www.successdelight.com.

ng

JSS2 Second Term- Basic Science - Success Delight

Post author:Ray

46 - 58 minutes

* COMPLETE SCHEME OF WORK

* WEEK ONE:- {WORK, ENERGY AND POWER}

* WEEK TWO:- {POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY}

* WEEK THREE:- {CALCULATIONS INVOLVING WORK DONE}

* WEEK FOUR:- {ENERGY TRANSFER WHEN WORK IS DONE}

* WEEK FIVE AND SIX:- {FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION}

* WEEK SEVEN AND EIGHT:- {KINETIC THEORY}

* WEEK NINE:- {KINETIC THEORY (II)}

* WEEK TEN:- {BOILING AND EVAPORATION}

COMPLETE SCHEME OF WORK

Basic Science FOR JSS 2 SECOND TERM

WEEK TOPIC

1 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

2 POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY

3 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING WORK DONE

4 ENERGY TRANSFER WHEN WORK IS DONE

5-6 FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION

7-8 KINETIC THEORY ASSUMPTIONS

9 KINETIC THEORY PHENOMENA

10 BOILING POINT AND EVAPORATION

11-12 REVISION AND EXAMINATION

WEEK ONE:- {Work, Energy And Power}

Basic Science JSS 2 Second Term

Week 1

Topic: Work, Energy and Power

Overview

Meaning of work, energy and power

Concept of work, energy and power

Forms of energy

Objectives

Explain the meaning of work, energy and power

Mention various forms of energy

Identify the SI unit of work, energy and power.

Introduction

Meaning of work, energy and power

Work, energy and power are often used in everyday conversation. Work is thought to mean any kind of
physical and mental activity, while power is expressed in terms of strength. In science, these terms:
work, energy and power have special meanings. For work to be used in science, two things are
necessary. There will be a force and the force must produce motion. Power on the other hand is the rate
at which work is done. Energy is the ability to do work, however, the new thing to consider here is that it
is considered in relation to other aspects of our daily lives. In this chapter, the concept of work, energy,
power and their calculation will be explained.

Concept of work, energy and power

Work:

Work is a product of force and distance moved in a given direction, and the quantity of work done is
always equal to the quantity of energy put in. In science, work is said to be done when a force can
produce movement in a measured direction, i.e. work = force X distance (f X d). Work can simply be
defined as the product of distance moved and the force applied in the direction of movement. Note that
the useful force is the part of the force, which acts in the direction of movement. If the force is directed
in another direction other than that of motion, its component in the direction of motion is the one to
use to multiply the distance to obtain the work done.

Generally, for any work done, there must be energy input since energy is the capacity of any system or a
body to do work. Both energy and work are measured in units called joules, named after the scientist P.
Joules who carried out earlier studies on energy.

Force is that which changes a body’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line. It can as well be
expressed as: Force = mass X acceleration (F = M X A) where F is force, m is mass and a is acceleration.
The unit if force is Newton. If force = mass X action, then Work can be given as work = mass X
acceleration X distance.

This is a simple formula that can be used to calculate work done especially against gravity.
Work done and energy transferred is measured in joules (J). The work done on an object can be
calculated if the force and distance moved are known.

A change in momentum happens when a force is applied to an object that is moving or is able to move.
The total momentum in an explosion or collision stays the same.

Work, force and distance

You should know, and be able to use, the relationship between work done, force applied and distance
moved.

Background

Work and energy are measured in the same unit, the joule (J). When an object is moved by a force,
energy is transferred and work is done. But work is not a form of energy – it is one of the ways in which
energy can be transferred.

The equation

This equation shows the relationship between work done, force applied and distance moved:

work done (joule, J) = force (newton, N) × distance (metre, m)

The distance involved in the distance moved in the direction of the applied force.

Power:
Power is also related to the concepts of energy and work. Power is defined as the rate of doing work, i.e.
work done divided by time.

Power = Work done ÷ Time taken

The unit of power is the watt (w), you can use the formula to solve problems.

Example:

What is the power of a child that has done work of 50J in 10 seconds?

Solution:

50 = 5 watts ÷ 10

t.

Summary

Work = force x distance i.e. f x d and the unit of work is Joule (J)

Energy Is the ability to do work and various forms of energy include heat, light, chemical, electrical,
kinetic, potential, etc. energy is measured in Joules (J)

Power is the rate of doing work. It is work done divided by time

Energy is transferred when work is done.

Assessment

Define Work and Energy

What is the difference between power and energy

Calculate the work done when a person pushes a car from its stationary position to a distance of 50m
applying a force of 200N.\

How much power does a student of 25kg mass who climbed a stair with 20 steps and one step is 15cm
high in 30s has? (Assume g = 10m/s2)?

