi in serie quod occurrit in libris, opere precium credidimus
quid inde nostra opinio teneat in summa in hac brevi oratiuncula semper
quidem et multis modis compilare. Studio est Sathanae concitare
scandalum ecclesiae Dei, et durat tempus principatus ejus non annis,
non mensibus, non diebus, nec cessat quantum in se est a
persecutionibus electorum .... Tria magna et quasi necessaria bella
noscitur gessisse sub veteri Testamento, et totidem gerere demonstratur
in novo.

539.
L'opuscolo leggesi a p. 59 recto dello stesso cod. XI, plut. IX. Il prologo
ed il primo capitolo erano già riferiti dal resoconto d'Anagni in questo
brano che io pubblico secondo il codice della Sorbona 1726: «Item
habetur apertius in libello ipsius Joachim de articulis fidei descripto ad
querumdam filium suum Johannem, quod opus suspectum est ex ipso
prologo, ubi sic incipit dicens»: Rogasti me (Joachim), attentius, fili
Johannes, ut tibi compilatos traderem articulos fidei, et notarem illa
quae occurrerent scripturarum loca, in quibus solent simplices
frequenter errare: ecce subiecta pagina invenies quod petisti. Tene apud
te, et lege sub silentio, observans ne perveniat ad manus eorum qui
rapiunt verba de convallibus, et currunt cum clamore ut vocentur ab
hominibus rabi, habentes quidem speciem pietatis, virtutem autem eius
penitus abnegantes. «Ecce qualiter in hoc prologo vult iste Joachim
articulos fidei legi in abscondito, more haereticorum, qui in conventiculos
dogmatizant. Item inhibet ne tractatus suus veniat ad manus
magistrorum, quos etiam tam impudenter quam superbe vituperat». (Fin
qui fu già pubblicato dal Renan, op. cit. pag. 99, n. 1) «Sed de hoc non
curetur, quin potius diligenter attendatur. Primum capitulum huius
compilationis, quod intitulatur de fide trinitatis ubi sic ait Joachim»: Ante
omnia intellige Deum tuum esse tres personas plenas integras atque
perfectas, ita ut credas singulum esse plenum atque perfectum Deum,
et simul tres unum Deum totum simplicem, totum aeternum (totum
virum, totum, cod. laur.) invisibilem et impalpabilem. Spiritus enim est
Deus non corpus, et idcirco mirari non debes si tres sunt unum, et unus
(unum, cod. laur.) tres; unum tamen dicimus non singularem, non
utique sicut dicimus unum sidus, unum jaspidem, unum smaragdum;
sed unum ab unitate, utpote cum dicimus unum gregem, unum
populum, unam turbam. Unde bene dicunt gramatici: populus currunt,
et turba ruunt, ut id, quod unum taliter dicitur, pluralis esse numeri
intelligatur, loquens (loquimur) ad intellectum non ad simplicem vel
perfectam similitudinem, ut videlicet per visibilia invisibilia intelligamus.
Si de duabus tribubus Israel dicit Scriptura: dixit Judas Symoni fratri suo:
veni pugna mecum in sorte mea, ut et ego pugnem in sorte tua, miratur
homo si tota trinitas dicitur unus Deus? si una massa auri distinguatur
(distingueretur) in tres statuas maxime si, ut solent fieri in arte fusoria
totae tres partes (manca partes nel cod. laur.) essent coniunctae, sic
diceretur singula statua esse unum aurum, at tamen simul tres non
dicerentur nisi unum aurum. Et miratur homo si singula divinitatis
persona dicitur esse unus Deus, et simul tres unus Deus? Si incalenti
clibano proicierentur stipulae et ligna, licet deesse viderentur flamma et
carbones repente tamen in uno loco, idest in ardore (male cod. in uno
illo hoc ardore) tota tria ipsa pariter apparerent. Si flammae adhaerenti
sulphuri adhiberetur competens fomentum, licet deesse viderentur
carbones, repente tamen in uno illo tota tria illa habentur pariter. Sed
etsi carbo solus adesset, mox adhibitis stipulis, tota tria illa pariter
integra apparerent. Il secondo capitolo s'intitola De incarnatione verbi
Dei e comincia così (cod. laur. p. 60): Fuerunt quidam haeretici qui
dicerent Christum unius esse naturae: fuerunt qui dicerent matrem
virginem non deum sed tantum hominem genuisse. Tu autem horum
omnium devitans perfidiam crede Christum unam personam ex duabus
 et in duabus consistentem naturis, secundum quod oliva inserta oleastro
cum ipso oleastro una est arbor, atque hoc totum, quod Christus dicitur,
genuisse. Quod si dicis, verbum dei, quod aliunde venit in virgine,
gignere non potuit virgo, ergo nec corruptibile semen viri gignere potest
mulier, et quoniam ipsum semen aliunde venit ad ipsam. Neque enim
gignere de ipsa potest mulier nisi aliunde concipiat. Hoc autem solum
interest quod caeterae mulieres concipiunt ex hominibus, haec autem
sola virgo concepit et peperit semen divinum, verbum scilicet quod caro
factum est et habitavit in nobis. Gli altri capitoli sono: 3. De sacramento
baptismi et penitentia. — 4. De sacramento crismatis. — 5. De
sacramento corporis et sanguinis Christi. — 6. De libero arbitrio et
gratia. — 7. De predestinatione et prescientia Dei. — 8. Quomodo possit
Deus timeri pariter et amari. — 9. De fide et operibus. — 10. De
misericordia et juditio. — 11. De timore et amore. — 12. De laetitia et
tristitia. — 13. De vita conjugali et coelibatu, sive de abstinentia et
gustatione ciborum. — 14. De opere manum et sancto otio. — 15. Item
de eodem. — 16. De quiete claustri et frequenti mysterio. — 17. De
utilitate praedicationis et virtute silentii. — 18. De resurrectione
mortuorum. Manca nel codice l'ultimo capitolo che secondo il resoconto
d'Anagni s'intitolava Confessio fidei.

540.
Plut. LXXXIX, cod. XLI, c. 108 verso: Universis Christi fidelibus, ad quos
litterae istae pervenerint, frater Joachim dictus abbas: vigilate et orate
ne intretis in tentationem. Loquens dominus Ezechieli prophetae, quem
tempore transmigrationis Babiloniae speculatorem constituerat domui
Israel, post multa quae ei scribenda commiserit, comminatus est dicens:
si me dicente impio: morte morieris, non annunciaveris ei, ipse quidem
in impietate sua morietur. Sanguinem autem eius de manu tua requiram
etc.

541.
Fol. 279, col. 3: Incipit hymnus eiusdem abbatis Joachim de patria
celesti. Fol. 280, col. 1: Incipit Visio eiusdem preclara ac plurimum
admiranda de gloria paradisi.

542.
Gioacchino nel Psalterium decem cordarum, fol. 229, col. 4, rileva
questa difficoltà: O humana temeritas quam ceca semper! O inimica
semper humane pietati presumptio! Si sic extimasti simplicem divinam
substantiam, uti seorsum a personis cogitaveris illam, Sabellium sub
Arrio palliasti; si seorsum a substantia tres personas, Arrium sub Sabelli
palliatione excusas.
543.
Vedi anche l'Expositio in Apocalipsim, fol. 34, col. 2.

544.
Psalt., fol. 229, col. 3. Inter calorem et splendorem scissionem facere
nequis, et tamen eos non dubitas esse duos; et divinam vis substantiam
scindere, ut trinum deum credere possis? Item quod his nequius est,
nescio que tria preter substantiam nova adinventio assignare
presumpsit, ut in altero unitas in altero trinitas demonstretur quasi cum
substantiam illam igneam, que in celo est, et radium qui ex ea nascitur,
et calorem unum solem esse dicimus, quartum aliquod solis nomine
assignamus. Cfr. fol. 229, col. 2.

545.
Psalt., fol. 230, col. 4: Inter cetera ergo opera domini, que misterium
exhibent trinitatis, magnum tenet locum decacordum Psalterium. Est
enim, ut diximus, vas unum musicum, quod etsi dividi per partes potest,
quia corpus est, non tamen ut esse possit decacordum Psalterium,
quamdiu ergo Psalterium est, indivisum est. Si dividitur in partes non
esse desinit id quod erat. Igitur vas ipsum unum est, sed tamen in tribus
cornibus miro modo consistens. Adeo enim tria cornua ipsa unitas
possidet indivisa, ut et tria videantur esse unum et unum tria.

546.
Psalt., fol. 231, col. 2: Aliud sonat unus, aliud sonat unitas. Unus non
absolute dici nequit, nisi de una persona. Unitas vero proprie dici non
potest nisi de duobus ad minus. Neque enim cum iubemur consistere in
unitate, ad singularem personam referri posse credendum est, licet ad
populum, ad conventum, ad plebem. Cum enim dicitur absolute: unus
est hic aut illic, non est in loco ille nisi unus, persona incunctanter
intelligo; cum vero dicitur: unitas est in loco illo, profecto nihil aliud
intelligimus, quam multorum cor unum et animam unam; hoc est unam
voluntatem et unum consensum.

547. Psalt., fol. 240, col. 1: Solus tamen Pater genitor est, solus Filius
genitus, solus Spiritus sanctus ab utroque procedens. Solus autem Pater
sic mittit Filium et Spiritum sanctum, ut a nullo mittatur, et idcirco eterna
Patris divinitas communis est Filio et Spiritui sancto. Incarnatio vero Filii
propria Filii est. Assumptio columbe vel ignis propria Spiritus sancti, etsi
una sit operatio trium.

548.
Psalt., fol. 240, col. 2: Sicut autem timoris nomine Patrem, sapientie
Filium, ita charitatis nomine intelligimus Spiritum sanctum. Fol. 241, col.
 3: In actionis obtinentia timor domini, in lectionis studio sapientia, in
oratione et confessione operatur dilectio. Tenemur obedire per timorem,
qui est Pater; tenemur legere per sapientiam, qui est Christus; tenemur
psallere et orare per charitatem, qui est Spiritus sanctus.

549.
Che una connessione corra tra la dottrina della trinità e quella dei tre
stati lo dice l'Expositio in Apocalipsim, fol. 142, col. 2. Pro eo enim quod
Deus trinitas est, in tribus magnis certaminibus oportebat dissolvi
regnum mundi hujus a compage sua, ut statueretur perpetue regnum
Dei. Cfr. Concordia, II, I, 6, fol. 8, col. 4. Alioquin si una persona esset
deus, nec tria distincta opera essent querenda, nec in uno tamen
concordia assignari valeret.

