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 Learning Technologies
and User Interaction

Learning Technologies and User Interaction explores the complex interplay

between educational technologies and those who rely on them to
construct knowledge and develop skills. As learning and training continue
to move onto digital platforms, tools such as artifcial intelligence,
predictive analytics, video games, virtual reality, and more hold considerable
potential to foster advanced forms of synergy across contexts. Showcasing
a variety of contributors who are attuned to today’s networked
technologies, environments, and learning dynamics, this book is ideal
for students and scholars of educational technology, instructional design,
professional development, and research methods.

Kay K. Seo is Professor of Instructional Design and Technology at the

University of Cincinnati, USA.

Scott Gibbons is Adjunct Professor and Student Teacher Supervisor at

the University of Cincinnati, USA.
Learning Technologies
and User Interaction
Diversifying Implementation
in Curriculum, Instruction, and
Professional Development

Edited by Kay K. Seo

and Scott Gibbons
First published 2022
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 Taylor & Francis
The right of Kay K. Seo and Scott Gibbons to be identifed as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their
individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identifcation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Seo, Kay Kyeong-Ju editor. | Gibbons, Scott (Professor)
editor.
Title: Learning technologies and user interaction : diversifying
implementation in curriculum, instruction, and professional
development/edited by Kay K. Seo, Scott Gibbons.
Description: New York, NY : Routledge, 2022. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifers: LCCN 2021012792 (print) | LCCN 2021012793 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367536336 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367545635
(paperback) | ISBN 9781003089704 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Educational technology. | Computer-assisted
instruction—Design. | Computer-assisted
instruction—Curricula—Planning. | Career development.
Classifcation: LCC LB1028.3 .L37834 2022 (print) |
LCC LB1028.3 (ebook) | DDC 371.33—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021012792
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021012793
ISBN: 978-0-367-53633-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-54563-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-08970-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003089704
Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
 Contents

Contributor Biographies vii

Introduction 1
1 Interactions and the Role of Technologies 3
Scott Gibbons and Kay K. Seo

UNIT I
Enriching Curriculum 15
2 Learning Analytics to Support Student Interaction
and Learning Design: Initial Report on a
Human-Centered Prototype Design 17
Priya Sharma, Mahir Akgun, and Qiyuan Li
3 Assessing the Impact of Immersive Virtual Reality
on Objective Learning Outcomes Based on Presence,
Immersion, and Interactivity: A Thematic Review 38
Hui-Ching Kayla Hsu and Cong Wang
4 Beyond Information Acquisition: A Critical Design
Framework to Support Emancipatory Discourses and
Thinking in a Transmedia Learning Experience 74
Scott J. Warren, Meranda M. Roy, and
Heather A. Robinson
vi CONTENTS

UNIT II
Diversifying Instruction 93
5 Oral Interaction in Technology Education 95
Wendy Fox-Turnbull
6 Using Sound to Enhance Interactions in an Online
Learning Environment 118
Yun Li and Sherman Finch
7 From Online Interaction to Social Learning Analytics
and Community Building: A Learning Engineering
Perspective 134
Chih-Hsiung Tu, Cherng-Jyh Yen, Emrah Emre Ozkeskin, and
Laura E. Sujo-Montes

UNIT III
Revamping Professionalism 159
8 Virtual Reality as Participant: Instructional Design
Considerations for an Introduction to Flying Course 161
Kim A. Hosler
9 Learning Technology in the Secondary Classroom 179
Chastity Rohan and Corey Duzan
10 Remote Learning and the Democratization of the
Student-Teacher Relationship 192
Larissa Pahomov

Index 211
 Contributor Biographies

Mahir Akgun received his PhD in learning, design, and technology with a
graduate minor in educational psychology from the Pennsylvania State
University. He earned a BS in instructional technology and an MS in
cognitive science from Middle East Technical University. He currently
teaches statistics and data visualization courses in the College of Informa-
tion Sciences and Technology at Penn State. His current research broadly
focuses on human-centered learning analytics, search as learning, and
epistemic agency. He uses both qualitative and quantitative research
methods in his research.

Corey Duzan has worked in K–12 and postsecondary education for over
16 years in the disciplines of technology and engineering education. He
has created and helped grow Project Lead The Way (PLTW) and TEE
programs in multiple school districts and has worked with the College
of DuPage to establish a TEE pipeline that attracts new people interested
in teaching TEE and STEM. In addition, he is a master teacher for
PLTW, where he facilitates core training for future PLTW teachers.
Corey is a board member with the Technology Education Association
of Illinois, a PLTW coach with MASS STEM Hub, and an adjunct
professor at Joliet Junior College. He is currently a PLTW teacher at
Lockport Township High School in Lockport, IL.

Sherman Finch is a visiting professor at Sam Houston State University. He

received a BFA from the Rhode Island School of Design and two master’s
degrees from the Maryland Institute, College of Art: a multidisciplinary
MFA at Mount Royal and a MA in digital arts and media. He is also a
UX/UI designer who investigates user experience through traditional
and digital media. As a designer, he works with brands and design systems
viii CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES

to fnd technical and creative solutions for digital interactive-based envi-

ronments, including projects focused on user-centered approaches.

Wendy Fox-Turnbull is an associate professor at the University of Waikato

who is Deputy Head of School for Te Kura Toi Tangata School of
Education. Wendy was chair of the Technology Education New Zealand
(TENZ Council) from 2006 to 2018 and has convened two TENZ
conferences, TENZ 2005 and TENZ/ICTE2017, and one International
Technology Research conference (PATT) in 2013. She previously taught
at the University of Canterbury’s College of Education, in technology
education, primary and secondary, professional inquiry studies and inquiry
learning from 1997 to 2017. Research special interests include authentic
learning in technology education, the place of women in technology-
related careers, the role and nature of efective conversations in learning
and teaching, and learning approaches for the 21st century. Wendy has
presented regularly at PATT and other international conferences and
published in a range of journals and books in the feld of technology
education. Wendy is a registered and certifed primary teacher.

Scott Gibbons has worked in K–12 education for over ten years, teaching
English language arts in both Kentucky and Pennsylvania. He is currently
a PhD candidate at the University of Cincinnati, focusing on curriculum
and instruction and teacher education. Scott has worked with many
student teachers to improve their planning, implementation, and assess-
ment. Scott’s research interests include online teacher professional devel-
opment and methods in teacher education.

Kim A. Hosler is the Director of Instructional Design at the United States

Air Force Academy (USAFA) in Colorado Springs, CO. She also teaches
part-time for University College at the University of Denver. Her doc-
torate is in educational technology from the University of Northern
Colorado. Her academic areas of expertise and research include online
teaching and learning and learner-centered instructional design. At
USAFA, she facilitates and leads the biannual course director’s workshop,
consults with faculty individually on course design, and facilitates other
workshops related to the design of efective and efcient instruction.