WEEK TWO:- {POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY}

Basic Science JSS 2 Second Term

Week 2

Topic: Potential and Kinetic Energy

Overview

Explanation and meaning of both Kinetic and Potential Energy

Objectives

Explain the meaning of Kinetic and Potential Energy

Calculate kinetic and potential energy

POTENTIAL AND KINETIC ENERGY

A stone on the ground does not have any energy so long as it is lying on the ground.

The stone cannot be doing any work. However, if a stone is placed on a table and it falls off, it can break
a lamp on which it falls. The stone here has done some work by virtue of its position. Therefore, when
the stone is on the table, it has energy stored up as a result of its position. The type of energy possessed
by a body due to its position is called Potential Energy. This energy increases as the height of the table
increases and it decreases as it falls towards the ground. When it reaches the ground, it has zero
potential energy. Potential energy is the energy that is stored in an object due to its position relative to
some zero position. Potential energy, expressed in science as U, is energy that is stored within an object,
not in motion but capable of becoming active. An object possesses gravitational potential energy if it is
positioned at a height above (or below) the zero height. When you stand at the top of a stairwell you
have more potential energy than when you are at the bottom, because the earth can pull you down
through the force of gravity, doing work in the process. When you are holding two magnets apart they
have more potential energy than when they are close together. If you let them go, they will move
toward each other, doing work in the process.

The formula for potential energy depends on the force acting on the two objects. For the gravitational
force, the formula is P.E. = mgh, where m is the mass in kilograms, g is the acceleration due to gravity
(9.8 m / s2 at the surface of the earth) and h is the height in meters. Notice that gravitational potential
energy has the same units as kinetic energy, kg m2 / s2. In fact, all energy has the same units, kg m2 / s2,
and is measured using the unit Joule (J).

Examples of Potential Energy:

A rock sitting at the edge of a cliff has potential energy. If the rock falls, the potential energy will be
converted to kinetic energy.

A stretched spring in a pinball machine has elastic potential energy and can move the steel ball when
released.

When a crane swings a wrecking ball up to a certain height, it gains more potential energy and has the
ability to crash through buildings.

Tree branches high up in a tree have potential energy because they can fall to the ground.
 A stick of dynamite has chemical potential energy that would be released when the activation energy
from the fuse comes into contact with the chemicals.

The food we eat has chemical potential energy because as our body digests it, it provides us with
energy for basic metabolism.

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. For example, a moving car, a man running, a
falling orange, a fired bullet all possess kinetic energy. This is the energy possessed by an object in
motion. Kinetic energy is directly proportional to the mass of the object and to the square of its velocity:
K.E. = 1/2 m v2. If the mass has units of kilograms and the velocity of meters per second, the kinetic
energy has units of kilograms-meters squared per second squared. Kinetic energy is usually measured in
units of Joules (J); one Joule is equal to 1 kg m2 / s2.

Examples of Kinetic Energy

Flowing flood water can wash away railway lines and bridges.

Water flowing out of a dam can run a turbine to generate electricity.

The wind during a storm can uproot big trees.

The moving wind can run the blades of a windmill and can be used for producing electricity or for
doing some mechanical work.

Example 1

Calculate the work done if a box is pulled by a person with a force of 150N through a distance of 50m.

Work done = force x distance

Force – 150N

Distance – 50m
Work = 150 x 50 = 7500 joules

Example 2

Suppose a body of mass 1kg is lifted through a height of 1m, how much work is done.

The force of gravity on a mass of 1kg is 10 newtons. Distance moved by the force is 1m.

Work done (force x distance) = 10N x 1m (joules)

Example 3

Suppose a ball of mass m kg falls from a height h m to the ground. Calculate the potential energy and
the kinetic energy of the ball.

Mass of the ball = m kg

Acceleration due to gravity = gm/s2

Distance of fall = h m

Kinetic energy = mgh joules

Suppose the potential energy of the ball was used up at the time it hits the ground, work done =
potential energy = mgh joules
Example 4

The kinetic energy of a boat is calculated at 36,000 J. If the boat has a mass of 6,000 kg, with what
velocity is it moving?

We identify the information given in the problem:

KE = 36,000 J

mass = 6,000 kg

We now place the information into the kinetic energy formula:

KE = 1/2 mv2

36,000 J = 1/2 (6,000 kg) x (v)2

36,000 J/(1/2 x 6,000 kg) = v2

12 = v2

√12 = v

3.5 = v
Kinetic Energy to Potential Energy

When a body is thrown up, its velocity gradually decreases as it goes up due to the downward pull of
earth. As a result, its kinetic energy decreases and its potential energy increases gradually as the body
goes up.

