INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY

LESSON OBJECTIVES
discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of
scientific revolution; and

analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East
Asia, Middle East, and Africa.

INTRODUCTION

This lesson will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of the
society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science
and technology.

Scientific Revolution

Science is as old as the world itself. There is no individual that can exactly identify when and
where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven
with the society. So, how can science be defined?

1. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories, and all available systematic explanations and
observations about the natural and physical world.

2. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the

natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and
experimentation.

3. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or a discipline, a field of study, or a body of

knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is
what we refer to as school science.

4. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and
activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is
a means to improve life and to survive in life. It is interwoven with people's lives

Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything
around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and the physical world in
order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas,
later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain
phenomena. Humans also used religion to rationalize the origins of life and all lifeless forms.
The idea of scientific revolution is claimed to have started in the early 16th century up to the
18th century in Europe. Why in Europe? The probable answer is the invention of the printing
machine and the blooming intellectual activities done in various places of learning, and the
growing number of scholars in various fields of human interests. This does not mean, however,
that science is a foreign idea transported from other areas of the globe. Anyone who can
examine the history of science, technology, medicine, and mathematics is aware that all great
civilizations of the ancient world had their own sophisticated traditions and activities related to
these disciplines.

Scientific revolution was the period of enlightenment when the developments in the fields of
mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed the views of society
about nature. It explained the emergence or birth of modern science as a result of these
developments

Chapter 1: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society

from the disciplines mentioned. The ideas generated during this period enabled the people to
reflect, rethink, and reexamine their beliefs and their way of life. There is no doubt that it ignited
vast human interests rethink how they do science and view scientific processes.

Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it
was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or
condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and
theological views, Some rulers and religious leaders did not accept many of the early works of
scientists. But these did not stop people especially scientists to satisfy their curiosity of the
natural and physical world.

by their cu and natura and

SCIENCE DEAS

SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS

HUMANG

SOCIETY

Figure 1. Influences to Scientific Revolution

Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of

the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of
scientific investigations. experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the
creation of new research fields in science and prompted the establishment of a strong
foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world
and the world of ideas.

Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas

To further understand what exactly happened during the scientific revolution, it is important to
examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories
and ideas during this period-the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven.

by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their
love for science is driven by their deep passion to Anone and to discover.

Creativity

SCIENTISTS

SCIENCE IDEAS

Curiosity

Passion to know

SCIENCE DISCOVERIES

Passion to discover

TECHNOLOGY

Critical Thinking

Figure 2. Variables that Influence the Development of Science Ideas, Science Discoveries, and
Technology

Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. They are ordinary people doing
extraordinary things. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were
sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all
the predicaments and challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting,
theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas.

In this part of the lesson, three notable scientists are discussed. For sure, there were many
scientists who worked before and after these individuals. However, it is important to note that
these men, particularly through their ideas, had shaken the world.
Nicolaus Copernicus

One of the Renaissance men, particularly in the field of science, is Nicolaus Copernicus.
Knowledge about the nature of the universe had been essentially unchanged since the great
days of Ancient Greece, some 1,500 years before Copernicus came on the scene (Gribbin,
2003). This continued up to the Renaissance period. In one important way, Copernicus
resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers-he did not do

anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His
ideas were an example of what is presently called a his doctorate degree, had been appointed
as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time
to sustain his interest in Btronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled
Epitome published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Moeller. This book Contains
Müeller's observations of the heavens and some commentary on cartier works especially that of
Ptolemy. Copernicus

Copernicus's idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after
that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in a manuscript called
Commentariolus (Little Commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned
about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally.

Copernicus was a busy man. His duty as a canon and as a doctor affected his time to formally
publish his work and advance his career in astronomy. The publication of his book De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres) in 1543 is often
cited as the start of the scientific revolution.

In his book, he wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single
center at unvarying rates (Gribbin, 2003). Copernicus placed the Sun to be the centerpiece of
the universe. The Earth and all the planets are surrounding or orbiting the Sun each year. The
Moon, however, would still be seen orbiting the Earth. Copernicus's model of the Earth orbiting
around the Sun automatically positioned the planets into a logical sequence. In his model,
Copernicus outlined two kinds of planetary motion: (1) the orbits of Venus and Mercury lay
inside the orbit of the Earth, thus, closer to the Sun; and (2) the orbits of Mars, Saturn, and
Jupiter lay outside the Earth's orbit, thus, farther from the Sun. From this model, he would work
on the length of time it will take for each planet to orbit once around the Sun. The result would
form a sequence from Mercury, with a shortest year, through Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn with the longest year. He placed the planets in order of increasing distance from the Sun.
One of the great problems in the Copernicus model, however, was the position of the stars. The
stars cannot be placed in a fixed position like crystals in a distance sphere.