550.
Apoc., fol. 3, col. 2: Est enim clavis veterum notitia futurorum. Conc., II,
5, fol. 8, col. 1: Intelligentia illa quae Concordia dicitur similis est vie
continue, que a deserto porrigitur ad civitatem, interpositis locis
humilioribus, in quibus se viator ambigat iter rectum adire, et
nihilominus interpositis jugis montium, a quibus possit posteriora et
anteriora respicere, et residui itineris rectitudinem ex retroactae viae
contemplatione metui. Omnis enim, qui coram facie graditur, ubi itineris
vestigium non apparet, ex aspectu retroacti agendi rectitudinem pensat.

551.
Conc., II, I, 1, fol. 6, col. 3. Multum ergo distat inter utrumque celum,
multum inter utrumque testamentum differentia est. Differunt sane
utriusque nativitates, differunt vite, differunt bella, differunt et victorie.
Illi enim ex carne, isti ut jam dixi ex aqua et spiritu nati sunt .... illi
faciebant uxoribus libellum repudii .... isti in typo Christi et ecclesie
singuli singulas teneri jubentur .... illi pro terrenis possessionibus
pugnaverunt, isti non tam pro terra aut qualibet terrena substantia, sed
pro sancte libertate ecclesie et salute spirituum suorum preliare
noscuntur.

552.
Apoc., fol. 3, col. 1. Pro quattuor autem historiis quattuor evangelia data
sunt .... Duo vero medii Marcus et Lucas non apostoli sunt, sed
apostolorum discipuli et audita potius quam visa describunt. Sicut ergo
apud nos si humano liberaretur judicio, majoris auctoritatis esse quis
diceret que apostoli visa, quam quod apostolorum discipuli non tam visa
quam audita scripserunt, ita historiarum quattuor, prime et ultime, Job
 scilicet et Hester majorem judeorum presbiteri auctoritatem dederunt,
quam duobus mediis, Tobie vero et Judith.

553.
Conc., II, I, 1, fol. 7, col. 2. Oportet inquam nos in hoc opere altare
testamenti prioris pro dono omnipotentis Dei ordinate componere,
fundentes et statuentes desuper aquam testamenti novi, ut aliud inter
aliud, ac si rota infra rotam inesse per concordiam videatur. Invisibilem
autem spiritum ignem suum spiritualem veluti de tertio celo dirigere, ut,
veniente quod perfectum est, evacuet quod ex parte.

554.
Conc., III a, 18, fol. 29, col. 4. Attendamus ergo spiritualiter quae
spiritualiter dicta sunt, et quemadmodum aedificent spiritualiter resoluta
quae, carnaliter intellecta, insipida sunt.

555.
Conc., Prol., fol. 8, col. 1. Allegoria est similitudo cujuscusque rei parve
ad maximam ac si dies ad annum, ebdomada ad etatem, persona ad
ordinem vel ad urbem ad gentem ad populum et mille talia. Verbi gratia
Habraam unus est homo et significat ordinem patriarcharum, in quo
multi sunt homines. Zacharias unus est homo et hoc ipsum significat.
Sarra una est femina et significat Synagogam .... Datus est filius Sarrae,
filius non carnis sed permissionis temporis senectutis suae. Hoc est
quando venit plenitudo temporum ut mitteret Deus filium suum; ergo
Elisabethe illud idem significat.

556.
Conc., lib. V, cap. I, fol. 60, col. 3, 4; Apoc., fol. 14, col. 3. Tutte queste
interpetrazioni si riducono a quattro principali, fol. 61, col. 3. Quia ex hiis
omnibus quatuor sunt intelligentie principales, que ceteras omnes
continet infra se 1.º Historica seu et 2.º moralis 3.º contemplativa [sub
cujus nomine continentur duo tropologica et anagogica, quarum prima
inferior est contemplativa, secunda superior] et 4.º typica, que dividitur
in septem speciebus.

557. Concordia, V, 2, fol. 61, col. 1; cfr. II, I, 29, fol. 28, col. 2.

558.
Apoc., fol. 63, col. 4.

559.
Queste strane allegorie si leggono nel Commento all'Apocalisse, fol. 53,
col. 4; fol. 54, col. 3, 4.
560.
Conc., IV, I, fol. 42, col. 2, 3. Sciendum quoque quod concordia non
secundum totum exigenda est, sed secundum quod clarius et evidentius
est; non secundum cursum historie, sed secundum quid .... Ita novum
testamentum simile est veteris testamenti .... Sicut ergo sunt arbores
sylvae plurimae quae in stipitibus sunt similes sed tamen in ramis
foliisque dissimiles, sic et duo testamenta in rebus quidem generalibus
similia sunt sed in specialibus dissimilia.

561.
Conc., II, I, 2, fol. 7, col. 2. Concordiam proprie esse dicimus
similitudinem aeque proportionis novi ac veteris testamenti, eque dico
quoad numerum non quoad dignitatem, cum videlicet persona et
persona, ordo et ordo, bellum et bellum ex parilitate quodam mutuis se
vultibus intuentur, utpote Habraam et Zacharias, Sarra et Elisabeth,
Isaac et Joannes Baptista, et homo Jesus et Jacob, duodecim Patriarche
et numeri ejusdem apostoli, et quodlibet simili, quod totum ubicumque
occurrerit non pro sensu allegorico sed pro concordia duorum
testamentorum facere certum est, unum vero spiritualem intellectum ex
utroque procedere.

562.
Conc., II, I, 10, fol. 10, col. 3. Non igitur secundum intellectum
numerum annorum extimanda sunt tempora ista, sed secundum
numerum generationem. Etenim ab Adam usque ad Christum fuerunt
generationes quadraginta et tres, et ab Osia usque ad finem secundi
status sexaginta tres; ab Osia namque initiatum est testamentum
novum quod confirmatum est in Christo, ne prius videretur deficere
vetus quam novum seminatum et radicatum germinaret ex humo et
produceret fructum.

563.
Oltre alle suddette analogie Gioacchino sa scoprirne un'altra che per la
sua singolarità merita di esser riferita. Conc., IV, 2, fol. 43, col. 2. Sed et
illud ad concordiam pertinere non est dubium, quod sicut Eva prima
mater corrupta per serpentem genuit geminos in peccato, quorum junior
a primogenito interfectus est; ita, ut traditur, tempore predicti Osie
mater populi romani, que vocata est Rhea vel Ilia, geminos concepit de
stupro, et nihilominus primogenitus juniorem occidit.

564.
Conc., II, I, 5, fol. 8, col. 2. Habet autem iter istud, quo pergere
cupimus, duce deo, aliquid securius utpote quam non aliquo casu agitar
 aut agi capit, sed in dei sapientia et doctrina habens stationes suas
certis limitibus designatas. Qui videlicet limites diversis modis
considerandi sunt, largo seu et districto secundum majora tempora et
secundum mediocra et minora; quod totum de numero generationum et
temporum proprietate colligitur. Aliud namque tempus fuit, in quo
homines vivebant secundum carnem, hoc est usque ad Christum, cujus
initiatio facta est in Adam. Aliud in quo vivitur inter utrumque, hoc est
inter carnem et spiritum, usque scilicet ad presens tempus, cujus
initiatio facta est ab Heliseo propheta, sive ab Osia rege Juda. Aliud in
quo vivitur secundum spiritum usque videlicet ad finem mundi, cujus
initiatio a diebus beati Benedicti. Fructificatio itaque vel proprietas primi
temporis, sive ut dicimus melius, primi Status ab Habraam usque ad
Zachariam patrem Joannis Baptiste, initiatio ab Adam. Fructificatio
secundi status a Zacharia usque ad generationem quadragesimam
secundam; initiatio ab Osia sive a diebus Asa sub quo vocatus est
Heliseus ab Helya propheta. Fructificatio tertii status ab ea generatione,
quae fuit vigesimasecunda a Sancto Benedicto, usque ad
consumationem seculorum; initiatio a Sancto Benedicto.

565.
Conc., II a, 18, fol. 13, col. 1. Ab Adam usque ad Jacob fuerunt
generationes 21: a Jacob usque ad Asa et alio modo usque ad Osiam
generationes 21; licet enim judices qui prefuerunt populo Israel non
pertineant ad ordinem generationum; tamen pro generationibus
accipiendi sunt, quia quedam propagatio spiritualis fuit in eis sicut ut in
regibus Jude et Israel. Exinde ab Asa usque ad Achim, sive ab Osia
usque ad Christum generationes 21.

566.
Conc., II, I, 19, fol. 13, col. 1. Quia denarius numerus perfectus est
integer in seipso, in eo velut in fonte aliorum statuendus esset finis
inquisitionis nostre .... Si quidem ab Adam usque ad diluvium
generationes decem, a diluvio usque ad subversionem Sodomorum
generationes decem. Exinde usque ad Obed, qui fuit contemporaneus
Hely, generat. X. Exinde usque ad Joas, in cujus diebus cepit sterminari
Israel ab Azael rege Siriae, gen. X. Exinde usque ad trasmigr. Babilonis
gen. X.

567. Conc., II, I, 23, fol. 14, col. 3. Et que sint illa septem signacula
(memorata in libro Apocalipsi) septem signa quorum sex peracta sunt in
labore filiorum Israel, septimum in otium.
568.
Conc., II, I, 9, fol. 10, col. 2. Primus status tenendus est ab Adam usque
ad Christum, secundus ab Osia rege usque ad presens, tertius a beato
Benedicto usque ad consumationem seculi.

569.
Conc., IV, 24, fol. 53, col. 4. Illud autem lectorem moneo et maxime in
legendis historiis et notandis annorum numeris studiosum, ut si forte in
distinctione pontificum et imperatorum aliquid per generationes singulas
invenerit corrigendum, quod ex corruptione multimodo chronicarum
accidesse posse non nego, liberum sit ei pie tamen et veraciter
emendare, ne forte sicut ego in diversis diversa repperi, ita accidere
potuerit ud ad summam veritatis venire nequierit ....

570.
Conc., IV, 3, fol. 44-45. Il raffronto si chiude con queste parole: Quod
intelligens Constantinus imperator beato papa Silvestro imperialem,
quam ipse tenere videbatur, tamquam deditam Christo regi sponte
obtulit dignitatem. Verumtamen quia regnum Christi non est ex hoc
mundo, sic visum fuit romanis pontificibus debitam semper a Christo
accipere potestatem, ut tamen usum temporalis regni vel potius
bonorum corporalis regiminis illis cogerentur permittere, qui mundi
gloriam querunt, ne hi, qui juxta Apostolum militant deo, implicarentur
temporalibus negociis. Gioacchino conosce ed apprezza grandemente
l'opuscolo di S. Bernardo indirizzato a papa Eugenio. (Conc., V, 64, fol.
94, col. 4). Bernardus noster abbas Claravallis, qui in libro suo de
Consideratione misso ad Eugenium papam, nihil de negligentiis aut
gravamine subjectorum derelictum est in tantum, ut adeo liber ipse alter
leviticus esse putaretur. Et quamvis sanctus vis mordacius argueret in
romano pontifico occupationem, non tamen absolute occupationem, sed
illam quae est secundum seculum, per quam ea, que est secundum
Deum occupatio, periit.