This continues until, at a certain height, the kinetic energy of the body becomes zero. At this point, the
body has maximum potential energy. So, when a body is thrown up, its kinetic energy decreases and the
potential energy increases, because its kinetic energy gradually changes into potential energy.

Practice Questions

Calculate the kinetic energy of a moving boat at a velocity of 3m/s. The mass of the boat is 60kg.

Suppose a body of mass 30kg is lifted through a height of 6m, and the force exerted on the body is
15N, how much work is done?

A man of 50 kg climbs to the top of a building which is 40 m high. What is the potential energy of the
man?

The kinetic energy of a car is found to be 40,000 J. What velocity is the car travelling if its mass is
10,000 kg

Furthermore on Potential and Kinetic energy

A stone on the ground does not have energy so long as it is lying on the ground, the stone cannot be
seen doing any work. However, if a stone is placed on a table and if it falls off, it can break a lamp on
which it falls. The stone here has done some work by virtue of its position. Therefore, when the stone is
on the table, it has energy stored up as a result of its position. The type of energy possessed by a body
due to its position is called Potential energy. This energy increases as the height of the table increases
and it decreases as it falls to the ground. When it reaches the ground, it has zero potential energy. On
the other hand, kinetic energy is the energy possessed by a moving body. For example, a moving car, a
running man, a falling orange, a fired bullet, a rolling ball, etc. possess kinetic energy.

Calculating work, potential and kinetic energy and power:

Example 1:

Calculate the work done if a box is pulled by a person with a force of 150N through a distance of 50m.

Work done = Force X Distance

Force = 150N

Distance = 50M

Work done = 150 X 50 = 7500 Joules

Energy transfer when work is done:

When an object is dropped from above the ground, work is done as the object is pulled to the ground.
As the object is falling and work is done, the potential energy of the body is changed to kinetic energy. In
principle, the quantity of potential energy stored in a body is always equal to the kinetic energy
produced when the body is released to do work. In order words, when energy changes, for example
from potential to kinetic, there is always accompanying work done.

Summary

Potential Energy is energy due to the position of an object while Kinetic energy is energy due to
motion.

P.E = m x g x h (m is mass, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is vertical distance)

 (m is mass and v is velocity or speed)

Assessment

Overhaul current content and replace it with below

If the mass of a ball is 20g and h is 8m, calculate the kinetic energy when it has a velocity of 2ms-1

What is the meaning of Potential Energy?

Give four examples of objects having Potential energy.

What is the meaning of Kinetic Energy?

State three examples of objects having Kinetic Energy

Calculate the kinetic energy of an object of mass 200kg moving with a speed of 3ms-1

WEEK THREE:- {Calculations involving work done}

Basic Science JSS 2 2nd Term

Week 3

Topic: Calculations involving work done

Overview

Calculations involving work done and power

Objectives

Apply the formulae:

Work is a product of force and distance moved in a given direction, and the quantity of work done is
always equal to the quantity of energy put in. In science, work is said to be done when a force can
produce movement in a measured direction, i.e. work = force X distance (f X d).

If you apply a force over a given distance – you have done work. Work = Change in Energy. If an object’s
kinetic energy or gravitational potential energy changes, then work is done. The force can act in the
same direction of motion. Or, the force can act against the motion. (Drag and friction do that.) Forces
can act when objects touch.

In general, the energy transferred depends on the amount of force and the distance over which that
force is exerted.

If the man pushes the rock in the direction of the force, he has done work. If the rock rolls back and
pushes him, then the rock does work on the man

The standard metric unit of power is the Watt. As is implied by the equation for power, a unit of power
is equivalent to a unit of work divided by a unit of time. Thus, a Watt is equivalent to a Joule/second. For
historical reasons, horsepower is occasionally used to describe the power delivered by a machine. One
horsepower is equivalent to approximately 750 Watts.

Some calculations involving work done:

What work is done when a mass of 5.00kg is raised through a vertical height of 2.5m (acceleration due
to gravity is 10m/s2)?

Solution:

Work done = force X distance

Work done = mass X acceleration X distance

Work done = 5Kg X 10m/s2 X 2.5m = 125 Joules

If a force of 14.7 N is used to drag a loaded cart along the incline for a distance of 0.90 meters, then
how much work is done on the loaded cart?

Work done = force X distance

Work done = 14.7N X 0.90m = 13.2 Joules

Calculate the work done if a box is pulled by a person with a force of 150N through a distance of 50m

Solution: Work done = force X distance

Work done = 150N X 50m = 7500 Joules

What is the power of a child that has done work of 50J in 10 seconds?

Power = Work done = 50J = 5 watts

Time taken 10

Yemi applies a force of 800N downward as he climbs up 2.0-meter stairs in 1.8 seconds. What is
Yemi’s power rating?

