Acknowledgement

First of all, we would like to express our sincere thanks to Thuong Mai University for
bringing the Phonetics and Phonology subject into our curriculum. In particular, our
group would like to express our deep gratitude to Mr, Tuan for enthusiastically
imparting extremely useful knowledge to us during our time studying and researching
the subject of Phonetics and Phonology. as well as dedicated guidance and suggestions
to our team throughout the process of writing this essay. The teacher's attention,
encouragement, and valuable suggestions helped my group complete the essay in the
best way.

We hope this essay will bring useful information and knowledge to readers, thereby
helping readers have a broader view of the subject Phonetics and Phonology in general
and other changes. Due to limited knowledge and time pressure, our essays certainly
have some errors. Therefore, my group really needs your suggestions and advice to
make our discussion more complete.

We sincerely thank you!

Introduction

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish one word
from another. In the study of linguistics, phonemes play a fundamental role in
understanding how speech is structured and processed. Phonemes are not just abstract
concepts but are critical to the way we perceive and produce spoken language. For
example, in English, the words & quot; bat & quot; and " item & quot; differ in
meaning due to the substitution of the phoneme /b/ with /p/. While phonemes
themselves may not have meaning, their arrangement within a word determines how
we interpret and understand language.

In this discussion we will delve into the concept of phonemes, explore their
importance in phonology, the process of phoneme identification, and how they vary
across languages. Through this exploration, we aim to deepen our understanding of
phonemes, provide insight into the cognitive and physical processes involved in
speech, and offer a foundation for learning and teaching languages.

1. Definition
1.1. Definition

A phoneme is the smallest segment of sound that can distinguish two

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words. Take the words “hear” and “dear”. These differ only in their initial

sound. “Hear” begins with /h/ and “dear” begins with /d/. This is the smallest

amount by which these two words could differ and still remain distinct forms.

Any smaller subdivision would be impossible because English doesn’t

subdivide /h/ or /d/. Therefore, /h/ and /d/ are considered two phonemes.

1.2. The properties of phonemes

There are 44 phonemes in English. They can be divided into two types: consonants
(24) and vowels (20).

Each phoneme is meaningless in isolation. It becomes meaningful only when it is

combined with other phonemes.

Phonemes form a set of abstract units that can be used for writing down a language
systematically and unambiguously.

Reasons: A letter can be represented by different sounds.

A phoneme can be represented by different letters or combinations of letters.

2. Allophones: The Variations of a Phoneme

Allophones are different pronunciations of the same phoneme. In simpler terms, they
are the various ways a sound can be produced while still being recognized as the same
sound.

Definition of Allophones:

Allophones are variations of a single phoneme that occur in different contexts within a
language. These variations do not change the meaning of the word and are considered
to be predictable based on their phonetic environment. Allophones are an important
concept in phonology, the study of the sound systems of languages.

Key Points About Allophones:

Same Phoneme: Allophones belong to the same phoneme, meaning they are
considered the same sound in a particular language.

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Different Pronunciations: They are pronounced differently due to various factors such
as surrounding sounds, dialect, or individual speech patterns.

Complementary Distribution: Allophones are often in complementary distribution,

meaning they do not occur in the same phonetic environment.

Examples of Allophones:

Aspiration in English: The /t/ phoneme in English can be aspirated or unaspirated.

The English /t/ phoneme can be aspirated (with a puff of air) at the beginning of a
word (e.g., "tea") but unaspirated (without a puff of air) after a voiceless stop
consonant (e.g., "stop").

Flapping in English: The /t/ and /d/ phonemes can be flapped (pronounced as a quick
tap) in certain positions, especially between vowels (e.g., "butter" is often pronounced
as "butr").

Nasal Assimilation: In many languages, a nasal consonant (like /m/, /n/, or /ŋ/) can
assimilate to the place of articulation of a following consonant. For example, in
English, the /n/ in "think" is often pronounced as /ŋ/ before /k/.

Understanding allophones is important for several reasons. First, it helps us to

understand how sounds function within a language and how they are organized in the
mind of a speaker. Second, it allows us to distinguish between different phonological
processes, such as assimilation, where one sound becomes more like a neighboring
sound, and elision, where a sound is omitted. Finally, recognizing allophones can be
useful in learning and teaching a language, as it helps us to understand the regularities
and patterns of sound production in a language.

3. Minimal Pairs

Minimal pairs are a fundamental concept in linguistics, particularly in the study of

phonetics and phonology. They serve as a crucial tool for identifying and analyzing
phonemes within a language, as well as enhancing language teaching methods.