571.
IV, 5, fol. 46, col. 1. Non enim in hac generatone aliquis imperator similis
Salomoni in sapientia reperitur. Et tamen per spiritualem intellectum
completum est in hac eadem generatione secundum aliquod mysterium
Salomonis, quia Christus Jesus, quem significat Salomon altius pre solito
per quosdam preordinatos servulos abundanter influxit .... Hylarius,
Hieronimus, Joannes Chrisostomus, Augustinus.

572.
Conc., IV, 6, fol. 46, col. 4; IV, 8, fol. 47, col. 4; fol. 48, col. 1.
573.
Il cap. IV, 17, fol. 52, col. 2-3, che riguarda Leone si chiude con queste
secche parole per Gregorio VII: Denique et in sequenti generatione, que
respicit Joachaz (Joachin), quia sine consensu imperiali electus est
Gregorius VII in romanum pontificem, obsessus ab imperatore idem
papa, sublatusque idem a duce normandorum ductus est usque ad
Salernum. In cujus locum idem imperator substituit Gilbertum,
ravennatem episcopum, vocavitque eum Clementem. Completa est
autem in hoc facto similitudo ei que accidit regi Joachaz, quem rex
Egypti amovit a Hierusalem, ne regnaret in eo, et substituit ei Joachim
fratrem ejus pro eo.

574.
Conc., IV, 22-25, fol. 53, col. 2; fol. 54, col. 3. Riporto solo la fine di
questo lungo passo. Etenim ordo ille, qui pro claritate sapientie dici
poterat aurum, modo obscuratum est et rursum velut in nigrum
plumbum. Et hii, qui quasi lapides preciosi contineri consueverunt in
claustro cordis, modo percurrentes vias latas, dispersi sunt in capite
omnium platearum, disponentes exteriora negocia, dirimentes eas et
lites judiciorum non bonorum .... Nunc autem ipsius ecclesie exigentibus
culpis, hii qui successerunt in ipso ordine sacerdotali, nihil pene
habentes de imitatione celestis hominis, terreni sunt omnino et terrena
sectantur.

575.
IV, 30, fol. 55, col. 4. In ecclesia vero incipit generatio quadragesima
prima anno domini 1201 .... Sed tamen expectandum est cura ingenti
timore.

576.
Conc., I, 8, fol. 9, col. 3: Habet et monachorum ordo imaginem Spiritus
Sancti qui est amor Dei; quia non posset ordo ipse despicere mundum,
et ea quae sunt mundi nisi provocatus amore Dei et tractus ab eodem
Spiritu, qui expulit dominum in desertum, veruntamen spiritualis dictus
est quia non secundum carnem ambulat sed secundum spiritum. Igitur
primus ordo initiatus est ab Adam, secundus ab Osia rege Juda, tertius
secundum aliquid ab Heliseo propheta, secundum aliquid a beato
Benedicto. Quare sic? Quia Spiritus Sanctus a patre filioque procedit.

577. Conc., II a, 14, fol. 11, col. 4: Si autem incipis ab Asa sub quo vocatus
est Heliseus, ab ipso usque ad trigesimam septimam generationem ab
incarnatione Domini, sub qua et convaluit pre solito ordo monasticus sub
 regula sancti Benedicti in partibus Galliarum generationes sexaginta tres,
usque vero ad initium tertii status septuaginta.

578.
Conc., II, I, 14, fol. 11, col. 3: Et rursus a sancto Benedicto usque ad
consumationem seculi eadem existimatio manet sub eo tamen dierum
numero, quem novit ipse solus, qui fecit omnia secundum consilium
voluntatis sue. Ivi, III, 6, 7, fol. 42, col. 3: Ego autem mediam horam
(Apoc., 8, 13) in loco isto pro dimidio anno accipiendum esse puto. Quid
tamen de hoc verius sit judicio domini relinquendum. V. 64, fol. 95, col.
1: Sed utrum natus sit puer, qui designatus sit in Salomone aut in primo
nasciturus, deus melius novit. Quia initia semper obscura et intellectu
difficilia. V. 118, fol. 134, col. 2: Si queris dierum numerum non est
meum dicere neque scire; quod nobis datum est hoc solvimus.

579.
IV, 31, fol. 56, col. 2: In ecclesia incipiet generatio 42 anno vel hora
quam Deus melius novit. Non è meraviglia che si possa conoscere la fine
di una generazione e non il principio, perchè Gioacchino più volte ripete
che la durata della generazione può essere maggiore o minore del
numero medio. Così Conc. II, I, fol. 12 Generationis in veteri Testamento
variae fuerunt et inequales.

580.
Conc., II, I, 16, fol. 12, col. 3: Igitur in Testamento novo non secundum
carnem accipienda est generatio sed secundum spiritum. Et quoniam
triginta annorum erat dominus quando cepit habere filios spirituales,
quod et perfiguratum fuerat in unctione David et inchoatione prophete
Ezechielis prophete, recte spatium generationis in novo Testamento
triginta annorum numero terminatur nimirum quod perfectio ipsius
numeri ad fidem pertinet trinitatis. Inde est quod nemo absque magna
necessitate debet in novo Testamento suscipere sacerdotii dignitatem ut
fiat pater spiritualis nisi sit triginta amorum .... Igitur generationes
ecclesie sub spatio xxx annorum singule sub singulis tricenariis
accipiende sunt, ita ut sic Mattheus comprehendit tempus primi status
sub spatio generationum 42, ita tempus secundi super eodem
generationum numero terminari non sit dubium, maxime cum
ostendatur significatum in numero dierum, quo mansit absconditus
Helias (III Reg. 19) a facie Acab, et quo mulier amicta sole, que
designatur ecclesia, mansit abscondita in solitudine a facie serpentis,
(Apoc., XII, 6) accepto haud dubium die pro anno et mille ducentis
sexaginta diebus pro totidem annis.
581.
V, 15, fol. 67, col. 4: Sic quondam Helias certis temporibus diebus vel
annis mansit absconditus a facie Jezabelis, hoc est tribus annis et
mensibus sex, ita in eodem spatio dierum et annorum dicta est
memorata stetisse in solitudine, hoc est 1260 (Apoc., XII, 6). Hoc
tempus et tempora et dimidium temporis, quia vero numerus iste
dierum vel annorum noctibus sit ad agnoscenda tempora dies et annos,
et in secundo hujus operis libro sufficienter demonstratum est. Cfr. V,
75, fol. 104, col. 2.

582.
Conc., V, 89, fol. 118, col. 2. Quod ergo mulier ista ascenderat in
eminentiorem partem domus, et ut fugeret consortia publica, ibi se
contegerat cum puellis suis, quid nisi vitam contemplativam et
anacoreticam significare creditur maxime cum scriptum sit in libro
Apocalypsi de muliere amicta Sole, et mulier fugit in solitudinem ut
pascat ibi diebus 1260. Cfr. Apoc., fol. 160, col. 2.

583.
Conc., l. c., fol. 117, col. 4. Vidua Judith ecclesiam orientalem sicut puto
designat .... mansit autem Judith in viduitate sua annis tribus et
mensibus sex. Magnum istud plane et apertum mysterium. Hic est enim
ille magnus numerus qui universa hec continet facta. Sunt etenim
menses 42 sive dies 1260, nihilque aliud designant quam annos 1260, in
quibus novi testamenti sacramenta consistunt.

584.
II, I, 14, fol. 11, col. 8. Ordo monachorum secundum aliquid ab Heliseo
propheta, qui vocatus est ad gratiam prophetie in extremo tempore Asa
regis Juda, et secundum aliquid a beato Benedicto, qui quantum datur
intelligi ex his que legimus in libro dialogorum vocatus est a domino ad
ordinem monachatus circa extremitatem 16 generationis ab incarnatione
Domini.

585.
Conc., II a, 25, fol. 15, col. 2. Reversus est autem Sol decem lineis in
diebus Ezechiae, qui fuit decimus tertius a Salomone, ut bis decem
generationes numerari debuissent.

586.
Conc., II a, 12, fol. 10, col. 4. Quod in sequentibus diligentius
prosequendum est liquet quod a Jacob patriarcha velut duobus viis
descenditur usque ad David seu per judices et rectores populi, altera per
patres ut ipse unus David veluti quidam prepotens annis duos in se rivos
 suscipiat ex uno quidem fonte progressos, sed diversis usque ad se
aquarum ductibus venientes.

587. Apoc., fol. 27, col. 4. Querendum est nobis .... cur beatus Johannes,
apocalipsis librum eisdem septem ecclesiis quasi spiritualiter delegaverit,
qui non modo ex parte ut prophetae ceteri sed generalius prae multis
aliis fidelibus loquitur universis.

588.
Ivi, fol. 29, col. 3. Igitur quod ad quinque tribus generaliter spectat, ab
exordio temporum usque ad Christum consummatum est. Et non in
eisdem quinque tribubus omnes illorum temporum electorum progenies
intelligendae sunt, que fide et operibus bonis eterne regnum beatitudinis
hereditare meruerunt.

589.
In Apocal., fol. 29, col. 1. Et recte quoque Ruben et Gad et dimidia
tribus Manasse ad plagam orientalem laborum suorum premia
perceperunt, quia prime ille generationes seculi, que ab Adam usque ad
Noe, a Noe usque ad Habraam, ab Habraam usque ad Moysen, quasi
due tribus et dimidia sine lege vixerunt, et mundi origini adjacentes
fuerunt velut ad plagam orientalem, hoc est in etatibus primis, in quibus
sine lege vivebant. Ivi, col. 2: Igitur a Moyse usque ad Christum reliqua
Manasse tribus dimidia, Effraim quoque et Juda velut ex hac fluminis
parte hereditatem acceperunt, quia sicut duas etates et dimidiam ante
legem, sic duas et dimidiam sub lege Deus onnipotens esse voluit.
Septem vero distinctiones temporum ab initio secundi status usque ad
initium tertii in hac vero etate sexta, secundum quod liber iste docet,
instituit, ut et numeri duodenarii servaretur integritas, et perfectio
quinarii ac septenarii si qua alia non de essent. In questo luogo cita la
Concordia: de quibus in opere Concordie fecimus mentionem.