Solution:
Power = Work done = 800N X 2.0m = 888.8 watts

Time taken 1.8s

Summary

Examples of problems involving work done and power

Assessments

The work done when a distance of 5m is covered when a force of 20N is applied is _______________

When a force of 15N travels through a distance of 10m, what is the work done?

If a force of 100 Newton is applied by a car over a distance of 2 meters, calculate the work done by
the car.

WEEK FOUR:- {Energy Transfer When Work is Done}

Basic Science JSS 2 Second Term

Week 4

Topic: Energy Transfer When Work is Done

Overview

Concept of energy transfer when work is done

Objectives

Identify energy transfer when work is done

Introduction

Work is the force acting on an object to cause a displacement. Work is done on an object when you
transfer energy to that object. If one object transfers (gives) energy to a second object, then the first
object does work on the second object. When an object is dropped from above the ground, work is done
as the object is pulled to the ground. As the object is falling and work is done, the potential energy of
the body is changed to kinetic energy. Work done and energy transferred is measured in joules (J). The
work done on an object can be calculated if the force and distance moved are known. A change in
momentum happens when a force is applied to an object that is moving or is able to move. In principle,
the quantity of potential energy stored in a body is always equal to the kinetic energy produced when
the body is released to do work. In order words, when energy changes, for example from potential
energy to kinetic energy, there is always accompanying work done.

Work-Energy Principle –The change in the kinetic energy of an object is equal to the net work done on
the object.

Further discussion on Energy transfer when work is done

If you apply a force over a given distance – you have done work. Work = Change in Energy. If an object’s
kinetic energy or gravitational potential energy changes, then work is done. The force can act in the
same direction of motion. Or, the force can act against the motion. (Drag and friction do that.) Forces
can act when objects touch.

In general, the energy transferred depends on the amount of force and the distance over which that
force is exerted.
If the man pushes the rock in the direction of the force, he has done work. If the rock rolls back and
pushes him, then the rock does work on the man.

No work: If the net force is perpendicular to the motion then no work is done. If you push on an object
and it doesn’t move, then no work is done. If an object’s kinetic energy doesn’t change, then no work is
done.

Another Equation for Calculating Work:

Work = Mass * Gravity * Height and is measured in Joules. Imagine you find a 2 -Kg book on the floor
and lift it 0.75 meters and put it on a table. Remember, that “force” is simply a push or a pull.

Work = Mass X Gravity X Height

= 2 X 10 X 0.75

= 14.7 Joules

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. If you can measure how much work an object does, or how
much heat is exchanged, you can determine the amount of energy that is in a system. As with work,
energy is also measured in Joules. Energy is not created nor destroyed according to the Law of
Conservation of Energy. Energy only changes form. It is transformed from one kind of energy to another.
In fact, the energy that makes your bodywork can be traced back to the sun. Solar energy is transformed
into chemical energy in plants. We get chemical energy from the plants and animals we eat.

In science, we say that work is done on an object when you transfer energy to that object. If you put
energy into an object, then you do work on that object (mass). If a first object is an agent that gives
energy to a second object, then the first object does work on the second object. The energy goes from
the first object into the second object. At first, we will say that if an object is standing still and you get it
moving, then you have put energy into that object. The object has kinetic energy as a result of your
work. You pushed it through a displacement, you did work on the object.
For example, a golfer uses a club and gets the stationary golf ball moving when s/he hits the ball. The
club works on the golf ball as it strikes the ball. Energy leaves the club and enters the ball, this is a
transfer of energy. Thus we say that the club did work on the ball, and before the ball was struck, the
golfer did work on the club. The club was initially standing still, and the golfer got it moving when he or
she swung the club.

So, the golfer does work on the club, transferring energy into the club, making it move. The club does
work on the ball, transferring energy into the ball, getting it moving.

Questions

How much work is done if a force of 20N is used to displace an object 3m?

Work done = Force X distance

W = 20N X 3m = 60Nm or 60 Joules

A force of 15.73N acts on an object over a displacement of 16.93m. The force and displacement are in
the same direction. How much work does the force do on the object?

Work done = Force X distance

W = 15.73N X 16.93m = 266.31J

How much work is done by a force of 25N that operates over a displacement of 6.2m?

Work done = Force X distance

W = F X D = 25 X 6.2 = 155J

Summary

More examples showing how energy is transferred when work is done

Assessment

A force of 20N pushing an object 5 meters in the direction of the force. How much work is done?

The work done on an object is 5 Kilojoules and the object moved a distance of 800cm. Calculate the
force acting on the object.

A man applies a force of 700N to a crate and pushes it through a distance of 200 cm. Calculate the
amount of work done by the man.

Another man pushes a crate as shown with a force of 550N and does 2.2kJ of work. a) Through what
distance does he push the crate? b) The box does not speed up or slow down during this time. What
happens to the energy transferred by the man?