Hui-Ching Kayla Hsu is a research assistant professor and instructional designer

at NYU Tandon School of Engineering. Her research focuses on engi-
neering education, online learning development, and motivation to learn.
She received her doctoral degree in learning design and technology from
Purdue University. Because of her previous career as a journalist and
 CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES ix

internship at the United Nations, she is highly aware of her responsibility

as a global citizen. She is committed to making online learning in STEM
felds more engaging, more diverse, and more accessible for all by lever-
aging research-proven pedagogy and innovative technologies.

Qiyuan Li received her PhD in learning, design, and technology with a

minor in statistics from the Pennsylvania State University. She is currently
working as a data modeler and developer at Boston University. Her
research focuses on the use of natural language processing and machine-
learning algorithms to classify discourse. She has expertise in data archi-
tecture and programming using various tools.

Yun Li received her PhD from Texas A&M University, specializing in

learning design and technology. She is currently a researcher at Texas
A&M University, where she continues her research on interactive learn-
ing environment design, technology integration, and instructional design.
She has collaborated with researchers and practitioners from various
disciplines, such as engineering, medicine, and visualization. In addition
to her experience in academia, she is an instructional designer with ten
years of experience in design in both higher education and industry
settings.

Emrah Emre Ozkeskin is a lecturer in Open Education Faculty, Anadolu

University, Turkey. His research interests are adaptive learning environ-
ments, learning analytics, and instructional technologies. He has been
published in several academic journals and international conferences.

Larissa Pahomov is a veteran teacher in the School District of Philadelphia.

She has 13 years of experience teaching students English at Science
Leadership Academy, a public high school with a focus on inquiry and
project-based learning. She is the author of the teaching handbook
Authentic Learning in the Digital Age, as well as chapters in the anthologies
Inside our Schools and Teachers Unions and Social Justice. She received her
master’s degree in education from the University of Pennsylvania and is
a National Board Certifed Teacher.

Heather A. Robinson is an online learning consultant who has worked in the

technology feld since 1995. She teaches courses in the areas of computer
science, information systems, and learning technologies. She holds a
master’s degree in information science and a PhD in learning technolo-
gies from the University of North Texas. Heather is currently researching
critical pedagogy and care ethics in online learning.
x CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES

Chastity Rohan has worked in K–12 public education for over 15 years in
the disciplines of mathematics and engineering. She helped build the
pre-engineering program at Grant County High School where she was
the VEX robotics coach and Technology Student Association advisor.
In addition, she is a master teacher for Project Lead The Way, where
she facilitates core training for future engineering teachers. Chastity also
has contributed to writing engineering state standards for Kentucky. She
is currently a mathematics teacher at Larry A. Ryle High School in
Union, KY.

Meranda M. Roy is the Online Learning Librarian at the University of North

Texas, where she implements and promotes a variety of online tools,
services, and initiatives for students, faculty, librarians, and staf. Her
research interests include educational technology, training and develop-
ment, academic development, program design, and evaluation.

Kay K. Seo is a professor of instructional design and technology at the

University of Cincinnati. Her research focuses on learner engagement
and interaction in virtual worlds and social networking spaces. She has
published widely in top-tier academic journals and has presented numer-
ous papers on instructional technology at nationally and internationally
renowned conferences. She is the Founding President of the Learner
Engagement SIG and the Learner Engagement Division for the Associa-
tion for Educational Communications and Technology.

Priya Sharma received a PhD in instructional technology from the University

of Georgia. She is currently an associate professor in the College of
Education at the Pennsylvania State University. She teaches courses related
to research methods, emerging technologies, and learning theory. She
has more than 15 years of experience conducting research primarily
focused on qualitative research, including discourse analyses and online
ethnography, and more recently, research using social network analyses.
Her research focuses on knowledge sharing and learning in informal and
formal online environments, the role of emerging technologies in learn-
ing, and the use of data sciences in education.

Laura E. Sujo-Montes is a faculty member at Northern Arizona University,

USA. Her work includes teaching and researching online learning envi-
ronments, technology use in teaching ESL students, and online profes-
sional development.
 CONTRIBUTOR BIOGRAPHIES xi

Chih-Hsiung Tu is a professor at Northern Arizona University, USA. His

research interests are distance education, socio-cognitive learning, socio-
cultural learning, online learning community, social media, personal
learning environments, and network learning environments.

Cong Wang received a BS in psychology from Sun Yat-sen University, an

M.Ed in educational psychology from Beijing Normal University, an MS
in statistics, and a PhD in educational psychology from Purdue University-
West Lafayette. Her research focuses on college students’ motivation and
learning. She utilizes the framework of self-determination theory to study
the impact of autonomy-supportive teaching approaches on learning. As
a second line of research, she collaborates widely on studies where she
employed complex statistical techniques to address educational research
questions. Her primary tools are structural equation modeling, multilevel
modeling, latent profle analysis, and meta-analysis.

Scott J. Warren is a professor of learning technologies in the College of

Information at the University of North Texas. He has studied learning
games and simulations in educational contexts for more than 20 years
and is the author of the book Learning Games: The Science and Art. After
completing additional doctoral research in logistics and operations man-
agement, his research practice now also includes how stakeholders may
employ holistic systems analysis and evaluation approaches with business
frms as part of their organizational learning and improvement.

Cherng-Jyh Yen is an associate professor of educational research and Statistics

at Old Dominion University. He specializes in quantitative research design
and data analysis. His primary research interest is in the prediction of
online learning outcomes. His papers have appeared in peer-reviewed
journals such as Internet and Higher Education, Educational Technology and
Society, and Computers and Education.
Introduction
 CHAPTER 1

Interactions and the Role

of Technologies
Scott Gibbons and Kay K. Seo

INTRODUCTION
Interactions among users and learning agents such as peers, teachers,
technology, and content are both diverse and complex, and gaining a
better understanding of how users interact with those agents can provide
clarity for educators in myriad felds when deciding on applicable learn-
ing plans and the appropriate vehicle to deliver engaging learning experi-
ences. Because technology’s role in education has recently expanded due
to the coronavirus pandemic, this book aims to examine various forms
of user interactions and the role learning technologies play in those
interactions. Educators and researchers from felds such as engineering,
technology education, military, and robotics have contributed their exper-
tise on the many ways users interact and how those interactions can be
perceived in providing professional development and innovative oppor-
tunities to those guiding interactions.
According to Kang and Im (2013), studying interaction is important
because new knowledge is constructed through a variety of interactions,
which speaks to the importance of interaction and the role new technolo-
gies can play in the learning process. In learning acquisition, researchers
found that peer interaction is important for language learners because
“learners can engage with L2 learning opportunities such as receiving
modifed input, noticing language errors, producing output, negotiating
for meaning, and giving and obtaining interactional feedback” (Dao,
2020, p. 2). In another study, Hsieh (2019) discovered that the availability
of online resources impacts students’ collaborative mentality and ability
to interact with peers, and Zipp and Craig (2019), through a study of
learners’ interaction with technology, found evidence to support the