590.
In Apoc., fol. 48, col. 2. Veruna quod filius Dei, qui proprie dicitur
sapientia, formam servi assumpsit, in qua sustineret lassitudinem et
laborem, Spiritus vero Sanctus, qui vocatur Dei charitas, non assumpsit;
quia et nos in addiscenda sapientia angustamur, affligimur et laboramus,
in amando vero quem amare libet, nullas afflictionis sustinemus
angustias .... Et quia quinque sunt, ut jam diximus corporis sensus, in
quibus se mortalis homo ad studium actionis exercet, septem vero dona
spiritus, quibus homo interior efficitur spiritalis, merito quinque
principales ecclesie unigenita Dei Filio attribuenda sunt, septem vero
Spiritui Sancto .... quinque opera Christi .... primum opus Christi
 nativitas fuit, secundum passio, tertium resurrectio, quartum ascensio,
sane quintum opus ipsa est ostensio linguarum et missio spiritus sancti
....

591.
Fol. 54, col. 2. .... quid enim velit septem planetarum distinctio cogitare
compellimur, presertim cum septenarius numerus tante perfectionis sic,
ut vix aut nunquam possit carere non dico qualicumque sed perfecto
mysterio. Querimus ergo fide, ratione juvante, et invenimus in electorum
agminibus septem quosdam viros proprietate quodam in misteriis ab
illorum multitudini segregatos. Adam, Noe, Abraam, Moyses, David,
Joannes Baptista, Helias .... deus omnipotens misit in mundum hos
septem viros magnos et nominatos per diversa intervalla temporum, ut
quasi quosdam novos cursus peragerent preceptorum Dei.

592.
Fol. 57, col. 1. Sunt itaque istorum radii septem proprietates eorum, in
quibus similitudines septem ordinum denotatae sunt.

593.
Fol. III, col. 4. Congruit namque proprietate quadam fortitudo praelatis,
scientia dyaconibus, intellectus doctoribus, sapientia contemplatoribus,
consilium conventualibus, pietas eis qui miseratur pauperibus, timor
conjugio alligatis.

594.
Vedi l'interpetrazione dei suggelli In Apoc., fol. 114 e segg. Nel fol. 117,
col. 3, si legge questo passo importante per la cronologia di Gioacchino:
Constet autem quod post quintum sigillum, in cujus extremitate nos
sumus, restat adhuc martyrum pugna.

595.
Fol. 118, col. 1. Volo enim illum scire, duobus modis accipi diem ultimum
et diem judicii. Accipitur enim largo modo pro quodam incerto tempore
.... et accipitur stricto modo de conclusione ipsius temporis, quando
consummatis cunctis mysteriis, ibunt impii in supplicium eternum, justi
autem in vitam eternam. Cfr. fol. 139, col. 4.

596.
Fol. 118, col. 4. Cura ordo ille preclarus, qui letus et ylaris esse debuit,
splendore lucidus et candore (fol. 119, col. 1), accidentibus contra
votum contrariis, pro merito pravitatis sue tristis efficitur et obscurus.
Dum enim multum laborat et parum proficit, dum nimis occupatur in
exterioribus pro stipendiis carnis, a studio vite spiritualis incipit esse
 alienus .... Obscuratur aurum, cura splendor vite contemplative in ordine
monasticho inanescit, mutatur et color optimus, cum hii qui positi sunt
ad speculanda celestia, inhiare incipiunt lucra terrena.

597. Fol. 119, col. 2. Sed et vita clericorum, que primo radios lucis sue
effundere solebat in populo, proh dolor! in sanguinem versam esse
videmus. Nihil enim in ea spirituale, nihil celicum; sed omne pene
lubricum, totum carnale, totum caro et sanguis et evisceratio spiritus.
Ubi lites, ubi scandala, ubi rixe, ubi invidie, ubi emulationes? Nonne in
ecclesia clericorum? Nonne inter eos qui lucem exemplorum suorum
dare subjectis plebibus debuerunt?... Denique et stellas celi absque
numero cadere (VI, 13) videmus in terra, sive ruina pravitatis heretice,
sive (ut in pluribus) lapsu carnis.

598.
Fol. 123, col. 1. Silentium sacri sabbati silentium est vite contemplative.
Silent enim sancti consumatis mysteriis ut audiant quid loquatur in se
dominus deus.

599.
Fol. 130, col. 3. Quis fuit miser iste .... deus scit, clericum tamen fuisse
et imbutum scientia litterarum ex huius textu lectionis apparet.

600.
Fol. 133, col. 1. Siquidem ut omnes illis Christi domini dicebantur, ita et
in secta ista multi jam precesserunt, qui essent pro auctoritate perfidie
dicendi Antichristi; maxime cum dicat Joannes utens presenti vel
preterito pro futuro: sicut audistis quia Antichristus venit, nunc
Antichristi multi facti sunt. Et quia protinus subinfert (Joann., 1): Unde
scimus quia novissima hora est, sequi non longe post ipsum magnum
Antichristum demonstrat, quem ego considerans universas facies
scripturarum et introitus et exitus concordiarum, presentem puto esse in
mundo, etsi necdum venerit hora revelationis ipsius. Oportet enim
secundum Hieronimum desolari romanum imperium, quod resistit ei,
antequam reveletur .... revelabitur autem manifeste sub sexto Angelo
tuba canente, etsi antea velut occulte operari incipiat. Tempus siquidem
sexti Angeli omnino credimus esse breve. A chi si riferisca Gioacchino è
ben difficile dire. Non sarebbe impossibile che accennasse a Federigo II,
a quel tempo pupillo d'Innocenzo III. Molti guelfi dubitavano che il
Papato non avesse a pentirsi dell'aiuto prestato ad un discendente di
casa sveva, e Gioacchino poteva essere bene uno di costoro. Ma è molto
più probabile che accennasse vagamente ad un re dei Saraceni, ad un
 nuovo Saladino, che avrebbe recati maggiori danni del suo predecessore
non meno alla Chiesa che all'Impero.

601.
Fol. 133, col. 3. Tempus sexti angeli tuba canentis, de quo in presente
capitulo sermo est, ita secundum id, quod proprium est, futurum esse
sentimus, ut tamen secundum aliquid sumpsisse exordium videatur ....
Igitur in quantum capere queo, tempus quidem sexti Angeli initiatum
est, sed tamen tempus quinti necdum usque ad presens consumationem
accepit.

602.
Citammo altrove il passo che si riferisce alle notizie avute in Messina.
Ora citeremo quest'altro, dal quale si narra più chiaramente che
l'Anticristo per Gioacchino non può essere un imperatore cristiano, ma
un pagano, fol. 134, col. 4. Dictum est autem quod siccandae essent
aquae Euphratis, ut preparetur via Regibus ab ortu solis, quod sine
gemitu dicendum non est, initiatio quaedam terribilis precepit super eo
quod nuper accidit sub inclyto illo exercitu Frederici magni et
potentissimi Imperatoris et aliis exercitibus populi christiani, qui
transeuntes mare in infinita multitudine, vix in paucis reliquiis pene sine
effectu remearunt ad propriam.

603.
Fol. 140-141. Et sciendum quod aqua magis assimilatur rei viventi quam
terra, unde aquam vivam dicere consuevimus, magis autem ignis quam
aqua, quia dignius est Testamentum novum Testamento veteri, multo
magis proximum eterne vite.

604.
Riunisco in questa nota i passi dell'Esposizione, che si riferiscono al
terribile anno 1260. Fol. 145, col. 4: calcanda (Ecclesia) perhibetur ab
eis mensibus quadraginta duobus, quod est dicere secundum Lucana
donec impleuntur tempora nationum. Fol. 157, col. 3: Et mulier fugiit in
solitudinem, ubi pasceret illam Deus diebus 1260. Numerus iste quid
significet liber quem propter ipsum et secundum ipsum edidimus
(evidentemente accenna alla Concordia) manifeste declarat. La
Concordia è citata esplicitamente a fol. 165, col. 3-4, nell'interpetrazione
della frase di Daniele: in tempus et tempora et dimidium temporis, che
Gioacchino intende per 3 anni e mezzo ovvero 42 mesi. Fol. 164, col. 3:
Daniel scripserat: (VII, 24) .... Decem cornua, que vidisti in bestia, ipsius
regni deum reges erunt. Et alius consurget post eos, et ipse potentior
erit prioribus, et tres reges humiliabit, et sermones contra excelsum
 loqueretur, et sancto altissimi conteret, et putabit quod possit mutare
tempora et leges, et tradentur in manu ejus in tempus et tempora et
dimidiam temporis .... Nec aliud quod dicit Joannes: datum est ei facere
menses quadraginta duos.

605.
Vedi l'interpetrazione della donna ammantata di sole nel fol. 154, col. 3;
quella del drago, fol. 156, col. 2; infine quella della bestia dalle sette
teste, fol. 162, col. 2-4.

606.
Fol. 164, col. 4. Sarracenorum vero ex tot annis semel inchoata perfidia
perseverat in malo, et ubique christianum nomen impugnare pro viribus
non desistit .... forte futurum est ut christiani prevaleant predicando
magis quam preliando.

607. Fol. 168, col. I. Sicut prima bestia, que egressa est de mari, omnino
concordat cum sexta visione Danielis, in qua agitur de quatuor bestiis
egressis de mari magno, ita hec secunda, que ascendit de terra cum
septima visione ipsius, in qua agitur de Hyrco caprarum .... Sicut bestia
illa, que ascendit de mari, habitura est quemdam magnum regem de
secta sua, qui similis sit Neronis, et quasi imperator totius orbis, ita
bestia, que ascendit de terra, habitura sit quemdam magnum prelatum,
qui sit similis Simonis Magi, et quasi universalis Pontifex in toto orbe
terrarum, et ipse sit ille Antichristus, de quo dicit Paulus quod extollitur
et adversatur supra omne quod dicitur deus, aut quod excolitur. Fol.
169, col. 1-2. Igitur et in sexcentis comprehenditur totum quod pertinet
ad sex etates mundi, in sexaginta specificatur illa pars que pertinet ad
sextam etatem et in sex sextum tempus hujus sexte etatis.