WEEK FIVE AND SIX:- {FAMILY LIFE EDUCATION}

Basic Science JSS2 Second Term

Week 5 & 6

Topic: Family Life Education

Overview
 Meaning of Family Life Education

The Importance of Sex Education

Objectives

Understand the meaning of family life education

Know the importance of Sex Education

Meaning of Family Life Education

Family life education is the form of educating the family member on important and general issues
needed for the development of their personal and general life.

It also refers to what young people or adolescents should know about their sexual activity and
reproductive health.The need for educating the young mind is necessary to cause lack of education
results in danger for the young ones who are ignorant.

Sex Education

Sex education is the process of acquiring the necessary knowledge and information about the changes
that occur in the body. These changes are physiological changes that occur as a result of growth and
development.

Sex education is related to the sex organs, their function uses and abuse of the sexual part of the body.

Sex Education is very important, it provides knowledge, information and understanding on how youths,
adolescents and adults can handle sexual problems.
In teaching sex Education, there are some basic facts about human nature that is needed the students
must know, which are some of the changes which are noticed and they are as follows

Girls

They start menstruation

Development of big breast

Pimples appear on the face

Pubic hair grows around the genitals

Boys

The testes contain live sperm or semen which is capable of fertilizing the egg produced by the girl

Pubic hair grows around the genitals

The voice begins to break and become deep like a man’s own.

The Importance of Sex Education

Sex Education is important for the following reasons:

It helps every individual to know that the human body should not be misused

The knowledge of sex education assist individual to appreciate God’s purpose

It makes children aware of the true meaning of life and decent living

It enlightens everyone the danger involve in sexual indiscipline

It will help to prevent unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted diseases, abortion etc
 Sex education increases the level of understanding and awareness of the problems associated with
human growth and development.

It stimulates healthy interaction between the opposite sex i.e reducing the rate of sexual immorality

Agents of Sex Education

Agents of sex education are those who are liable and more knowledgeable to teach impart the young
ones about Sex.

Parents/ guardian

Teachers

Religious leaders

Summary

Family life education in the form of educating the family member on important and general issues
needed for the development of their personal and general life

Sex education is the process of acquiring the necessary knowledge and information about the changes
that occur in the body.

Sex education is important and they are listed above

Assessment

The current assessment is in place

What is the meaning of Family Life Education?

Explain the meaning of Sex Education

 State five importance of sex education

Mention the agents of sex education.

WEEK SEVEN AND EIGHT:- {KINETIC THEORY}

Basic Science JSS2 Second Term

Week 7 & 8

Topic: Kinetic Theory

Overview

Kinetic theory Assumptions

Objectives

State the assumptions of the kinetic theory

Introduction

A greek philosopher proposed that matter was made up of particles which he called ATOMS. He made
various statements about the nature of atoms. His ideas about atoms are stated below

The matter is made up of minute indivisible particles called atoms.

Atom cannot be created or destroyed.

All the atoms of an element are alike and different from the atoms of all other elements.
 Atoms combine in small whole numbers to form new substances.

All these ideas collectively form Dalton’s atomic theory. Since Dalton’s atomic theory was proposed,
scientists have accepted the idea that matter is made up of small particles called protons, neutrons and
electrons. Matter contains very tiny particles such as atoms, molecules or ions. These particles are
always in continuous random motion. The energy which these particles possess that enable them to
move about is called kinetic energy. The word kinetic is derived from the Greek word “Kineo” which
means, “I move”. Therefore, kinetic energy is the energy possessed by anybody or an object as it moves
from one place to another.

The Kinetic Theory of Matter states that matter is composed of a large number of small particles that are
in constant motion. The law states that the tiny particles of matter are continually moving and so
possess kinetic energy. In other words, the kinetic theory of matter recognizes that matter is composed
of very small particles (ions, atoms and molecules) whose different patterns of arrangements and
motions result in the different possible states in which matter can occur. It also explains the properties
of these states. An increase in temperature causes an increase in average kinetic energy. This theory is
also called the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter and the Kinetic Theory.

There are three states of matter; these are solid, liquid and gas.

Substances can change from one state to another. Kinetic theory can explain the change of state by
considering all matter (substances) to be made of particles.

The main aspects of the kinetic theory are:

The matter is composed of very tiny particles (atoms or molecules), which are separated from each
other by interparticle distances.

Each particle of matter is in constant motion.

In a gas, the particles can move around freely and independently.

In a liquid, particle movement is a bit constrained and limited to sliding/flow movement within its
volume.
 In a solid, particle movement is fully constrained and restricted to only the vibrational motion of
particles in their fixed positions within the solid.