DOI: 10.4324/9781003089704-2
4 SCOTT GIBBONS AND KAY K. SEO

claim that “individuals transfer their biases into virtual worlds” (p. 1399),
impacting how designers view user interaction in virtual spaces. These
important fndings related to user interaction with a variety of agents can
have a signifcant impact on future studies involving user interactions with
technology, instructors, peers, and content. Understanding user interac-
tions can impact course and program design, how educators interact
with students, and how technology can be used to create meaningful
interactions that lead to a better experience for learners.
In 1989, Michael G. Moore introduced three types of interac-
tion: learner-to-learner, learner-to-teacher, learner-to-content (Moore,
1989). Later, Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena (1994) added a fourth
type of interaction: learner-to-interface. The interface refers to the type
of technology being used to engage the learner. This book builds on
Moore’s and Hillman, Willis, and Gunawardena’s four types of inter-
action, but most chapters focus on learner interaction through tech-
nology, because we think that given the current direction and role of
technology in educational and research settings, that technology is on
its way to becoming a critical component of all forms of interaction.
For example, the emergence of videoconferencing as a result of the
coronavirus pandemic has become mainstream worldwide, adding a
layer of technology to interactions like learner-to-learner and teacher-
to-learner. In addition to the four types of interactions, some chapters
in this book narrow the interaction even further by specifying the
type of learner. For example, Rohan and Duzan’s chapter about K–12
educators’ incorporation of technology into their curriculum views
the teacher as the learner and discusses the teacher’s interactions with
technology in relation to how teachers use that new knowledge about
technology to create more collaborative learning environments for stu-
dents. Other chapters throughout this book do much of the same by
addressing a specifc feld or subject area and explaining how diferent
types of users interact with each other, their instructor, content, and
technology, all while using a variety of learning technologies to meet
users’ complex needs.

TYPES OF INTERACTION
Many interaction researchers tend to focus on a single interaction within
their research and explore how elements impact users regarding that key
interaction. Chapters in this book take a diferent approach to interaction
by focusing on the role learning technologies play in various forms of
interaction. For example, in this book’s “Unit II: Diversifying Instruction,”
 INTERACTIONS AND THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGIES 5

Fox-Turnbull analyzes intercognitive talk among students in order to

generate more meaningful lessons gauged to meet learners where they
are in their use of learning technology. Like many other chapters in this
book, Fox-Turnbull’s chapter then refects on a variety of user interac-
tions such as user-to-user and user-to-teacher in order to highlight the
many ways learning technologies play a role in diferent educational
environments that use technology.
Learner-to-content interaction is not given its own subsection in this
chapter, because individual chapters in the book do not specifcally focus
on a single type of subject matter. This is not meant to diminish the
importance of learner-to-content interaction but to highlight the diver-
sity among the chapters in the book. Moore (1989) states that learner-
to-content interaction “is the process of intellectually interacting with
content that results in changes in the learner’s understanding, the learner’s
perspective, or the cognitive structures of the mind” (p. 1). Therefore,
all chapter authors highlight aspects of learner-to-content interaction but
do not focus on learner-to-content interaction within their discussion or
analysis. Instead, authors acknowledge the subject matter in which their
research took place and ofer a variety of applications to many other
subject areas. It is important to understand the interactions discussed
in the following sections before proceeding to individual chapters that
contain a more comprehensive look at how learning technologies impact
interactions within a certain learning space. The remainder of this sec-
tion provides a cursory view of the diferent forms of user interactions
that are discussed throughout the book.
In the frst subsection of this chapter, “Learner-to-Learner Interac-
tion,” the term “learner” is used in diferent ways. In the traditional sense,
the term “learner” is often viewed as a K-18 student, and although that
is the case in many chapters in this book, the term “learner” is also used
in reference to an educator or researcher who is learning new technolo-
gies and experimenting with those technologies in diferent environ-
ments. In this book, each author clarifes how they are using the term
“learner,” but it is important to understand that anyone can be a learner,
not just pupils sitting in a classroom. For example, Pahomov’s chapter
places the teacher as the learner and the student as the teacher regard-
ing new technologies being implemented due to school closures during
the coronavirus pandemic. Similarly, Hosler’s chapter places instructional
designers in the learner’s seat as they assess the benefts of virtual reality
and implement changes in military pilot training programs. The following
subsections highlight the foundational components of learner interactions
and position that discussion with existing research related to the diferent
forms of interaction.
6 SCOTT GIBBONS AND KAY K. SEO

Learner-to-Learner Interaction
Learners often obtain just as much knowledge from each other as they
do from instructors or technology programs (Dobao, 2012). Learner-to-
learner interaction is when learners communicate or collaborate with
one another in a physical or virtual environment where knowledge is
exchanged and attained. In her research, Oyarzun (2016) discusses social
presence in relation to learner-to-learner interactions. Oyarzun suggests
that there are two important components to learner-to-learner interac-
tion: intimacy and immediacy. Oyarzun explains, “Intimacy includes eye
contact, physical proximity, and topic of conversation. Immediacy is the
psychological distance between the communicator and recipient” (p. 3).
With these components in mind, it is easy to assume that learner-to-
learner interaction can only take place in person in a physical environ-
ment; however, with the sudden advancement of virtual learning platforms
such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Google Meet, to name a few, the
limits of videoconferencing have been expanded and refned to where
the learning environments are now geared toward learner-to-learner
interaction. Many authors in this book discuss how virtual platforms
promote learner-to-learner interactions by enabling users to see and hear
each other, encourage learner-to-learner collaboration, and support a
safe and comfortable learning environment.
Learner-to-learner interaction can and does take place in many sub-
ject areas, but it has been widely studied in language learning. Because
learner-to-learner interaction is a key component in language learning,
a language classroom is an ideal arena to establish and study a variety
of learner-to-learner interactions. Although this book does not focus
on language learning, previous language-learning studies can help to
establish the foundation and importance of learner-to-learner interac-
tions. Like many interaction studies, Peeters (2019) researched interaction
in regards to language acquisition. In the study, Peeters explored how
learners construct knowledge via social media outlets such as Facebook
and how interactions with peers on Facebook afect knowledge develop-
ment. Peeters found that “learners shape the online interaction process
by sticking to a plan of action: engaging in cognitive and organizational
processes while building social connections with others and exploring
the concept of metacognition” (p. 3202). This research supports other
researchers’ fndings (Haron, Natrah Aziz, & Harun, 2017; Shackelford
& Maxwell, 2012) that learner-to-learner interactions are a powerful
method for bolstering knowledge construction and reinforcing learning
concepts. Haron et al. (2017) studied learner-to-learner interactions in
e-learning and found that interaction among learners is critical to building
 INTERACTIONS AND THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGIES 7

a sustainable learning community. Learner interactions become part of

the learning environment, particularly in virtual spaces.
In this book, authors discuss a variety of learner-to-learner interac-
tions, and they position those discussions in terms of learner-to-learner
interactions via learning technologies, whether those learning technolo-
gies are videoconferencing or learners collaborating with the aid of tech-
nology like social media, robotics, or virtual reality. Building a sense of
community through learner-to-learner interactions is critical (Shackelford
& Maxwell, 2012), and many chapters in this book speak to a sense of
community through interaction.