Copernicus is also a courageous man. Although the Copernican model makes sense now,
during those times, it was judged to be heretic and therefore it was an unacceptable idea to be
taught to Catholics. The Catholic Church banned the Copernican model and was ignored by
Rome for the rest of the 16th century.
--THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. What is the contribution of Copernicus in the philosophy of science?

2. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time?

3. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities?

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world's
creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line
of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his
time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe
his surroundings while collecting specimens and he pored over books in his father's library
(Gribbin, 2003). According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be
a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has
imposed to him. Darwin's life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to
join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Islands of Galapagos.

Darwin published his book The Origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be one of
the most important works in scientific literature. Darwin collected many significant materials in
order to present his theory with overwhelming evidence. His book presented evidence on how
species
differentia pertincs evolved over time and presented traits and adaptation that species. Like
many other scholars, Darwin accumulated many materials and data that he could ever possibly
need to substantiate h theory.

Darwin's observational skills as a scientist were extraordinary the moved beyond the realms of
plants and animals into the realms of human His book The Descent of Man was so impressive
yet very controversial. He introduced the idea of all organic life, including human beings, under
the realm of evolutionary thinking. This replaced the dominant views of a religious or biblical
design that places human beings in a privileged position of having been created by God.
Darwin's theory of evolution scientifically questioned this view.

Darwin's accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he
made major contributions: evolutionary biology and philosophy of science. More than these
works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and
unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of
pursuing science gave more value to evidence- based science. Darwin provided a different
framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and experiment.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. What is Darwin's contribution to modern science?

2. How can Darwin's evolutionary theory influence the followin fields in modern times:

Economy

Agriculture

Political Science

Religion

Sigmund Freud

Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also described him as a
towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to raise the
consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.

However, apart from these, Freud also made a significant contribution in the scientific world
through the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data to study
human's inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The
scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method. For
Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic
illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic
controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of
understanding human nature.

Freud is not a traditional thinker. According to Weiner (2016), his method of psychoanalysis was
proven to be effective in understanding some neurological conditions that were not understood
by medicine at that time. His method was unorthodox-focusing on human sexuality and the evil
nature of man. This posed immense challenges to scholars and ordinary citizens of his time. To
some, they found his ideas not easy especially in his explanations of human sexuality.

Freud was born in a much later period from the scientific revolution but his contribution to
knowledge can be seen in many aspects of the human scene, including art, literature,
philosophy, politics, and psychotherapy. Whether he is more of a psychologist or a scientist is
for people to decide. The fact remains that Freudian ideas and theories are still considered
nowadays as a great inspiration to examine human mind and behavior in a more scientifically
accepted way.

THINK ABOUT THESE QUESTIONS

1. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or questions on
Freud's ideas?

2. How can you describe Freudian ideas as a scientist?

3. If Freud is still alive, what do you think are the major change he would make to his theory?

Cradles of Early Science

Development of Science in Mesoamerica

Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the
border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and
knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers.

The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.
These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced
understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. This allows them
to use their temples for astronomical observation. For example, the pyramid at Chichén Itzá in
Mexico is situated at the location of the Sun during the spring and fall equinoxes.

Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies was advanced for their time, as
evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and
harvesting. The Mayans are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar
systems. These calendars were very useful for their life especially in planning their activities and
in observing their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborate
cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated
waterways to supply water to different communities.

Furthermore, they med various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field
of arts. The Mayans hollt looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made
from a mineral called mica. They are also believed to be one of the fint people to produce
rubber products 3,000 years before Goodyear received its patent in 1844.

The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica.
They are also famous as one of the world's finst civilizations to use a writing system known as
the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system
based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed the concept of zero and
positional value, even before the Romans did.
The Inca etvilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas
considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools
that they developed to help them in everyday life:

1. roads paved with stones;

2. stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;

3. irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;

4. calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
season;

5. the first suspension bridge;

6. quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and

7. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and
technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:

1. Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are
mandated to get education regardless

Chapter 1: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society