The particles of matter experience forces of attraction amongst themselves. These attractive forces
decrease rapidly with increasing distance between the particles.

The molecules collide with each other and with the walls of the vessels in which they are contained

The collisions made by the gas molecules are said to be perfectly elastic. This means that the collisions
do not result in any change in the kinetic energy of the gas.

A distance that is large compared with its sizes separates the gas molecules from each other. This
means that the actual volume occupied by the gas molecules themselves is negligible when compared
with the volume of the vessel containing the gas.

An increase in temperature tends to increase the motion of the gas molecules. This implies that the
average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the
gas

The increase in temperature leads to an increase in the volume of the gas

Particles in solids are very close to each other, and the attractive forces are large enough to hold the
particles in fixed positions. Thus, a solid has a fixed shape and a fixed size (volume).

The particles of liquids are a little further apart and are free to slide and flow, taking the shape of the
container. Thus, a liquid has no fixed shape. However, since the particle movement is restricted to
within the space occupied by the liquid, a liquid does have a fixed size (volume).

The separations between particles of a gas are quite large, resulting in complete freedom of motion.
Hence, a gas has neither fixed shape nor fixed size (volume) and tends to expand to fill up the entire
volume of its container.

Because the particles are in motion, they possess kinetic energy. The temperature of matter is a
measure of the average kinetic energy possessed by the particles. When heat is applied to matter, it gets
absorbed and translated to the increased kinetic energy of the particles (which means greater motion),
resulting in a rise in temperature.

Assumptions of the Kinetic Theory of Gases

This theory describes the behaviour of an Ideal gas.

 The gas molecules move randomly in straight lines colliding with each other and with the walls of the
container. The collisions of the gas molecules on the walls of the container constitute the gas pressure
exerted on the container

The collisions of the gas molecules are perfectly elastic. When two individuals collide, their individual
energies may change and one may move faster than the other but the total kinetic energy remains the
same

The actual volume occupied by the gas molecules themselves are negligible relative to the volume of
the container

The cohesive forces between the gas molecules are negligible

The temperature of the gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules.

Summary

Kinetic energy is explained as energy possessed by a moving body or particle.

One of the assumptions of kinetic theory is that increase in temperature supply results in an increase
in the kinetic energy of particles and thus an increase in the speed of the particles.

Assessment

The current assessment is in place

Mention three behaviour of an ideal gas

What are the basic assumptions of the Kinetic Theory?

WEEK NINE:- {KINETIC THEORY (II)}

Basic Science JSS2 Second Term

Week 9

Topic: Kinetic Theory

Overview

Explanation of some phenomena using kinetic theory

Objectives

Explain the molecular structure of solids, liquids and gases using the Kinetic Theory

Change of State and Kinetic Theory

The kinetic theory of matter gives a clear explanation of the internal processes involved at the particle
level when matter undergoes a change of state.

A given substance can exist as a solid, liquid or gas. Change of state is brought about by a change in
temperature. When a substance is heated, its particles acquire more kinetic energy and when cooled
they become less energetic.

Process of Heating

Theoretically, heating a solid to higher and higher temperatures changes its phase to a liquid, and finally
to a gas.

Fusion (solid to liquid)

A solid consists of low kinetic energy vibrating particles locked into position by interparticle attractive
forces. When heat is applied, energy is absorbed and the particles start vibrating more vigorously.
Finally, the vibrations become energetic enough to overcome the attractive forces, and the particles
start sliding out of their positions to flow about. The solid is now melting into a liquid.

Vaporisation (liquid to gas)

On further application of heat to the liquid, the particles move around more energetically within the
volume of the liquid. Finally, they become energetic enough to start escaping from the surface of the
liquid, overcoming the backward pull by their neighbours in the volume of the liquid. The process of
boiling has begun, wherein the liquid converts to gas as particles escape to move around independently
without any constraints.

Evaporation (liquid to gas)

According to the kinetic theory, temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy possessed by
the particles of matter. This means that in any sample of matter, there will be particles with higher
kinetic energy than average, balanced by those with lower energy than average. So, even in a liquid
whose temperature is not high enough for boiling to occur, there will be some particles with sufficient
kinetic energy to break through the surface of the liquid overcoming the backward pull of others. They
slowly escape as gas particles, and the process is called evaporation.

Process of Cooling

Generally, cooling a gas changes its phase to a liquid, and finally to a solid.

Condensation (gas to liquid)

When a gas is cooled (i.e. heat is removed) progressively, the free-moving particles start losing kinetic
energy and slowing down. Finally, the forces of attraction between the lower energy particles colliding
with each other are strong enough to hold them together, and the gas begins to condense into a liquid.

Solidification (liquid to solid)

The particles still have energy enough to slide about within the volume of the liquid, but further cooling
lowers this energy further.