Learner-to-Teacher Interaction
How learners and educators interact and the outcomes of those interac-
tions are not concepts unique to this book, but learner-to-teacher inter-
actions via learning technologies have recently taken center stage in K-18
education due to the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. The idea that
teachers have knowledge, and through interactions with students, teachers
bestow that knowledge onto their students is a dated view of learner-
to-teacher interaction (Lane, 2018). There are many diferent theoretical
views of how this knowledge transition takes place and which form of
knowledge transfer is most efective, but authors in this book adhere
more closely to Dewey’s (1938) learner-centered understanding that
teachers aid students in gaining and shaping knowledge by providing
relevant experiences and guiding learning through experiences, as opposed
to Hirsch’s (1987) understanding of essentially bestowing knowledge onto
students through direct instruction and designed memorization. In rela-
tion to a push for more learner-centered instruction, Naujokaitiene,
Tamoliune, Volungeviciene, and Duart (2020) assert, “Teaching presence
is important to facilitate students’ cognitive presence also by shifting the
responsibility of learning process to students themselves” (p. 240). There-
fore, teachers need to understand that interactions with students matter
because the teacher’s physical or virtual presence plays an important role
in student achievement.
With this existentialist view of interaction in mind, learner-to-teacher
interactions can take diferent forms, and this type of interaction needs
additional attention given the increased role technology is playing in
classrooms around the world. It is important to consider learner-to-
teacher interactions because doing so can help teachers “to provoke
critical thinking easier, to induce focused discussions, to stimulate learn-
ers’ personal interest and original understanding, and to raise learners’
awareness of the learning process” (Naujokaitiene et al., 2020, p. 241).
8 SCOTT GIBBONS AND KAY K. SEO

Other researchers make similar claims about the importance of studying

learner-to-teacher interaction. In Tu, Yen, Ozkeskin, and Sujo-Montes’
chapter, they discuss how educators can build a stronger community of
online learners through social learning analytics. In her chapter, Pohomov
discusses how dialogue between students and teachers changes the type
of authentic connections students have with their teachers. Hsu and
Wang discuss on how presence impacts learning outcomes in immersive
virtual reality. Learner-to-teacher interactions can have positive impacts
on learner achievement and retention, but not all interactions are produc-
tive and with the implementation of more technology into classrooms
and a push toward virtual learning, learner-to-teacher interactions have
never been more essential.
Although technology can play an important role in creating more
interactions between learners and teachers, learner-to-teacher interactions
can be challenging. Tager-Flusberg (2015) discusses that teachers need to
learn how to be fexible when interacting with students. Tager-Flusberg
found that the teacher has control over the type of learning environment
they create, and this environment plays a critical role in student achieve-
ment. A negative learning environment can stall learning, regardless of
the instructional methods. Similarly, Li, Jee, and Sun (2018) found that
the way technology is used with learner-to-teacher interactions is also
important. In their study of 37 fourth and ffth grade English as a For-
eign Language (EFL) students, Li, Jee, and Sun discovered that the way
teachers use technology can actually create frustration and disengagement;
the researchers state that “[t]he use of technology in these suburban/rural
primary EFL classrooms was, unfortunately, restricting the communicative
practices in the classroom” (p. 178). This is because teachers in Li, Jee,
and Sun’s study were using technology “as an alternative presentation
tool to chalkboards and served a range of traditional pedagogical goals in
teacher-centered classrooms” (p. 178). Teachers were using PowerPoint
to display information without providing important explanations and
creating a zone for learner-teacher communication. Li, Jee, and Sun
go on to suggest that “the use of technology also limited teacher talk
and minimized students’ spontaneity and authenticity” (p. 178), which
counters the intent for technology to create a more adaptable atmosphere
for learner-teacher collaboration.
In various chapters in this book, authors identify and discuss oppor-
tunities for teachers to interact with learners, and authors discuss how
teachers can create better opportunities for positive learner-to-teacher
interactions. Naujokaitiene et al. (2020) indicate that “active learn-
ing through collaborative activities, communication, and discussions
has come to be important for learners’ engagement, the interest, and
 INTERACTIONS AND THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGIES 9

the overall success of the learning process while teaching and learning
online” (p. 231). This form of learner-to-teacher interaction is highlighted
throughout this book, and with the addition of learning technologies,
readers will fnd ways to reach students regardless of time or space.

Learner-to-Technology Interaction
Technology has diferent functions in educational environments, and in
those environments, learners interact with technology for diferent pur-
poses. Technology can be used as a tool to teach concepts by which
students interact with the technology to learn subject matter, technology
can be a vehicle by which teachers deliver instruction to students, and
technology can be an educational tool for learners to organize thoughts
and collaborate. Collier-Reed, Case, and Linder (2009) assert that learner-
to-technology interaction includes users interacting with technology to
create a product or artifact, using technology as a process to progress to
new knowledge, and using and making technology for diferent purposes.
Nilsson, Gustafsson, and Sundqvist (2020) use the Collier-Reed et al.
(2009) framework to study preschool children’s interactions with technol-
ogy. They discovered that there are two main ways students use technol-
ogy in educational settings. The frst way is students using technology
to explore “the application of artifacts through instruction” and the
second way is using technology to “build, create and construct using
diferent techniques, materials and tools” (p. 17). The teachers in Nils-
son, Gustafsson, and Sundqvist’s study used learner-to-technology inter-
action to build students’ “knowledge and skills and solutions to problems”
(p. 17). Similarly, authors in this book view learner-to-technology inter-
actions in much the same way. Li and Finch’s chapter discusses how new
technologies can play a role in learner-interface interaction. Hsu and
Wang’s chapter discusses how presence, immersion, and interactivity in
immersive virtual reality environments impacts learning outcomes through
learner-to-technology interactions.
Other ways learners interact with technology have a more direct
impact on learner engagement. Learner engagement is when “students
are physically, cognitively, and socially involved in the learning process”
(Gibbons & Seo, 2019). For example, Purarjomandlangrudi and Chen
(2020) studied online university students in Australia, and their fndings
revealed that in order for students to engage with online content, students
frst need to understand how to communicate via the online platforms,
how to self-regulate their learning, and how to retain a positive attitude
toward online programs. Therefore, teachers need to prepare students
to interact with technology before students are placed in a situation
10 SCOTT GIBBONS AND KAY K. SEO

where technology interaction is the main form of interaction. In this

book, authors Warren, Roy, and Robinson provide much of the same
ideas regarding their work with course designers in a transmedia learn-
ing experience. Engaging students using technology is not something
that happens without teacher and peer collaboration. In fact, creating a
positive learning experience using technology often works best “within
a didactical system where teacher, students and content are understood
as an undividable whole” (Svensson & Johansen, 2017, p. 161). In many
situations, the teacher becomes the learner along with students, which
can create a unique learning environment where students and teachers
solve problems and interact with technology together. In this book,
authors discuss the ways in which learner-to-technology interaction is
being used in a variety of learning environments. Throughout the book
authors ofer ideas for teachers and researchers to use to explore and
adapt diferent technologies to improving student efcacy and increasing
learner engagement.