608.
Fol. 195, col. 3. Civitas, ut jam dixi, riproborum que dicta est Babylon
non tantum romana civitas existimanda est, aut ipsa (quod absit)
secundum totum, sed universa multitudo impiorum et natorum
secundum carnem. Fol. 196, col. 3: Primum caput fuit regnum Herodis
et successorum ejus; secundum, imperium romanorum usque at
Diocletianum; tertium, quartum, quintum et sextum quatuor in opere
memorata regna arrianorum; septimum caput, regnum Sarracenorum
.... Et reges septem sunt ut non isti septem reges singuli per singula
capita, sed alio modo surgere intelliguntur per singula septem
temporum .... Horum primus fuit Herodes .... secundus Nero .... tertius
Constantius arrianus .... quartus Mahomet vel potius Cosroe rex
persarum .... quintus is qui primus in partibus occiduis cepit fatigare
 ecclesiam pro investitura ecclesiarum .... sextus autem rex, de quo
dicitur, et unus est et ille est rex undecimus in Daniele in cujus tempore
aperienda est ad liquidum revelatio ista et percutienda nova Babylon ....
Post cujus percussionem occidetur septimum caput bestie, et dabitur
tranquillitas ecclesie Christi.

609.
Fol. 197, col 1. Et decem cornua que vidisti in bestia decem reges sunt
.... hoc autem quomodo intelligi possit non video nisi ut sub nomine
sexti regis alius surgere intelligatur post alium, quatenus post illum, de
quo dicit Joannes. Unus est, quem propter temporis instantiam puto
fuisse Saladinum, famosissimum illum regem turchorum, a quo nuper
capta est illa civitas, in qua passus est Christus. Surgat alius in
successionem ipsius ....

610.
Nella Concordia, V, 84, fol. 112, col. 2, si troverà il passo che tradussi nel
testo. Ivi si legge: primus senum, secundus juvenum, tertius puerorum.
Il che sarebbe come a dire che l'umanità segua un cammino a ritroso
dei singoli uomini, cominciando dalla vecchiezza e terminando nella
puerizia. Altrimenti dice nel Commento all'Apocalisse, fol. 139, col. 2: in
primo erudiuntur parvuli, in secundo instituuntur adolescentes, in tertio
inebriabuntur amici.

611.
Conc., II, 1, fol. 8, col. 3 (cfr. Apoc., fol. 5, col. 3-4), fol. 8, col. 3.
Conjugatorum ordo initiatus ab Adam, fructificare cepit ab Habraam.
Clericorum ordo initiatus est ab Osia, qui cuna esset de tribu Juda obtulit
incensum domino, etsi non impune. Fructificavit autem a Christo, qui
verus est rex et sacerdos. Monachorum ordo secundum quandam
propriam formam, cui spiritus sanctus, qui est auctor beatorum,
perfectam exhibuit auctoritatem, incepit a beato Benedicto, viro utique
claro, miraculis ope et sanctitate, cujus fructificatio in temporibus finis
(istis?).

612.
Conc., II, I, 8, fol. 9, col. 3. Habet ergo conjugatorum ordo imaginem
patris, quia sicut pater ideo pater est qui habet filium, ita ordo
conjugatorum non nisi ad procreandos filios istitutum est a Deo ....
habet et clericorum ordo imaginem filii, quia verbum patris, quia ad hoc
constitutus est ipse, ut loquatur et doceat populum viam domini, et
ostendat ei continue legitima Dei sui ... habet et monacorum ordo
imaginem spiritus sancti, qui est amor Dei, quia non posset ordo ipse
 despicere mundum nisi provocatus amore dei et tractus ab eodem
spiritu, qui expulit dominum in deserto.

613.
Conc., II a, 1, fol. 7, col. 1. Construendum est nobis cum Helia (I, Reg.,
18, 31-38) altare de terra ipsa, terra collocanda inferius, ut aqua
desuper locari queat, expectantibus nobis ignem de celo, qui consumat
terram et aquam, expectantibus spiritualem intellectum, qui terrenam
illam superficiem litere, que de terra est et de terra loquitur, evacuando
consumat, et nihilominus evangelicam doctrinam designatam hic in aqua
lambendo commutet, secundum et aqua illa crassa, quam posuit in altari
Neemias sacerdos (2 Machab., I, 20), conversa est in igne, aut sicut in
cena Galilee aqua commutata est in vino. Conc., V, 68, col. 1. In primo
(periodo) solius patris gloria revelata est populo illi antiquo, indocto,
terreno et animali nescienti intelligere quod esset verbum domini aut
spiritus oris ejus; in secundo gloria filii; et ex presenti gloria spiritus
sancti. In tertio reverenda est perfecta gloria ipsius spiritus, ut evacuetur
quod ex presente est. Plus ergo glorificati sunt homines secundi status,
quia plus noverunt; plus glorificabuntur homines tertii, quibus revelata
facie loquetur idem spiritus omnem veritatem ....
614.
In Apoc., fol. 86, col. 3. Fuit enim claritas secundi status, secundum
quod dicit idem apostolus: videmus nunc per speculum in enigmate;
claritas vero tertii erit jam prope secundum totum, secundum
plenitudinem veritatis, quod est videre facie ad faciem, parvissima valde
obsistente interpositione velaminis.

615.
Conc., V, 74, fol. 102, col. 4. Sicut enim evacuata est observatio agni
paschalis in observatione corporis Christi, ita in clarificatione Spiritus
Sancti cessabit observatio figure, ut non sequantur ultra homines
figuras, sicut ipsam semplicissimam veritatem, que significatur in igne,
dicente domino: spiritus est deus, et eos, qui adorant eum in spiritu et
veritate, oportet adorare.

616.
Conc., I, 9, fol. 5, col. 4. Claudit et nemo aperit abscondens a
prudentibus et sapientibus verba vitae et revelans ea parvulis ut omnem
philosophicae superstitionis vanitatem excludat. In Apoc., fol. 70, col. 3.
Tales sunt illi scribi infra sanctam ecclesiam constituti, qui inflati vanitate
seculi et scentia mundi et magisterium sibi pravi dogmatis arroganter
usurpant, quorum superbe mentes nidi avium sunt, et Arrius, Eunomius,
Macedonius et fautores eorum. Cfr. Apoc., fol. 87, col. 3.

617. Rousselot, Joachim de Flore, pag. 43.

618.
Conc., II b, 5, fol. 20, col. 3. Pater siquidem imposuit laborem legi quia
timor est; filius imposuit laborem discipline, quia sapientia est; Spiritus
Sanctus exhibet libertatem quia amor est. Ubi enim timor, ibi servitus;
ubi magisterium ibi disciplina; ubi amor ibi libertas.

619.
In Apoc., fol. 179, col. 1. Igitur odium cordi radicatum peccatum est ad
mortem et peccatum nihilominus contra spiritum sanctum. Nam spiritus
sanctus amor est, quod est peccatum amori contrarium nisi odium?

620.
In Apoc., fol. 180, col. 4. Primam perditionis causam peccatum esse
superbie .... peccans utique in ipsum Christum, qui parvus et humilis
 factus est .... Qui, sciens paupertatem regis sui, erubescit egere, nonne
Christum offendit positum in presepio? Qui erubescit ascendere mite
animal Christi, et spumantis equi sibi arrogantiam querit, nonne regem
suum offendit, quem ludisse super asinum reminiscitur.

621.
In Apoc., fol. 183, col. 2. Qui ergo vere monachus est nihil reputat esse
suum nisi citharam. Conc., IV, 39, col. 59, fol. 3. Necesse quippe ut
succedat similitudo apostolice vite, in qua non acquirebatur possessio
terrene hereditatis, sed vendebatur potius sicut scriptum est.

622.
Conc., III, I, 20, fol. 37, col. 3. Danielem vero prophetam significare
spiritum sanctum, sicut et Joseph et Josue et Samuel, ipsa prerogativa
castitatis insinuat, quae ubique pene cum occurrit spiritui sancto solet
ascribi, eo quod fit ipse amor Dei et effusor spiritualis voluptatis, quam
nemo novit nisi qui accipit.

623.
Renan, op. cit., pag. 153.

624.
Amari, Storia dei Musulmani in Sicilia, I, 441.

625.
Rodotà, Storia del rito Greco in Italia, I, 153, 174 e segg.

626.
Che nell'arcivescovato di S. Severina si fosse conservato il rito greco lo
prova una lettera d'Innocenzo III, dalla quale si raccoglie che un Pietro
Guiscardo, protettore dei Florensi, minacciava i canonici di strappare loro
le mogli, se non acconsentivano di affidare ai Florensi in danno dei
cistercensi di Corazzo la chiesa di Calabro Maria. (Ughelli, IX, 479).

627. Ughelli, Italia Sacra, IX, 302, 307.

628.
Bollandisti, maggio, II, 48; Amari, op. cit., I, 519.

629.
Morì intorno al 903. Bolland., agosto, III, 489 e segg.

630.
Boll., settembre, III, 343 e segg.
631.
Boll., ottobre, VI, 332 e segg.

632.
Boll., settembre, VII, 283 e segg.

633.
Boll., settembre, VIII, 810 e segg.

634.
Sul commento di Alano vedi più sopra, pag. 303, n. 1.

635.
Boll., marzo, I, 498. Fuit S. Cyrillus Presbyter Montis Carmeli .... Ipse
dum pro reverenda celebritate B. Hilarionis abbatis missarum solemnia
inchoasset .... nebula condensa sibi adstit. Ipso igitur stupescente,
angelus .... in ipsa nebula visus .... offerens virgam liliatam et duas
tabellas argenteas, litteris Graecis descriptas, dixitque: cum sacramenta
compleveris, has scripturas transcribes in membrana, et constans
tabellas formabis in calicem et thuribulum ad libanda et adolenda in ara
sacrificii matutini .... Dum igitur sanctus iste eas tabellas transcripsisset
et conflasset hujusmodi transcriptum per Telesphorum monachum
abbati Joachim, viro sancto et illuminato, transmisit instantias
supplicando ut ratione suae magnae obscuritatis super eo
commentariolum quoddam conficeret, quo abscondita perducerentur in
lucem .... Quod abbas Joachim ad instantiam S. Cyrilli facere minime
desistebat, rescribens ei epistolam, in qua inter cetera nominat ipsum S.
Cyrillum stellam manentem in ordine sanctitatis. Questi due oracoli
insieme alla lettera di S. Cirillo ed alla risposta di Gioacchino furono
pubblicati da Lezana nel 1663. Edidit postea Abbas Joachim
commentarium sive interpetrationem hujus oraculi, paullo fusiorem,
quam Lezana non audet transcribere, quia reperit aliqua contineri, quae
aliquibus pusillis saltem scandali occasionem afferre possent.

636.
In Apoc., fol. 143, col. 4. Graecorum populo datus est Beatus Johannis,
a quo et incepit perfectorum religio monachorum. Fol. 144, 3. Igitur
reliquia Graecorum, agnita veritate, que est in spiritu, convertentur ad
unitatem Ecclesiae. Et reliquie Judaeorum pari modo convertentur ad
dominum. Fol. 145, col. 2. Intelligamus monachorum ordinem, quem
designat Johannis, a Graecis pervenisse ad Latinos .... revertetur ad
eum populum, de quo venit ad nos, permansurus in eodem populo
usque ad finem. Conc., II, 1, 27, fol. 17, col. 3. Verumtamen ut in
populo illo claruerunt Helias et Heliseus .... ita inventi sunt in populo
 grecorum magis heremite et abbates, habentes plures discipulos in
monastica perfectione.