Explanation of Some Phenomena Using Kinetic Theory

Application of the Kinetic Theory of Matter to Explain the Nature of Gases

The three properties of gases that are especially important are diffusibility, thermal expansion and
compressibility. All gases are characterized by diffusibility, but the rates at which different gases diffuse
depend on their molecular weights.

When heated, gases expand to a much greater extent than do solids or liquids- all gases tend to behave
alike in this respect. In comparison with solids and liquids, gases are very easily compressed – all gases
tend to behave alike in this regard also. These properties, as well as the empirical laws governing the
behaviour of gases, can be explained by the kinetic theory.

Explanation of Diffusion of Gases by the Kinetic Theory

Diffusion is a phenomenon whereby particles of a substance move from an area of high concentration
into an area of low concentration. Gases diffuse rapidly. For example, if a small quantity of an odorous
gas, e.g. hydrogen sulphide, is released at one point of a room, the smell soon gets to all parts of the
room. This can be explained using the kinetic theory of gases.

From the assumptions of the theory, we have that:

Gases are made of discrete particles called molecules, and not a single piece. If they were made of a
single piece, then, the smell of the hydrogen sulphide would not pervade the whole room at the same
time, but would probably be perceived at one corner of the room at a time.

The molecules are relatively far apart and are in rapid, random motion, moving at high speeds in straight
lines. This account for the smell getting to every part of the room in a couple of minutes after the
release.

Explanation of Compressibility of Gases By the Kinetic Theory

The compressibility of gases can be explained from the assumption of the kinetic theory, which states
that a gas consists of particles that are separated from one another by large spaces. Based on this, it is
therefore easy to bring the molecules closer together (i.e. compressed) when the volume of the
container is reduced.

Reduction in volume leads to a decrease in temperature (according to Charles’ law, V α T). Hence,
compression of gases results in a drop of temperature in the system – the kinetic energy of the system
also drops.

Explanation of Expansion of Gases by the Kinetic Theory

Expansion of gases can be explained by the kinetic theory from the assumptions which state that: Gases
are in constant rapid motion, moving at great speeds, occupying the volume of the container.

The average kinetic energy of all the molecules is assumed to be directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas. The greater the average kinetic energy of gas molecules, the greater they are
able to move and occupy more volume. Therefore, at higher temperatures, gases obtain higher kinetic
energy and thus expand (or occupy large volumes).

Structure of Solids, Liquids and Gases

Solid State

In a solid, particles are closely packed in a regular arrangement and are unable to move about. They are
held together by strong attraction forces or forces of cohesion. The cohesion forces are strong enough
to restrict the movement of the particles. The cohesive forces may be electrovalent, covalent or even
Vander Waal’s force. The particles vibrate about a fixed position and have a definite shape and definite
volumes. These particles however possess kinetic energy due to vibration and are able to rotate about
their fixed positions but cannot move from one place to another. Solids have definite shapes and
volumes and can not be easily compressed.

Liquid State

The particles are closely packed in a random arrangement. The particles are slightly further apart from
each other than in solids. The particles can move through the liquid because they have more kinetic
energy than solid and they are no longer held in a fixed position but cling together. A liquid does not
have a fixed shape but normally takes the shape of its container. The forces of attraction between
liquids are less but the particles have more kinetic energy than the particles of the solid. Though the
particles can move about they are still under the forces of cohesion making their movements a bit
restricted. Liquids have definite and fixed volumes but no definite shape.

Gas State

The particles are far apart. Their motion is random and independent of the other particles. The forces of
attraction between particles in a gas are very weak, so the particles are free to move about in all
directions at great speed. They can be restricted only by the walls of the container. Because of the large
spaces between the molecules, a gas can be compressed easily. The forces of cohesion between
particles in gases are negligible. The particles have much more kinetic energy than the particles of solids
and liquids and therefore move about in all directions at the greatest speed. Gases do not have a
definite shape or volume but they occupy the volume of their containers.

A good aroma (odour) of your mother’s food, which reaches you in the sitting room, clearly
demonstrates how easily gas particles mix with air and move about and far too. The same is true when a
classmate of yours in one corner of your classroom passes out a foul gas (i.e. carbon (IV) oxide), which
quickly spreads to other parts of the classroom.

Summary of properties of states of matter

Property Solid Liquid Gas

Motion There is no movement of particles There is a slight movement of particles There is very
rapid movement of particles

Volume It has a fixed volume It has a fixed volume It occupies the whole volume of the vessel

Shape It has a fixed shape Takes the shape of the container It takes the shape of a vessel
and fills it completely

Compressibility It incompressible It is incompressible It is highly compressible

Summary

The kinetic theory of matter gives a clear explanation of the internal processes involved at the particle
level when matter undergoes a change of state.