THEMES IN USER INTERACTION

This book is divided into three themes (three units): “Enriching Cur-
riculum,” “Diversifying Instruction,” and “Revamping Professionalism.”
These units contain chapters that discuss various user interactions in
more detail and in a range of environments. In Unit I, “Enriching Cur-
riculum,” authors examine analytic data that support online learning
through discussion boards (Sharma, Akgun, and Li’s chapter), virtual
reality’s impact on learner interactions (Hsu and Wang’s chapter), and
gaming’s efect on users’ critical thinking (Warren, Roy, and Robinson’s
chapter). In Unit II, “Diversifying Instruction,” authors explore oral
interactions in technology education (Fox-Turnbull’s chapter), the role
no-speech sound plays among users and user interfaces (Li and Finch’s
chapter), and enhancing community through the integration of interac-
tivity and social network analysis (Tu, Yen, Ozkeskin, and Sujo-Montes’
chapter). Finally, in Unit III, “Revamping Professionalism,” authors discuss
virtual reality’s interaction with student learning in the United States Air
Force Academy (Hosler’s chapter), teacher and student interactions with
learning technologies in K–12 education (Rohan and Duzan’s chapter),
the move from in-person student to teacher interaction to online student-
to-teacher interaction during the coronavirus pandemic, and how a digital
divide can impact learners’ interaction with technology (Pahomov’s chap-
ter). The combination of the three units/themes along with their respec-
tive chapters provides a collection geared toward a wide audience of
 INTERACTIONS AND THE ROLE OF TECHNOLOGIES 11

researchers and practitioners. Each chapter has two functions: It stands

alone as a testament to how user interactions are unique to every learn-
ing space, and.it helps to paint a more cohesive picture of the role
learning technologies play in various forms of user interactions.
User interactions can enrich curriculum by helping instructors and
designers augment curriculum and implementation in order to create a
collaborative experience for online and in-person learners. By viewing
curriculum modifcation and development in new ways, with user inter-
actions as a guiding principle, curriculum can move in innovative direc-
tions that encourage learner engagement. Pepin, Gueudet, and Trouche
(2017) argue that interacting with technology can enhance teachers’ design
capacity and ability to develop engaging curriculum. Pepin, Gueudet, and
Trouche defne design capacity as “how teachers understand and transform
existing curriculum resources (in this case digital resources) to (re-) design
instruction” (p. 811). Chapters in Unit I, “Enriching Curriculum,” chal-
lenge readers to rethink curriculum and think about curriculum from
an interactive point of view with a mind toward technology integration.
Diversifying instruction through diferent forms of user interaction
can impact how users relate to instructional delivery methods and con-
tent. Implementation of new learning technologies can drastically change
instructional methods and the way teachers and learners view instruction.
As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a learner-centered instructional
approach is a common theme among chapters in this book. Efective
instructional practices have been a topic of research and professional
development for more than a century (National Education Association,
1893), and more recently, researchers Connor et al. (2011) use Child
Characteristics x Instruction to help determine the type of instruction
that works best in meeting students’ learning needs. Although the research
of Connor et al. focuses on reading achievement among young students,
their fndings are in line with arguments put forth by authors in Unit II,
“Diversifying Instruction.” Connor et al. maintain that student achieve-
ment is related to the design and implementation of an interactive learning
approach. Chapter authors argue that in addition to interactive learning,
the use of technology through oral interactions, nonspeech sounds, and
community also play an important role in student achievement.
Using learning technologies to promote educator growth is another
way interaction can play a role in professional development in diferent
felds. Avalos (2011) argues that teachers need reinforcement and sup-
port in order to grow, and teacher growth can lead to improved student
achievement. The coronavirus pandemic has forced teaching methods to
evolve, and for that reason, teachers must adapt the way they view instruc-
tion and meet student needs. Through the use of learning technologies
12 SCOTT GIBBONS AND KAY K. SEO

and a focus on user interactions, educational leaders can reinvigorate

the profession to encourage current learning trends and increase learner
engagement. Authors in Unit III, “Revamping Professionalism,” discuss
a range of topics in a multitude of environments, from K–12 educa-
tion to Air Force pilots. Chapter authors build an overall argument that
when educators put user interaction at the center of their planning and
implementation, then they can grow professionally and positively impact
student achievement. Because there are many diferent areas where teach-
ers can develop their professional skills, chapters in this section address
many diferent areas so that any practitioner or researcher can fnd useful
information and ideas to address their own unique needs.

CONCLUSION
The design of this book aims to meet the needs of researchers, practi-
tioners, and designers who plan to introduce or expand learning tech-
nologies in their curriculum. The chapters ofer a fresh perspective on
the role learning technologies play in learner interactions and learner
engagement. Because interaction can take many forms, the intentional
diversity among chapters targets many important areas where learner
interactions take place. The goal of each chapter is to provide readers
with an assortment of ideas and examples of how to think about interac-
tion and how learning technologies can transform the educational envi-
ronment in areas such as K–12, higher education, military training, and
corporate training. Acknowledging the benefts of crossover from areas
such as K–12 and corporate training reveals that diferent sectors can
learn from each other (Gibbons & Seo, 2021), and this book provides a
gateway for diferent felds to learn about, adapt, and implement learner
interactions to beneft their own research and practices.

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UNIT I

Enriching Curriculum
 CHAPTER 2

Learning Analytics to Support

Student Interaction and
Learning Design
Initial Report on a Human-Centered
Prototype Design

Priya Sharma, Mahir Akgun, and Qiyuan Li

INTRODUCTION
Interaction is an integral part of learning that occurs via interaction
between individuals, artifacts, knowledge, and cultural practices. Interac-
tion can be construed diversely: For example, Merriam-Webster’s 11th
Collegiate Dictionary defnes interaction as “mutual or reciprocal action
or infuence” (www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interaction), while
the Cambridge Dictionary defnes interaction as “an occasion when two
or more people or things communicate with or react to each other”
(https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/interaction).
Our perspective on interaction more closely maps onto the second def-
nition, and in this chapter, we address interaction from a pedagogical
and research perspective.
In face-to-face (f 2f ) learning contexts, interaction that occurs
between students, their peers, and instructors is visible and can be
used to inform pedagogy and design of activities. Interaction in online
contexts is equally important and has been underscored in a variety of
distance and online learning frameworks (Anderson & Garrison, 1998;
Moore, 1997). Specifcally in online contexts, bolstering interaction
between students, peers, instructors, and content is key to reducing
transactional distance (Moore, 1989), which is the sense of psycho-
logical distance felt by participants in the online space. Higher levels

DOI: 10.4324/9781003089704-4
18 PRIYA SHARMA, MAHIR AKGUN, AND QIYUAN LI

of transactional distance correlate to fewer opportunities to interact

and less persistence and learning online (Weidlich & Bastiaens, 2018).
In contrast, increased interactions between student-student, student-
instructor, and student-content are likely to provide more satisfactory
learning experiences (Anderson & Garrison, 1998), although requiring
higher time and cost investments.
In this chapter we report on the initial stages of a design research-
informed project that mitigates the trade-ofs of cost, efort, and interac-
tion by using artifcial intelligence, especially machine learning, to support
instructors in quickly assessing student interaction in online environments.