637. Conc., V, 47, fol. 82, col. 1. Siquidem clericorum ordo secundum grecos,
non secundum spiritum cepit ambulare sed secundum litteram.
Monacorum vero qui ab eis quidem incepit, sed tamen processu
temporis transiit ad latinos, audiens consilium apostoli de castitate,
magis elegit ambulare secundum spiritum quam secundum literam (1,
Cor., 7). Non enim simpliciter voluit audire de sacerdote unius uxoris
viro, sed magis illud: qui sine uxore est sollicitus est que domini sunt
quomodo placeat Deo; qui autem cum uxore est, sollicitus est quomodo
placeat uxori.

638.
In Ap., fol. 131, col. 1. Pathareni haeretici mundos se coram populo,
justitia preditos esse simulant, tamen ex occulto circa finem verbi
producunt aculeos erroris sui, quibus tamen non servos Dei promittentur
ferire, sed illos homines, qui mundanas delitias concupiscunt .... pro
subsidiis tamporalibus (credentes) adheserunt eis (perfectis) sicut ex
relatu eorum, qui tum fuerunt inter eos et penituerunt, didicimus ....
denique convenientes in unum faciunt collectas bonorum suorum, et si
quos vident inopes anhelare ad divitias mundi, primo ostendut eis
affectum misericordiae et miserationis: deinde culpant Christianos divites
et maxime Sacerdotes et clerum qui deberent (ajunt) servare
apostolicum vitam et sublevare miserias pauperis et egeni, ut nemo
esset egens in religione Christiana, sicut non erat in Ecclesia primitiva.
Deinde dicunt eos excidisse a fide, factos autem persecutores justorum,
sicut sacerdotes Judaeorum, qui persequebantur apostolos. Ad ultimum
fatentur se scire homines qui servent ad integrum apostolicam fidem, ita
ut fit aliquis inops inter eos, et qui pauper venit ad illos, protinus
efficetur dives. Haec et his similia quasi rationabiliter concinnantes munda
animalia se esse fingunt quousque percutiant homines ex improviso
dicentes: Et tu quoque si vis esse de credentibus in fidem etc.

639.
Tra i molti luoghi in cui Gioacchino critica il Vecchio Testamento scelgo
questo della Concordia, II, 15, fol. 6, col. 1. Qui sciebat duritiam cordis
eorum, qui terreni erant, adhuc pro tempore promisit eis multa, quae
non decet sanctos, promisit non celestia sed terrena, temporalia non
eterna. Ergo ne pro terrena patria fundendus est sanguis, et ut longo
vivamus tempore serviendum est Deo .... Si pro justitia sua Habraam
patriarcha multiplicatus est in semine carnis, quare in singulis regionibus
multiplicati sunt filii Adam in gentibus incredulis et non obedientibus
 Deo? Si pro munere credulitatis ejus datum est ei, ut reges egrederentur
de lumbis ejus, numquid non merito paganorum filii preferre potuere
numina idolorum suorum, qui colentes et servientes eis etiam in toto
mundo imperasse noscuntur? .... Sed quasi per tot annos data est terra
ipsa gentibus non servantibus legem Dei, neque obtemperantibus Moisi
servo Dei? Col. 2: Quomodo aliam vitam permisere prophete, quam ea
quam vere permiserat Moyses observantibus legem? .... Si ista, quae
deorsum est Hierusalem civitas revera justorum est et mater
credentium, quomodo in ea regnasse impii, et justi et innocentes viri
interfecti leguntur? .... Restat ergo ut fateantur veram esse sententiam
illam Apostoli (II, Cor., 3, 6), qua dictum est: litera occidit, Spiritus
autem vivificat.

640.
Bonwetsch, Die Geschichte des Montanismus, pag. 57.

641.
Bonwetsch, pag. 56.

642.
Rousselot, Joachim de Flore, Paris, 1867, pag. 53.

643.
Bulaeus, Historia universitatis parisiensis, III, 26.

644.
Guillelmus Armoricus, in D'Arg., I, 127. Redit ergo Parisius, et compellitur
ab Universitate confiteri ore, quod in contrarium praedictae opinioni
suae sentiret ... Taedio ergo et indignatione affectus, ut dicitur,
aegrotavit, et lecto incumbens decessit in brevi.

645.
La fonte più antica, dalla quale a parola copiò il Rigordo, voglio dire la
Cronaca di Guglielmo Armorico, cappellano di Filippo Augusto, esposta la
dottrina di Amorico senza far cenno delle tre età, seguita (D'Arg., I,
127): Post mortem ejus surrexerunt quidam, venenosa ejus doctrina
infecti, qui eo subtilius, plus quam oportet, sapere cupientes, ad
exsufflandum Christum, et ad evacuanda novi Testamenti sacramenta,
novos et inauditos errores et inventiones diabolicas confinxerunt.
Parimenti Cesare Heisterbach nella sua Illustrium miraculorum Historia, V,
22, attribuisce la dottrina, che ei chiama maximam blasphemiam in
Spiritum Sanctum, non ad Amorico, e neanco a Davide, bensì ad un
mastro Guglielmo, ad un sottodiacono Bernardo, ad un altro Guglielmo
orefice ecc.
646.
Martino Polono, in D'Arg., I, 128. Qui Almaricus asserit ideas, quae sunt
in mente divina, creare et creari .... Et sicut alterius naturae non est
Abraam, alterius Isaac, sed unius ac ejusdem, sic dixit: omnia esse
unum et omnia esse Deum .... Item dixit quod sicut lux non videtur in
se, sed in aëre, sic Deus nec ab Angelo, neque ab nomine videbitur in
se, sed tantum in creaturis.

647. S. Tommaso in 2 Sent. dist. 17, qu. I, art. I, accenna soltanto il

ragionamento di Davide senza svolgerlo: et haec tria esse unum, et
idem, ex quo iterum consequitur esse omnia per essentiam unum.

648.
Item asseruit quod si homo non peccasset, in duplicem sexus partitus
non fuisset, nec gravasset; sed eo quo modo sancti angeli multiplicati
sunt, multiplicati fuissent et homines, et quod post resurrectionem
utriusque sexus, adunabitur sicut fuit prius in creatione. (M. Polonus in
D'Arg., I, 128).

649.
Dixerat etiam quod in charitate constitutis nullum peccatum imputabant.
Martinus, l. c., cfr. Guillelmus Armoricus in D'Arg., pag. 127. Charitatis
virtutem sic ampliabant, ut id quod alias peccatum esse si in virtute
fieret charitatis, dicerent jam non esse peccatum. Unde et stupra et
adulteria in charitatis nomine committebant.

650.
Vincenzo Bellov., Spec. hist., lib. xxx, cap. vii. Prima haeresis ejus fuit,
quod quilibet tenetur credere se esse membrum Christi, et hoc esse
unum de fidei articulis, sine quo homo non potest salvari.

651.
Guillelmus Armoricus, in D'Arg., I, 130. Dicebant non aliter esse corpus
Christi in pane altaris, quam in alio pane, et qualibet re, sicque Deum
locutum fuisse in Ovidio, sicut in Augustino. Quest'ultimo pensiero è
molto importante. I veggenti della verità non si possono distinguere in
pagani, e gentili, ebrei o cristiani, chè a tutti parimenti si è rivelata la
somma sapienza. In quanto all'Eucaristia la formola, di cui si solevano
servire gli Almariciani, ci è conservata negli Atti del Concilio di Parigi del
1210 pubblicati dal Martène, Thesaurus, VI, 163, D'Argentré, I, 129: Id
quod ibi fuerat prius formis visibilibus, prolatione verborum subesse
ostenditur. Le parole mistiche, sulle quali insistevano i Valdesi, non
sarebbero se non una constatazione del fatto che il pane, come tutte le
cose, possono dirsi il corpo di Dio.
652.
Dagli Atti citati, pag. 129. Item, filius incarnatus, id est visibili formae
subjectus, nec aliter illum hominem esse Deum, quia unum ex eis
cognoscere voluerunt. Item Spiritus Sanctus in eis incarnatus, ut
dixerunt, eis omnia revelabat.

653.
Dagli Atti, pag. 128: Pater a principio operatus est sine Filio et Spiritu
Sancto usque ad ejusdem Filii incarnationem.

654.
Dagli Atti, loc. cit. Pater in Abraham incarnatus, filius in Maria, Spiritus
quotidie in nobis incarnatus.

655.
Dagli Atti, pag. 129: Item Filius usque nunc operatus est, sed Spiritus
Sanctus ex hoc nunc usque ad mundi consummationem inchoat operari.
Guillelmus Armoricus in D'Arg., 127: Potestas Patris duravit quamdiu
viguit lex Mosaica .... postquam Christus venit aboleverunt omnia
Testamenti veteris sacramenta, et viguit nova lex usque ad illud (istud?)
tempus. In hoc ergo tempore dicebant Testamenti Novi sacramenta
finem habere, et tempus Sancti Spiritus incoepisse. Caes. Heist., V, 22:
Sicut ceciderunt formae legales in primo Christi adventu, ita nunc cadent
omnes formae quibus Filius operatus est, et cessabunt sacramenta, quia
persona Spiritus Sancti dare manifestabit se in quibus incarnabitur. Vinc.
Bellov., xxx, 7: Viguit lex Christi usque ad tempus Almorici, et ex tunc
habuerunt finem, ac fuerunt evacuata Baptismus, Poenitentia et omnia
alia novae legis sacramenta.

656.
Guillelmus Armoricus, pag. 130: Negabunt resurrectionem corporum. La
trasformazione razionalistica c'è conservata dagli Atti. Riscontra il passo
citato più su, p. 415, n. 1, il quale finisce: et haec revelatio (dello spirito)
nil aliud erat quam mortuorum resurrectio.

657. Guillelmus, l. c. Nihil esse Paradisum neque Infernum, sed qui haberet,
cognitionem Dei, quam ipsi habebant, paradisum haberet in se; qui vero
mortale peccatum, haberet infernum in se, sicut dentem putridum in
ore.

658.
Dagli Atti, pag. 129: Mentiti sunt bonorum Baptismatis non egere
parvulos.
659.
Altaria sanctis statui, et sacras imagines thurificari idolatriam esse
dicebant. Eos, qui ossa martyrum deosculabantur, subsannabunt. (Caes.
Heist., pag. 130).