Definition of Minimal Pairs

Minimal pairs are defined as pairs of words that differ by only one phoneme in an
identical environment. This phonemic difference can occur in either a vowel or a
consonant. For instance, in English, the words "pin" and "bin" differ only in their
initial sounds, /p/ and /b/, while sharing the same vowel and final consonant sounds.
This concept is essential for distinguishing phonemes in any language.

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Identifying Phonemes through Minimal Pairs

One effective method for identifying phonemes in any language is to look for minimal
pairs. By analyzing pairs of words that fit this criterion, linguists can determine the
distinct phonemes that exist within that language. This approach not only aids in
phonetic research but also proves beneficial in language instruction. It allows learners
to clearly recognize the sounds in their target language and understand how slight
variations can lead to different meanings.

Examples of Minimal Pairs

Here are some illustrative examples of minimal pairs in English:

Pin - Bin:

/pɪn/ (pin) and /bɪn/ (bin) differ only in the initial consonant sounds (/p/ vs. /b/).

Hit - Heat:

/hɪt/ (hit) and /hiːt/ (heat) differ in the vowel sounds (/ɪ/ vs. /iː/).

Cat - Rat:

/kæt/ (cat) and /ræt/ (rat) differ in the initial consonant sounds (/k/ vs. /r/).

These examples illustrate how a single phonemic change can result in entirely different
meanings, highlighting the importance of phonemes in language.

Important Notes

To be considered minimal pairs, two words must differ by only one phoneme.
Furthermore, the phonemic change must lead to a difference in meaning between the
two words. If two words differ in multiple phonemes or do not produce a meaningful
distinction, they cannot be classified as minimal pairs. This understanding is crucial
for accurate phonetic analysis.

Minimal pairs are an essential tool in the field of linguistics, providing insight into
phoneme identification and analysis. They not only support phonetic research but also
hold significant value in language teaching. By using minimal pairs, learners can
improve their pronunciation skills and gain a deeper understanding of phonology,
ultimately enhancing their communication abilities in the target language.

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4. Symbols and phonemic, phonetic transcription
4.1 Symbols in Phonetics
Phonetic symbols are used to represent the distinct sounds of human speech. These
symbols belong to a standardized system called the International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA), which was created to provide a consistent, universally applicable way of
describing the sounds in different languages.

Key Points about Phonetic Symbols:

Phonemes: Phonetic symbols represent phonemes, which are the smallest units of
sound that can distinguish meaning in a language. For example, in English, the words
"bat" and "pat" differ by one phoneme (/b/ vs. /p/).
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): The IPA is a comprehensive set of symbols
that cover all possible human speech sounds, or phonemes. These symbols are used in
dictionaries, linguistics, and language teaching to clarify pronunciation across
languages.

4.2 Phonemic Transcription

Phonemic transcription is a type of transcription that focuses on capturing only the

distinctive sounds (or phonemes) of a language—those sounds that can change the
meaning of a word. In this system, transcription is done at the phonological level,
meaning that it disregards finer details of how each sound is produced. The purpose of
phonemic transcription is to provide a simplified, abstract representation of speech
sounds that highlights only what is necessary to distinguish between words.
For example, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they distinguish
words like "pat" and "bat." A phonemic transcription will show only these essential
sounds. Phonemic transcriptions are typically enclosed in slashes: for instance, "cat"
would be transcribed as /kæt/ in a broad, phonemic transcription. This type of
transcription is particularly useful in language learning and teaching, as it focuses on
the key sounds that learners need to know to differentiate between words.
Phonemic transcription does not indicate subtle differences like whether a sound is
aspirated (i.e., whether a puff of air is released), nasalized, or slightly altered
depending on its position in the word. These details are considered non-essential for
distinguishing meaning, so they are left out in phonemic transcription.
4.3 Phonetic Transcription
Phonetic transcription, on the other hand, is a more detailed transcription that aims to
capture not only the distinctive sounds (phonemes) but also the non-distinctive
features of those sounds—such as variations in pronunciation known as allophones.
Allophones are subtle variants of a phoneme that do not change the meaning of a
word. Phonetic transcription operates at the allophonic level, recording these fine

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details of pronunciation, such as aspiration, nasalization, and intonation, which are not
captured in phonemic transcription.
For example, the sound /p/ in "pat" is aspirated, meaning it is pronounced with a puff
of air, while the /p/ in "spin" is not. In phonetic transcription, this difference would be
represented as [pʰæt] for "pat" and [spɪn] for "spin." Phonetic transcriptions use square
brackets to show that they are capturing a more precise level of detail.
This level of transcription is useful for studying the nuances of pronunciation, such as
in linguistic research, speech therapy, or for language learners aiming for native-like
pronunciation. Phonetic transcription can show how the pronunciation of a sound may
vary based on its position in a word, the speaker's accent, or the context in which it is
spoken, providing a richer picture of how speech sounds are produced.