Interaction and Learning in Online Contexts

As increasing numbers of students enroll in online courses, with an
average 20% growth in enrollment each year (Lederman, 2018), it is
imperative to design courses that support student engagement and
interaction. The growth in online courses is accompanied by student
and faculty preferences for blended learning (Brooks & Pomerantz,
2017), where some portion of the course content is delivered online.
The increase in online and blended learning poses dual challenges for
instructors and learning designers. First, the design of online experi-
ences should closely attend to processes of learning, including interac-
tion between student and peers, student and instructor, and student
and content. Diferent learning theories emphasize diferent roles of
interaction in the learning process, including the role of interaction in
cognitive development (Vygotsky, 1978) and the role of social interac-
tion in constructing shared knowledge (Roschelle & Teasley, 1995).
Patterns of interaction between students have also been studied within
computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) environments.
Although the instructor’s role in structuring learning activities is impor-
tant for supporting interaction and collaboration, it is often overlooked
in the literature (Kreijns, Kirschner, & Vermeulen, 2013). Growing
evidence suggests that participants are unable to interact in CSCL
environments without guidance or support (Kreijns et al., 2013) and
that merely assigning students to groups in CSCL environments will
not guarantee collaboration or interaction (Lipponen, Rahikainen, Lal-
limo, & Hakkarainen, 2003). Along with the design of various types
of interaction, equally important is designing assessment and rapid
feedback to students on their interactions. Assessing quality of engage-
ment is an integral part of assessing the quality of each member’s
contribution to the group product, and instructor guidance for sup-
porting students’ participation in peer interaction is very important
 STUDENT INTERACTION AND LEARNING DESIGN 19

(Hakkarainen, 1998). However, monitoring individual students’ par-

ticipation in online group discussions is a challenging and time-
consuming task for most instructors. Analytics can be used to ease this
burden, and analytic tools can be designed to support instructors in
monitoring group discussions and detecting the quality of cognitive
engagement demonstrated by group members.

Artifcial Intelligence and Learning Analytics

Artifcial intelligence (AI) applications in education are multiplying and
could grow signifcantly in the coming years (Zeide, 2019). Machine
learning, encompassed within the broader set of AI techniques, is a
method of supervised/unsupervised classifcation and can produce soft-
ware capable of recognizing patterns, making predictions, and applying
newly discovered patterns to novel situations (Popenici & Kerr, 2017).
Machine learning has been previously used in education to automate
time-consuming tasks such as grading and provision of personalized
feedback (Vie, Popineau, Bruillard, & Bourda, 2018) as well as provision
of analytical or predictive information about student performance, dropout
rate, and sentiment (Hu, Lo, & Shih, 2014; Li, Hoi, Chang, & Jain,
2010; Minaei-Bidgoli, Kortemeyer, & Punch, 2004). In this chapter we
examine the design and use of a deep learning classifer that automati-
cally analyzes online student discourse and generates visualizations to
represent the data. The visualizations can be represented and manipulated
via a learning analytics dashboard.
Learning analytics (LA) include the measurement, collection, and
reporting of data to enhance student learning and design of the learn-
ing environment (SOLAR, n.d.). LA are well suited to analyze and
represent big data generated via online learning; however, the chal-
lenge for educators is gathering and interpreting relevant data to form
actionable insights into design and learning (Ferguson, 2012). Learning
analytics dashboards (LAD) can address this need. Many LADs reported
in literature gather and analyze data that are automatically generated
by learning management systems. For example, data such as student
access of resources, time spent, grades on quizzes, and so on can be
used to identify students at risk of failure. In contrast, our prototype
dashboard focuses on capturing, analyzing, and visualizing qualitative,
discourse-oriented data to provide a more complete picture of student
activities integral to interaction and learning to engender impact on
user behavior change. Importantly, our project also closely links LAD
design to theories of learning and design (Jivet, Schefel, Specht, &
Drachsler, 2018).
20 PRIYA SHARMA, MAHIR AKGUN, AND QIYUAN LI

Designing Human-Centered Dashboards for Learning

A growing focus in the feld of learning analytics (LA) is the use of
human-centered design (HCD) to increase alignment between dash-
board designs and their contextual use by stakeholders (Ahn, Campos,
Hays, & Digiacomo, 2019). This move echoes a larger move by the
Human Centered Interaction (HCI) discipline away from a system-
centered approach to a human-centered approach that positions stake-
holders’ concerns and activities at the forefront of the design process
(Bannon, 2011). Human-centered systems are designed and developed
with the people who will eventually use the system. The HCD process
uses methodologies and techniques that generate an understanding of
the critical stakeholders, their needs, their activities, and the context
in which those systems will operate (Giacomin, 2014). Learning analytic
tools and dashboards have not always followed an HCD process, and
the misalignment between their use and intent may result in a distrust
of LA tools (De Quincey, Kyriacou, Briggs, & Waller, 2019), which
in turn impacts real-world practices signifcantly. Thus, the success of
LA tools depends on whether they were designed by considering users’
needs and contexts (Shum, Ferguson, & Martinez-Maldonado, 2019).
Involving stakeholders and users such as instructors, students, and
administrators in the design process is important for better understand-
ing how the users work with and act on LA tools in authentic teaching
or learning contexts.

PROJECT CONTEXT: DEVELOPMENT OF AN INSTRUCTOR

FACING DASHBOARD
In the subsequent sections of this chapter, we present a description of
the design and development of an instructor-facing learning analytics
dashboard that focuses on automatically analyzing and visualizing the
quality and quantity of student interaction in online discussions. Despite
an exhaustive web and citation search, we were unable to fnd a tool
with the functionalities we expected, which led to our goal of tool
development. Our design of the dashboard is guided by human-centered
design guidelines, and in this frst phase our design focused primarily on
supporting instructor decision making and pedagogical intent. We used
a participatory co-design process (Bratteteig, Bødker, Dittrich, Mogensen,
& Simonsen, 2013) to refne and redesign the instructor-facing learning
analytics dashboard, and we reported the process using a design-research
 STUDENT INTERACTION AND LEARNING DESIGN 21

informed approach. Our work began with a focus on solving a practical

problem and identifying a suitable intervention; however, our work is
also theoretically grounded. As we continued building our intervention,
we saw opportunities for theory and design to inform each other, as is
the general trend of design research (Easterday, Rees Lewis, & Gerber,
2018). As a frst step, we focused on the instructor as stakeholder to
design and refne an initial prototype of our learning analytics
dashboard.
The context of this work is an undergraduate information sciences
and technology course within a large northeastern university in the
United States. The course enrolls about 6–8 sections with approximately
50 students per section every fall and spring semester. Sections are ofered
face-to-face as well as online, and our focus was to support instructors
in managing the online sections. Our project team members’ expertise
spanned education, learning design, learning analytics, machine learning,
and qualitative and quantitative research methodologies.

