M’hamed Bougara University

Department of English
Academic Year 2023/2024
TTU course
Niveau: L1- semester 2

Pr. Faycel Lahmeur

Course 4

How does Memory Work?

introduction

In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of

information retention over time. It is an integral part of human
cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon past
events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the
present. Memory also gives individuals a framework through which to
make sense of the present and future. As such, memory plays a crucial
role in teaching and learning. There are three main processes that
characterize how memory works. These processes are encoding,
storage, and retrieval (or recall).

1. Encoding. Encoding refers to the process through which information

is learned. That is, how information is taken in, understood, and
altered to better support storage. Information is usually encoded
through one (or more) of four methods:

(1) Visual encoding (how something looks); (2) acoustic encoding (how
something sounds); (3) semantic encoding (what something means);
and (4) tactile encoding (how something feels).
 While information typically enters the memory system through one of
these modes, the form in which this information is stored may differ
from its original, encoded form.

2. Storage. Storage refers to how, where, how much, and how long
encoded information is retained within the memory system. The
modal model of memory (storage) highlights the existence of two
types of memory: short-term and long-term memory. Encoded
information is first stored in short-term memory and then, if need be,
is stored in long-term memory. Many scientists argue that information
that is encoded acoustically is primarily stored in short-term memory
(STM), and it is only kept there through constant repetition
(rehearsal). Time and inattention may cause information stored in
STM to be forgotten. This is because short-term memory only lasts
between 15 and 30 seconds. Additionally, STM only stores between
five and nine items of information, with seven items being the average
number. In this context, the term “items” refers to any piece of
information. Long-term memory, however, has immense storage
capacity, and information stored within LTM can be stored there
indefinitely. Information that is encoded semantically is primarily
stored in LTM; however, LTM also stores visually- and acoustically-
encoded information. Once information is stored within LTM or STM,
individuals need to recall or retrieve it to make use of said
information. It is this retrieval process that often determines how well
students perform on assignments designed to test recall.
3. Retrieval. As indicated above, retrieval is the process through which
individuals access stored information. Due to their differences,
information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved differently. While
STM is retrieved in the order in which it is stored (for example, a
sequential list of numbers), LTM is retrieved through association (for
example, remembering where you parked your car by returning to the
entrance through which you accessed a shopping mall).
 Improving Recall

Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction of

memory. This reconstruction becomes necessary when stored
information is lost over time due to decayed retention.

As a part of the university community, it is important to be aware of

techniques that you can use to promote better retention and recall( so
useful for students). Three such techniques are the testing effect,
spacing, and interleaving.

1. The testing effect. In most traditional educational settings, tests are

normally considered to be a method of periodic but infrequent
assessment that can help a teacher understand how well their students
have learned the material at hand. However, modern research in
psychology suggests that frequent, small tests are also one of the best
ways to learn in the first place. The testing effect refers to the process
of actively and frequently testing memory retention when learning
new information. By encouraging students to regularly recall
information they have recently learned, you are helping them to retain
that information in long-term memory process. For example, at the
end of a lecture or seminar, you could give your students a brief, low-
stakes quiz or free-response question asking them to remember what
they learned that day, or the day before. This kind of quiz will not just
tell you what your students are retaining, but will help them remember
more than they would have otherwise.
2. Spacing. According to the spacing effect, when a student repeatedly
learns and recalls information over a prolonged time span, they are
more likely to retain that information. This is compared to learning
(and attempting to retain) information in a short time span (for
example, studying the day before an exam). As a teacher, you can
foster this approach to studying in your students by structuring your
learning experiences in the same way. For example, instead of
introducing a new topic and its related concepts to students in one go,
you can cover the topic in segments over multiple lessons.
3. Interleaving. The interleaving technique is another teaching and
learning approach that was introduced as an alternative to a technique
known as “blocking”. Blocking refers to when a student practices one
skill or one topic at a time. Interleaving, on the other hand, is when
students practice multiple related skills in the same session. This
technique has proven to be more successful than the traditional
blocking technique in various fields.

As useful as it is to know which techniques you can use, as a teacher,

to improve student recall of information, it is also crucial for students
to be aware of techniques they can use to improve their own recall.
This section looks at four of these techniques: state-dependent
memory, schemas, chunking, and deliberate practice.

1. State-dependent memory. State-dependent memory refers to the idea

that being in the same state in which you first learned information
enables you to better remember said information. In this instance,
“state” refers to an individual’s surroundings, as well as their mental
and physical state at the time of learning (Weissenborn & Duka,
2000).
2. Schemas. Schemas refer to the mental frameworks an individual
creates to help them understand and organize new information.
Schemas act as a cognitive “shortcut” in that they allow individuals to
interpret new information quicker than when not using schemas.
However, schemas may also prevent individuals from learning
pertinent information that falls outside the scope of the schema that
has been created. It is because of this that students should be
encouraged to alter or reanalyze their schemas, when necessary, when
they learn important information that may not confirm or align with
their existing beliefs and conceptions of a topic.
3. Chunking. Chunking is the process of grouping pieces of information
together to better facilitate retention. Instead of recalling each piece
individually, individuals recall the entire group, and then can retrieve
each item from that group more easily.
4. Deliberate practice. The final technique that students can use to
improve recall is deliberate practice. Simply put, deliberate practice
refers to the act of deliberately and actively practicing a skill with the
intention of improving understanding of and performance in said skill.
By encouraging students to practice a skill continually and
deliberately (for example, writing a well-structured essay), you will
ensure better retention of that skill .