4.4. Distinguishing Between Phonemic transcription and Phonetic transcription

Phonemic transcription Phonetic transcription

Definition Depending on how detailed your If you want to do a more detailed

transcription is, you will only transcription, recording important
transcribe the distinctive sounds but non-distinctive features of
of a language (phonemes) and sounds (allophones and free
therefore you will transcribe at variants), you will transcribe at
the phonemic or phonological the phonetic or allophone level.
level. This is a phonemic This is a phonetic transcription.
transcription.

Notation Enclosed in slashes Enclosed in square brackets

e.g., /pɪn/ for "pin". e.g., [pʰɪn] for "pin" with an

aspirated 'p'.

Symbols Uses a limited set of symbols, Uses a broader range of IPA

typically from the International symbols to capture subtle
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), to variations in sound.
represent phonemes.

Purpose Represents the abstract, Provides a detailed and precise

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 underlying sounds (phonemes) representation of how sounds are
that distinguish words in a actually pronounced.
language.

Representation Abstract Representation: Detailed Representation:

Does not capture all the subtle Captures allophones (variations

variations in sound. Instead, it of phonemes) and the precise
represents sounds as they quality of sounds. For instance,
function in a given language the aspirated /pʰ/ in "pat" versus
(e.g., /p/, /b/, /t/). the unaspirated /p/ in "spat."

Level Minimal Pairs: Articulatory Details:

It is often used to highlight Includes details about tongue

minimal pairs, where a change in position, voicing, and other
one phoneme alters meaning articulatory features that may not
(e.g., “bat” vs. “pat”). affect meaning but are crucial for
accurate pronunciation.

Complexity Simplicity: Complexity:

Generally simpler and more More complex and requires a

straightforward than phonetic deeper understanding of
transcription, making it easier to phonetics, making it less
learn for language learners and accessible for beginners.
teachers.

Language Language Specific: Universal Application:

Specificity
Phonemic transcription is While phonetic transcription can
specific to a language and can be adapted for specific languages,
vary between languages. For it often aims for a more universal
example, /r/ might be pronounced application that can describe any
differently in English and language’s sounds.
Spanish, but both would still use
the same phonemic symbol.

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 Examples of /p/, /b/, /t/ [pʰ], [b], [t̪]
sounds

Examples The word "cat" in phonemic The word "cat" in phonetic

transcription is /kæt/. transcription might be [kʰæt] if
capturing the aspiration of the
initial /k/.

5. Applications

Common types of exercise

Exercise 1. Minimal pairs - Find a minimal pair for each of the following pairs of
phonemes.

1. /æ/ and /ʌ/

2. /əʊ/ and /ɔ:/

3. /e/ and /æ/

Answer:

1. cat & cut /kæt/ & /kʌt/

2. so & saw /səʊ/ & /sɔ:/

3. beg & bag /beg/ & /bæg/

Exercise 2. Match the phonemic transcriptions with the word

1. /ʃʌt/ a. joke

2. /ʤəʊk/ b. think

3. /θiŋk/ c. shut

Answer: 1.c 2.a 3.b

Exercise 3. Complete the transcriptions with one of the following diphthongs

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 1. make /m _ _ k/

2. sure /ʃ _ _ /

3. know /n _ _/

Answer:

1. make /meik/

2. sure /ʃɔ:/

3. know /nəʊ/

Exercise 4. Write out the correct spelling of these place names

1. /kæntəbri/

2. /grenitʃ/

3. /edinbrə/

4. Answer:

1. Canterbury

2. Greenwich

3. Edinburgh

Exercise 5. Underline the word that the transcription represents.

1 bɔ:n burn born

2 θiŋ thing thin

3 vɑin vain wine

Answer:

born 2. thing 3. vain

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Conclusion

References

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM

Independence - Freedom - Happiness

MEETING MINUTES
Group 2 - Class: 241_ENTH2811_03

Time:
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Platform: Google Meet
Participants: Members of Group 2
 Present:
 Absent:
 Agenda:
Conclusion:
All members of the group agreed and reached consensus on their tasks. The meeting
concluded at …… PM on the same day.

Hanoi,October 9th, 2024

Secretary Group Leader

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