Heating a solid to higher and higher temperatures changes its phase to a liquid, and finally to a gas.

Cooling a gas changes its phase to a liquid, and finally to a solid

Assessment

The current assessment is in place but the following below will be added

Explain the following phenomena using Kinetic Theory: Compressibility, Expansion, Diffusion

What are the processes of Heating.

In a tabular form, Summarize the properties of states of matter?

WEEK TEN:- {BOILING AND EVAPORATION}

Basic Science JSS 2 Second Term

Week 10

Topic: Boiling and Evaporation

Overview

Explanation of boiling and evaporation using kinetic theory

Factors that affect evaporation

Objectives

Distinguish between boiling and evaporation using the kinetic theory

State the factors that affect evaporation

Kinetic Theory explains boiling as follows.

In a liquid such as water, the particles are in continuous motion but the speed of movement is not as
fast as in a gas. When heat is applied to water in a beaker or container, the particles of water gain
energy. This additional energy makes the particles move faster than before. As more and move particles
gain higher energy they move rapidly in all directions. The mass of water begins to move physically at a
particular temperature. At this temperature, the particles acquire greater kinetic energy and begin to
escape into vapour. At this stage, boiling is said to be taking place. Boiling is therefore a state in which all
particles of the liquid have acquired energy and are moving rapidly in all directions, especially in the
direction of the open mouth of the container.
Using Molecular Structure to Explain Kinetic Theory

Kinetic theory can be used to explain certain phenomena in nature to show the differences in them.
Such phenomena are evaporation, boiling and vapour pressure.

Evaporation

Evaporation is a process whereby molecules of a liquid with higher kinetic energy escape through the
liquid surface into the space above the liquid. Such molecules are said to vaporize.

In any given liquid sample, some particles possess more kinetic energy than others. So, when such
energetic particles come near the liquid surface, they break away from the attractive forces of other
nearby liquid particles and escape into the space above. When this happens, we say the liquid is
evaporating.

Boiling

Boiling is said to take place when a liquid freely changes into vapour when it is heated. The temperature
at which this happens is called the boiling point.

For a liquid to boil, it must be heated. When this happens, the rate of evaporation increases. Boiling
takes place because liquid molecules acquire more kinetic energy when the liquid is heated. The
molecules then collide with each other and with the walls of the vessels to build up pressure in the
liquid. At this time, a saturated vapour pressure for the liquid results.

This pressure builds up and increases until a temperature is reached at which the saturated vapour
pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure at that time. At this stage, bubbles of vapour
form in the liquid and rise to the surface. The liquid is now said to be boiling.
The distinction between Evaporation and Boiling

S/N Evaporation Boiling

Lowers kinetic energy of molecules Increases kinetic energy of molecules

Does not need heating to place It needs heating before it could take place

Can take place at any temperature It takes place at finite temperature

Vapour Pressure

This is the pressure that is built up when escaping molecules of a liquid collide with each other and the
walls of the containing vessel. It is therefore formed by evaporation in a closed system. At this time,
some vapour molecules hit the liquid surface and re-enter the liquid. This is called condensation.
Therefore, two forces or processes (i.e. evaporation and condensation) are in operation here.

As the above processes continue, there comes a time when the number of molecules condensing into
liquid is equal to the number of molecules evaporating from the liquid. At this point, equilibrium is set
up between evaporation and condensation making the vapour pressure remain constant. This vapour
pressure is called the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid at that temperature.

Factors That Affect Evaporation

In a liquid, the particles are in motion. When water is heated, the motion of the particles will become
more rapid than before. Each particle that collides with another one will change direction. As the
heating continues, the particles gain more energy. Some particles will gain sufficient energy to break
through the surface tension of the liquid and escape as gas. When this happens, the groups of particles
will be seen as vapour. The process is called Evaporation. Evaporation of liquids occurs at all
temperatures but the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in temperature. Evaporation results
in the escape of energetic particles from the liquid is lowered, this results in the drop in temperature of
the liquid.

The following factors affect the evaporation of liquids, namely:

 Wind speed: How slow or fast the wind is at a particular time

Humidity: The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere

Temperature: How hot or cold the liquid and the atmosphere are

Vapour pressure of liquid: The degree of saturation of liquid vapour

The viscosity of liquid: How thick or thin a liquid phase is.

Summary

The motion of particles based on kinetic theory explains the structure of solids, liquids and gases and
such physical processes as boiling and evaporation.

Evaporation occurs at all temperatures while boiling occurs at the boiling point of the liquid.

Summary of the difference between boiling and evaporation

Assessment

The current assessment is in place but the following below will be added

State four factors that affect evaporation

How does Kinetic Theory explain boiling?

Distinguish between Evaporation and Boiling?