660.
Confessionem, Baptismum, Eucharistiam et alia, sine quibus salus haberi
non potest, locum de caetero non habere; sed unumquemque tantum
per gratiam Spiritus Sancti interius, sine actu aliquo, inspiratam salvari
posse. (Guillelmus Armoricus, pag. 127).

661.
Caes. Heist., pag. 130: In quarta descendet ignis super Praelatos
Ecclesiae, qui sunt membra Antichristi. Dicebat enim qui Papa esset
Antichristus et Roma Babylon. Et ipse sedet in Monte Oliveti, id est, in
pinguedine potestatis.

662.
Debbo la notizia di questa cronaca al bibliotecario della Nazionale di
Napoli, sig. Alvisi, il quale ha studiate e confrontate le diverse redazioni,
e raccolti molti materiali sulle fonti. S'è cercato finora invano un editore,
che voglia pubblicare questo antico documento nell'originale latino.

663.
L'Affò, Vita di frate Elia, Parma, 1819, pag. 10, crede che la cronaca
rimonti ai principii del secolo xiv, ma non sia stata scritta dal B. Angelo
da Cingoli detto Clareno, come sospettava il Wadding. La redazione
italiana è anch'essa antica, e l'esemplare che vide l'Affò non conteneva
se non cinque Tribolazioni. In fine del volume in carattere nero si
leggeva: «Finisce la clonicha dellordine delli frati minori ad gli anni
mcccxxiii».

664.
«Certamente, dice l'Affò a p. 11, questo libro è antico, e vi sono inseriti
dei squarci tolti e copiati interamente da altri ancora più vecchi, perchè
nella seconda tribolazione facendosi memoria di fra Bernardo ecc.,
soggiunge l'autore: E molti altri degli quali io ne vidi alquanti e udii
dalloro quello che io narro; ma appunto per essere un accozzamento di
cose tolte da molti vi sono mescolate moltissime falsità .... Accozzamenti
di più racconti tolti qua e là sono pure il Libro intitolato: Speculum Vitae
B. Francisci et sociorum ejus e i Fioretti di S. Francesco, onde benchè
antichi d'assai non sono troppo sicuri». Al passo citato dall'Affò aggiungo
quest'altro, che accenna pure all'autore della Cronaca pag. 93r. E noi
che fummo con lui (S. Francesco) quando che scrisse la regola, e quasi
 tutte le altre sue scripture, li rendiamo testimonianza che scripse più
cose nella regola e nelli altri suoi decreti, delle quali cose alcuni frati li
furono contrarii in vita sua.

665.
Tommaso da Celano, Vita di S. Francesco, cap. III, (Acta SS., octobris, II,
689). Cum .... Sanctus Dei assistens ibidem verba evangelica
intellexisset, celebratis missarum solemnis, a sacerdote sibi exponi
Evangelium suppliciter postulavit; pag. 690, solvit protinus calceamenta
de pedibus, baculum deponit e manibus, et tunica una contentus, pro
corrigia funiculum immutavit.

666.
Vedi la seconda regola in Wadding, Annales Minorum, II, 64: Si qui
voluerint hanc vitam illis verbum Sancti Evangelii, quod vadunt et
vendunt omnia sua, et ea studeant pauperibus erogare. Et caveant
fratres et eorum ministri, ne solliciti sint de rebus suis temporalibus, ut
libere faciant de rebus suis quidquid Dominus inspiraverit eis.

667. S. Bonav., Vita di S. Francesco, cap. IV (Boll., l. c. pag. 751) Faciebat

namque sancta paupertas .... ipsos ad omnem obedientiam prontos,
robustos, ad labores et ad itinera expeditos. Et quia nihil terrenum
habebant, nihil amabant, nihilque timebant amittere, securi erant
ubique, nullo pavore suspensi, nulla cura distracti, tanquam qui absque
mentis turbatione vivebant, et sine sollicitudine diem crastinum, et
serotinum hospitium expectabant.

668.
Vedi il cap. ii della prima regola in Wadding, II, 67. Alii vero, qui
promiserunt obedientiam, habeant unicam tunicam cum caputio, et
aliam sine caputio, si necesse fuerit, et cingulum et bracas. Et omnes
fratres vilibus vestis induantur, et possint eas repeciare de sacis et aliis
peciis. Cfr. cap. 14, pag. 73. Quando fratres vadunt per mundum nihil
portent per viam nec sacculum, nec peram, nec panem, nec pecuniam,
nec virgam.

669.
Cap. viii della prima regola, in Wadding, I, 71. Omnes fratres studeant
sequi humilitatem et paupertatem Domini nostri Jesu Christi. Così
parimenti: Non resistat malo, sed si quis eos in maxillam percusserit,
praebeant ei alteram, et qui auferret eis vestimentum non prohibeant.
Cap. v, pag. 69. Similiter omnes fratres non habeant potestatem vel
dominationem maxime inter se. Cap. vi, pag. 70. Et nullus vocetur Prior,
 sed generaliter omnes vocentur fratres minores, et alter alterius lavet
pedes.

670.
Cap. v. Fratres illi quibus gratiam dedit Dominus laborandi laborent
fideliter et devote .... De mercede vero laboris pro se et suis fratribus
corporis necessaria recipiant praeter denarios vel pecuniam.

671.
Cap. vi, pag. 66. Fratres nihil sibi approprient nec domum nec locum nec
aliquam rem sed tanquam peregrini et advenae in hoc saeculo in
paupertate et humilitate Domino famulantes, vadant pro eleemosyna
confidenter.

672.
Sul cantico del sole vedi il Bartoli, Storia della letteratura italiana, II, 189
ed i Fioretti, cap. xv, xxi, xxii. S. Bonav., in Acta SS., l. c., pag. 704.
Affluebat spiritu caritatis, pietatis viscera gestans, non solum erga
homines necessitatem patientes, verum erga muta brutaque animalia,
reptilia, volatilia et caeteras insensibiles creaturas; pag. 705: Quare sic
fratres meos agnos ligatos et suspensos excrucias? ... tolle pro pretio
mantellum, quem porto, et agnos mihi concede.

673.
Hase (Franz von Assisi, pag. 44) cita questo detto di S. Francesco
attribuitogli da S. Bonav. (Vita nei Boll., pag. 764): Pro furto mihi reputo
a magno Eleemosynario imputandum, si hoc quod fero non dedero
magis egenti.

674.
Regula, cap. vii, pag. 70. Et caveant sibi quod non ostendant se tristes
extrinsecus, nubilosos et hipocritas; sed ostendant se gaudentes in
Domino, hilares et convenienter gratiosos.

675.
La predicazione però dovea essere sottoposta alla licenza dei vescovi.
Vedi regola seconda, cap. ix, in Wadding, II, 67.

676.
Tres Socii (Boll., l. c., p. 691). Tunc beatus Franciscus omnes
(discipulos) ad se convocavit .... et ait ad eos: ite cautissimi bini et bini
per diversas partes orbis, annunciantes pacem hominibus et
poenitentiam in remissionem peccatorum. Vedi il cap. xv dell'antica
regola: nullo modo apud se nec apud alium et aliquo modo bestiam
 aliquam habeant, nec eis liceat equitare nisi infirmitate, vel magna
necessitate cogantur.

677. Che nella Corte pontificia Francesco trovasse molte resistenze lo

attestano le fonti più antiche. Tomaso da Celano racconta (pag. 693),
che il vescovo di Sabina volea persuadere il Patriarca ut ad vitam
monasticam suam eremiticam diverteret. Il Papa stesso era restio a
favorire l'istituzione di nuovi ordini, come ne fa fede il canone 13 del
Concilio lateranense. Secondo Matteo Paris, ad ann. 1227, avrebbe
accolto così male il santo mendico da dirgli (ed. londinese 1640, pag.
340): Vade frater et quaere porcos quibus potius debes quam hominibus
comparari, et involve te cum eis in volutabro, et regulam illis a te
commentam tradens officium tuae praedicationis impende. Codesto
discorso è inverisimile, perchè Francesco era stato raccomandato dalle
più alte autorità ecclesiastiche; ma è ben certo, come lo attestano i tre
socii, che fece osservazioni sull'applicabilità della regola, nè si piegò ad
approvarla se non dopo una visione, che ebbe in sogno. V. pag. 736.
Dominus Papa .... dixit ei et sociis: Filioli nostri, vita vestra videtur nobis
nimis dura et aspera, licet enim credimus vos esse tanti fervoris, quod
de vobis non oporteat dubitare, tamen considerare debemus pro illis, qui
secuturi sunt vos. Pag. 737: Inn. III .... viderat in visione quod Ecclesia
Sancti Joannis Lateranensis minabatur ruinam, et quidam vir religiosus,
mendicus et despectus eam sustentabat proprio dorso submisso.
Un'altra visione racconta la Cronaca delle Tribolazioni, pag. 352.

678.
Dante, Parad., xi, 92, dice che Francesco ebbe da Innocenzo Primo sigillo
a sua religione, e prima di Dante Onorio III nella stessa bolla
d'approvazione ricordava la regola a bonae memoriae Innocentio Papa
approbatam. Ma si deve intendere di una approvazione verbale, come
dice S. Bonaventura in Boll., p. 739: licet praefatus dominus Innocentius
tertius ordinem et regulam approbasset ipsorum, non tamen hoc suis
litteris confirmavit. Pag. 749: Distulit tamen perficere quod Christi
postulabat pauperculus pro eo quod aliquibus de Cardinalibus novum
aliquid et supra vires humanas arduum videretur.

679.
I Bollandisti bene osservano che la regola sottoposta ad Innocenzo non
poteva essere quella, che il Wadding pubblicava nel primo volume degli
Annali. Perchè codesta regola è molto diffusa, laddove la prima, secondo
la più antica fonte, il Celano, p. 692, era scritta simpliciter et paucis
verbis. Inoltre nella regola pubblicata dal Wadding manca l'articolo che
nessun frate francescano possa lasciare il suo ordine per entrare in altro,
 articolo che si sa approvato da Onorio III. (Lettera di Onorio data xiv
Kal. Jan., anno viii, in Wadding, II, 71). Pare che anche Onorio volesse
fare qualche correzione alla regola. Secondo la Cronaca delle
Tribolazioni, pag. 103r, ed il Wadding che la copia (II, 69) avrebbe
voluto mutare il capitolo x, ma S. Francesco dichiarò non esser lui, ma
Gesù Cristo che ha dettata la regola, che dev'essere lasciata come sta.

680.
La seconda regola differisce nei primi otto capitoli tanto poco dalla prima
che vi sono ripetute non solo gli stessi precetti, ma perfino le stesse
parole. La sola differenza sta nella maggior concisione.