Initial Needs Analysis

Our frst step was to explore the needs and challenges of one of the
instructors of the information sciences class mentioned earlier. We con-
ducted several interview-based, need-fnding meetings to understand the
challenges faced by the instructor in supporting and encouraging students
to interact with each other and the course materials. The instructor
assigned students to groups of 4–6 at the beginning of the course, and
each group was tasked to complete 6 (six) group projects collaboratively
during the semester. A sample activity may ask students to identify all
the processes and interrelationships involved in the performance of a
simple computing activity (such as printing or saving a fle) and to create
both a written description and a diagram of the process. Specifc ques-
tions and prompts are also provided to guide the students through the
diferent considerations (e.g., a more direct supportive prompt might
read “How does the CPU communicate with the motherboard and the
other parts of a system unit?”). Students then discuss their ideas and
create the artifact. Through a process of refection and guided prompt-
ing, we arrived at a list of key challenges encountered in the course as
well as the types of technology that could help address the challenges.
Key challenges identifed by the instructor included assessing whether
students were truly engaged in collaborative learning as well as the quality
of the discussions and their focus on course content. The detailed list
of challenges with their description is presented in Table 2.1.
22 PRIYA SHARMA, MAHIR AKGUN, AND QIYUAN LI

Table 2.1 Listing of Key Challenges Faced by the Instructor

Key Instructor Description
Challenges

Know which students The instructor wanted the ability to better understand who
contribute to group contributes or not to group work. The instructor also mentioned that
discussions having such an ability could help resolve conficts that usually occur
in groups when a group member does not contribute to group work.
Know the quality of Apart from the quantity of interaction, the instructor also identifed
student contributions the importance of being able to assess students’ performance
within the group based on the level/quality of contribution demonstrated in online
discussion group activities.
Know if students work The challenge was to ensure that students didn’t divide activities
collaboratively or into several tasks and then delegate tasks among group members.
cooperatively He noted that students tend to work cooperatively but that most
of the online group activities designed for the course encourage
students to collaborate.
Know if students The instructor noted that it is challenging to skim through
missed any important discussions taking place within groups and identify if they use
course concepts when important course concepts/terms when completing group activities.
working on assigned He wanted this ability to detect any important concepts that
group activities students missed and to provide students with timely feedback.

Prototyping Learning Analytics Dashboard

Based on an initial needs analysis, we explored possible data and analytics
that could assist the instructor. Interactions between students can be
captured by using network analysis and sociograms and have been inte-
grated in other learning analytic dashboards (Chen, Chang, Ouyang, &
Zhou, 2018). The assessment of quality of student contributions was
initially conceived and visualized as a table with student posts and the
associated quality category.
Our approach to the project is embedded in sociocultural perspec-
tives of learning (Lave & Wenger, 1991), and we view learning as an
inherently social process (Vygotsky, 1978), where skills and knowledge
are developed and advanced via collaboration and interaction (Stahl,
2005). For our project, we also focused on the concept of engagement,
which broadly refers to “students’ level of commitment and involvement
with schooling” (Chi et al., 2018). Chi (2009) proposed the Interactive-
Constructive-Active-Passive (ICAP), a cognitive engagement assessment
framework that classifes learning activities into a taxonomy of interactive,
 STUDENT INTERACTION AND LEARNING DESIGN 23

constructive, active, and passive. Starting from the lowest level of cognitive
engagement, passive activities are defned as “being oriented toward and
receiving information from the instructional materials without overtly
doing anything else” (Chi et al., 2018, p. 1786). Active activities are
defned as overt learning activities that can be observed. Constructive
activities require learners to produce additional outputs not contained
in the explicitly presented information. Since learners would be active
while producing outputs, constructive activities subsume active activities.
The ICAP framework identifes “dialoguing’ as key to interactive activi-
ties; activities are classifed as interactive only with substantive dialoguing
where students build on or respond to peer contributions. As the ICAP
framework proposes, students become more cognitively engaged when
they progress from active to interactive. In prior work (Li, 2019), a nascent
machine-learning model was developed to classify discourse using the
ICAP framework.
We designed a prototype learning analytics dashboard containing
an instructor-facing component. The aim of the dashboard design was
to provide comprehensible data-informed visualizations from multiple
perspectives to assist the instructor in systematically evaluating students’
learning engagement. This initial prototype used participatory co-design,
where the theory-driven decisions of researchers and pragmatic goals of
an instructor merged in the development of an instructional tool. For
the dashboard and the learning analytics embedded therein to work
efectively, we accounted for the instructor’s pedagogical intent in plan-
ning and designing learning activities. We anticipated that the learning
analytics could be used by the instructor to make informed decisions
about how to adjust learning design when student behavior difered
from expectations.

Design and Components of First Prototype Dashboard

The dashboard was designed to support the instructor in closely moni-
toring each group’s weekly online activities, thereby allowing him to
assess team member contributions to the group. Such assessments have
been challenging and time-consuming for the instructor given the number
of students in the course. To support the instructor’s need to assess stu-
dent engagement in group discussions, we developed a cognitive engage-
ment visualizer module that displays an automatic classifcation of the
student posts. Student cognitive engagement was analyzed via automated
machine-learning algorithms using a Long-Short-Term-Memory (LSTM)
neural network. For training the machine-learning model, we had to
identify a suitable coding scheme that could analyze the quality of
24 PRIYA SHARMA, MAHIR AKGUN, AND QIYUAN LI