681.
Il Wadding riporta il testamento di S. Francesco, dal quale tolgo questi
passi (II, 145). Et non dicant fratres: haec est alia Regula, quia haec est
recordatio admonitio et exortatio et meum textamentum, quod ego
frater Franciscus parvulus vester facio vobis fratribus meis benedictis
propter hoc ut Regulam, quam Domino promisimus, melius catholice
observemus. Et generalis minister et omnes alii ministri et custodes per
obedientiam teneantur in istis verbis non addere vel minuere .... Et
omnibus fratribus meis clericis et laicis praecipio firmiter per
obedientiam, ut non mittant glossas in Regula, nec in istis verbis
dicendo: ita volunt intelligi; sed sicut dedit mihi Dominus pure et
simpliciter dicere et scribere Regulam et ista verba, ita simpliciter et
pure et sine glossa intelligatis, et cum sancta operatione usque in finem
observetis.

682.
Il Wadding, II, 62 e segg., racconta le cose secondo la Cronaca delle
Tribolazioni, dalla quale tolgo i seguenti passi: pag. 15 verso: «E mentre
questo nostro Francesco vacava e stava congiunto con Dio, frate Elia
con li suoi seguaci e con alcuni ministri si riscaldorono e infiammorono e
con tumulto gridorono. Ma perchè non ardivano a ponersi al contrario
pubblicamente, nascostamente li tolsono e furorono la Regola a frate
Leone, uomo di Dio, al quale S. Francesco l'avea data a serbo. Pag. 98r:
In questo mezzo mentre che esso era tutto assorto con infiammati e
celesti desiderii solo in Dio, e domandando a Gesù Cristo la reparazione
della regola, stimola il diavolo e incita li ministri di diverse provincie, e
commossi dallo spirito dell'aquilone vennono insieme con frate Elia a
rammaricarsi e a porre querele con protestazione .....» Pag. 99v:
«Qualmente alla loro infermità basta d'avanzo e di soperchio d'observare
le cose le quali di già hanno promesso, che la loro infermità ha
bisogno». Questa narrazione viene compiuta dallo Speculum vitae.
683.
Cronaca delle Tribolazioni, pag. 89r: «(I ministri) multiplicarono gente e
non magnificarono letizia, accompagnando in questo multiplicare l'ordine
di gente molti uomini perversi, insieme con li buoni e innocenti frati. Li
quali huomini perversi, confidandosi della loro prudentia, s'affrettavano e
desideravano di reggere e non d'esser retti, e di fare arrogantemente
una regola secondo il loro proprio senno e secondo la loro propria
voluntà a sè e ad altri .... e tanto crebbono questi mali avanti alla morte
di S. Francesco che esso poverello Francesco, il quale era abitacolo dello
Spirito Santo, non vi potette porre alcuno rimedio di curatione nè con
parole, nè con esempii, nè con segni, nè con miracoli. Ma mandando
avanti l'orazione, elesse per più sicura parte di vacare a Dio e rinunziare
in tutto e per tutto al offitio del generalato, e non aver più cura nè
governo alcuno delli frati». Nel capitolo seguente, è riferito un dialogo,
nel quale S. Francesco dopo la rinunzia al generalato avrebbe detto
(pag. 92r): «Solamente che li frati andassino e fussino andati secondo la
volontà di Dio e mia, io non vorria che li frati avessino altro ministro che
me per insino alla mia morte».

684.
L'Affò, Vita di frate Elia, pag. 21, dopo avere riassunto il racconto della
Cronaca e dello Speculum dice: «Simili semplicità anche dal Waddingo
assai più circostanziate si replicano, senza considerare se al confronto
della ragione sussister possano. Ma rimontando all'origine di tali
narrazioni, e non vedendole noi entro le opere dei coevi scrittori,
prendiamo a discorrere dei sussequenti e cominciamo a veder simil fatto
descritto dal mentovato frate Martino da Casale, il quale per farcelo
credere afferma che avanti a tutti ce ne lasciasse memoria fra Leone,
uno dei primi compagni di S. Francesco in certi rotoli depositati già nel
convento di S. Chiara. Confessa però di non averli potuti vedere, e per
togliere a ciascuno la curiosità di cercarli aggiunse: cum multo dolore
audivi illos rotulos fuisse distructos. A questa maniera è lecito a
chiunque fingersi monumenti, ed ingannar sulla fede i leggitori. Ma buon
per noi che quanto fra Leone e i suoi due compagni scrissero intorno la
Vita di S. Francesco non è perito, e la loro leggenda vedesi pubblicata
dai Bollandisti senza incontrarvi la menoma parola del finto racconto».

685.
Boll., loc. cit., pag. 710. Cumque de die in diem infirmitas illa
succresceret, et ex incuria videretur quotidie augmentari, frater Helias
tandem, quem loco matris elegerat sibi, et aliorum fratrum fecerat
patrem, compulit eum ut medicinam non abhorreret.
686.
Vedi la Cronaca dei XV e quella dei XXIV generali in Affò, pag. 23. Post
mortem vero fratris Petri B. Franciscus posuit ad regendum ordinem
fratrem Heliam de Assisyo virum utique famosa providentia illustratum.
Riscontra il passo del Celano nella nota precedente.

687. Cronaca delle Tribolazioni, pag. 119v. «Venendo a morte Francesco fece
chiamare a sè frate Bernardo da Quintavalle, il quale fu el primo frate
dell'ordine dopo S. Francesco, e li pose la sua mano dricta sopra il capo
e davanti a tutti li frati lo benedisse con cordiale e singulare affectione, e
fece scrivere sotto dettato ad un frate: il primo frate il quale il Signore
mi dette fu frate Bernardo .... Onde io voglio e comando quanto so e
posso che ciascheduno il quale sarà generale di questa religione ami
quello, e l'honori come me medesimo». I Fioretti di S. Francesco, cap. vi,
rincarano la dose. «E ponendosi frate Elia dalla mano diritta, Santo
Francesco, il quale avea perduto il vedere per le troppe lagrime, puose
la mano ritta sopra il capo di frate Elia e disse: questo non è il capo del
mio primogenito Bernardo, allora frate Bernardo andò a lui dalla mano
sinistra, e S. Francesco allora acconciò le braccia a modo di croce, e poi
puose la mano dritta sopra il capo di frate Bernardo e la manca sopra il
capo del detto Elia e disse a frate Bernardo .... Sia il principale dei tuoi
fratelli, ed al tuo comandamento tutti i frati obbediscano». Il racconto
dei Fioretti è proprio il rovescio di quello più antico del Celano, che
ricorda pure l'incrociamento delle braccia, ma dice cumque a sinistris
ipsius resideret frates Elias, circumsedentibus reliquis filiis cancellatis
manibus dextram posuit super caput ejus, et dixit: Te fili mi in omnibus
et super omnia benedico. Si vede chiaro come il racconto originale sia
stato guasto per fine polemico. Ed è molto istruttivo il confronto tra
questo discorso del Patriarca, e l'altro messogli in bocca dai Fioretti, cap.
iv. Male fate, frate Elia superbo ecc. Tutto il racconto di questo capitolo è
manifestamente favoloso.

688.
La riporta l'Affò, op. cit., pag. 29 .... pupilli sumus absque patre et orbati
lumine oculorum nostrorum ecc.

689.
Gli storici francescani non sono d'accordo su questo punto. La Cronaca
delle Tribolazioni e il Wadding con essa (II, 164) raccontano che alla
morte di S. Francesco il vicario Elia fu fatto generale, e che poi per
dissidii insorti fu deposto e sostituito da fra Giovanni Parente. Ben presto
però Elia rifattosi dalla sconfitta, avrebbe ripreso il generalato, dal quale
dopo molto altro tempo venne deposto da Gregorio IX. Questo racconto
 benchè confermato dal Salimbene che dice di Elia a pag. 402: bis factus
generalis minister, è poco credibile come ha dimostrato l'Affò, op. cit.,
pag. 32, perchè fonti antichissime, come Bernardo di Bessa segretario di
S. Bonaventura, dicono chiaramente: Fuerunt igitur post transitum sancti
Patris hii ejus successores videlicet frater Johannes cognominatus
Parentius .... isti successit frater Helyas. Con Bernardo s'accorda la
Cronaca dei XV e l'altra dei XXV Generali. L'espressione del Salimbene si
può intendere nel senso spiegato dall'Affò, che il vicario sino alla nomina
del nuovo generale fu da tutti riconosciuto per capo dell'ordine.

690.
L'Affò, op. cit., pag. 36, scrive: «Frate Elia seppe tosto indurre un divoto
personaggio chiamato Simone Puzzarelli a fargli dono del luogo detto
Colle d'Inferno presso Assisi, ove gittar i fondamenti dell'ideato edifizio.
Il diligentissimo P. maestro Antonio Maria Azzoguidi ci ha pubblicato il
documento di tal donazione, steso il 30 di Marzo del 1228, per cui il
donatore privossi del detto luogo, e frate Elia a nome del Pontefice lo
accettò ad habendum, tenendum, possidendum, faciendum omnes
utilitates et usus fratrum in ea videlicet locum, Oratorium vel Ecclesiam
pro beatissimo corpore Sancti Francisci, vel quicquid ei de ipsa re
placuerit in perpetuum». Codesta costruzione era contraria alla regola,
la quale prescriveva che le case dei frati si costruissero in legno a guisa
piuttosto di provvisorio ricovero che di stabile dimora.

691.
La Cronaca delle Tribolazioni, pag. 143r, c'informa che molti frati
«lassata l'orazione mettevano avanti la curiosa e sterile sapienza
d'Aristotile alla divina sapienza, e che avidamente e con gran sete
desideravano d'udire maestri loici e filosofi, e che procurorono
ardentemente di avere e moltiplicare le scuole di queste scienze. E che
queste e altre simili cose li maggiori come li minori comunemente
predicavano excepto alquanti pochi admaestrati dallo spirito di Gesù
Cristo. Onde quelli frati spirituali si determinorono che era loro
necessario di ricorrere al sommo Pontefice e a la Chiesa romana». Da
questo passo s'inferisce che fin dal tempo di Elia il partito intransigente
cominciava a prendere il nome di Spirituale, conforme alle idee di
Gioacchino. Non tutti i Gioachiti però avevano in dispetto gli studii, ed il
Salimbene (pag. 405) non che biasimare, loda frate Elia, quia ordinem
fratrum minorum ad studium theologiae promovit. Che oltre alla teologia
frate Elia coltivasse altri studii lo dice il Salimbene, pag. 411: Undecimus
defectus fratris Helyae fuit, quia infamatus fuit quod intromitteret se de
alchimia.
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookgate.com