discourse and be adaptable and implementable for a machine-learning

model. Based on prior work (Li, 2019), we identifed Chi’s Interactive-
Constructive-Active-Passive framework as the most suitable. The ICAP
framework (Chi & Wylie, 2014) has been used to evaluate the interaction
level of MOOC discussion forum posts and comments and to automati-
cally classify interactions via machine-learning algorithms (Wang, Yang,
Wen, Koedinger, & Rosé, 2015). In our tool, we only used three levels
(ACI, Active-Constructive-Interactive) of the framework, as passive activities
are those in which students receive information from instructional mate-
rials and students cannot be observed doing anything overtly. Since
activities in this study are online, the passive level cannot be observed
and thus was not used for classifcation. Our tool used a machine-learning
classifer to automatically code the posts into ACI levels.
To train the model, and with our university’s Institutional Review
Board approval, we collected and analyzed data from online group dis-
cussions in the introductory information sciences course. We retrieved
approximately 4,650 discussion posts, and three human raters manually
coded 500 discussion posts to reach an average of 0.75 inter-rater reliability.
Coding was performed with an adapted version of the ICAP framework.
The coders discussed discrepant discourse data, resolved conficts, and
agreed on codes for the 500 posts, which were subsequently used to
train the machine-learning model. The trained LSTM classifer reached
an 83% accuracy rate and a substantial level of agreement with human
raters (cohen’s kappa = 0.717) based on the collected data.
Another metric that helps assess interaction is social network analy-
sis, in which network diagrams can be used to identify communication
patterns between students (Dawson, 2010). Thus, we integrated an
interaction visualizer module that displays the interaction between dif-
ferent students within the discussion groups. The sociograms aided the
instructor in identifying social structures and individual positions within
each team, as well as the communication patterns among students.

Implementation of First Prototype

In this section, we present our frst implementation and evaluation of
the learning analytics dashboard. The instructor used the dashboard to
view data generated by 20 students in one section of the course. For
this implementation, our main focus was understanding how to refne
the analytic visualizations to help the instructor’s assessment and learning
design. Researchers met weekly with the instructor to discuss the output
of analytics from each week of discussion and identify areas for further
development or refnement of the dashboard. In the subsequent section
 STUDENT INTERACTION AND LEARNING DESIGN 25

Table 2.2 Sample of Text Analysis in Cognitive Engagement Visualizer

Code Discourse

A1 <@UKZB8V7FH> <@UKL81TX35> <@UKLDV2FEX> <@UKL990JDR> Sorry my

phone refused to connect. Anyway I’ll be out of econ at 2 ish so if we want to do on
campus or online works for me.
A2 I fully don’t understand microcode/ machine code apart from it’s what the CPU’s use
and looks something along the lines of B 001002 C2 30
C so the router is literally just the post offce address of the digital world. It has an
IP address and rejects any data packets that don’t have “192.168.25.1” (specifc
IP address) to it. So ever new network needs 2 routers to talk to each other. One
to send One to receive. And behind them is a server or station that distributes the
packets accordingly
I <@UKZB8V7FH> yes exactly except the CPU doesn’t speak coding languages so
it’s on a whole different level in between what you and I normally think of as coding
and binary code which is what RAM and ROM are. Stored series of ons and offs.

we present the iterative evaluation of and modifcations made to the

dashboard visualizations.
The frst version of the dashboard provided two visualization modules
displaying the diferent elements of engagement: The frst of these was
a cognitive engagement visualizer module (see Table 2.2), which was
created to address the need to identify which students contributed to
group discussions and to present an analysis of the discourse.
The visual displays students’ messages and the discourse categories
assigned to them. The categories presented in the ICAP framework
were used to show students’ level of cognitive engagement with course
material and their peers during online group discussions. Category A
corresponds to Active, category C corresponds to Constructive, and cat-
egory I corresponds to Interactive. In the frst iteration of the visualization,
every student post was listed along with its ICAP category. When the
instructor viewed this tabular listing of codes, he felt that the visualiza-
tion did not provide a clear and quick evaluation of how and at what
level students contributed to group discussions, since there was no sorting
or categorization. A collaborative decision was made to visualize each
group member’s overall contribution to group activities by providing the
total number of messages for each ACI category as well as at the group
level. This resulted in a modifed cognitive engagement visualizer (see
Figure 2.1).
26 PRIYA SHARMA, MAHIR AKGUN, AND QIYUAN LI

Figure 2.1 Redesigned Cognitive Engagement Visualizer

The second visualization was an interaction visualizer module (see

Figure 2.2) that was created to address the instructor’s focus on know-
ing whether students work cooperatively or collaboratively. For example,
the visual presented to the instructor suggests that one student assumes
a leadership role in the group and communicates with all other students
in the network. Since other students do not seem to communicate
with their peers, except the one at the center of the network, it can
be concluded that students in the group engage in cooperation but not
collaboration. The instructor noted that such a sociogram provides the
opportunity to identify both the roles assumed by group members and
how those roles could factor into students’ level of contribution to group
work. A redesigned version of the sociogram with in- and out-degree
metrics that illustrate how many messages originated from and were sent
to an individual was also added (see Figure 2.3).
 STUDENT INTERACTION AND LEARNING DESIGN 27

Figure 2.2 Initial Version of Interaction Visualizer Module

Figure 2.3 Redesigned Interaction Visualizer

Redesign and Iteration of Second Prototype

Our redesign of the dashboard for the second prototype focused on the
two modules identifed previously. For the cognitive engagement visual-
izer, we engaged in two types of modifcations: First, we worked on
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Folk-Lore Andaluz, que trató de establecer el Sr. D. Alejandro Guichot y
Sierra; pero como no cuento con ningún colaborador para escribir este libro,
adoptaré una división mas sencilla arreglada conforme á mi opinión y los
materiales de que dispongo.

Es bueno economizar los términos extrangeros, cuyo derroche, á más de ser

ridículo, siembra confusión.

Hé aquí mi humilde opinión.

Enseñad ahora al modesto indígena de Filipinas si ha incurrido en error.

1 Este artículo se publicó en el número del Boletin de la Institución Libre de Enseñanza

de Madrid, correspondiente al 31 de Agosto de 1885. ↑
Folk-Lore ilocano
CAPÍTULO PRIMERO
 Materiales folk-lóricos
SOBRE LA RELIGIÓN Ó MITOLOGÍA, Y LA PSICOLOGÍA

(Folk-Belief ó Worship)

LOS MANGMANGKÍK.

Sir George Cox confunde lastimosamente el Folk-Lore con la Mitología, como

muchos españoles confunden ésta con la Teogonía.

El Folk-Lore, como hemos visto, es mero arsenal de datos al servicio de las

ciencias todas, á las cuales toca el estudiar sus respectivos materiales.

El Folk-Lore recoge del vulgo y presta luego á la Mitología, materiales como

las consejas, leyendas fabulosas etc. y la Mitología se encarga de averiguar si
son propias ó exóticas, estudiarlas á la luz de la historia y en una palabra,
servirse de ellas, para reconstruir una Religión ya extinguida por completo ó en
parte. En resúmen, el Folk-Lore representa fragmentos, que no pueden formar
un todo sin el auxilio de la Mitología.

Ya he publicado la Mitología ilocana1 que forma parte de la época prehistórica

de mi Historia de Ilocos.

Aquí reproduciré en forma de materiales folk-lóricos los que me sirvieron para

reconstruir la antigua religión de los ilocanos.

Los que comparen este capítulo con la Mitología ilocana, notarán á primera
vista la diferencia que existe entre el Folk-Lore y la Mitología.
Los ilocanos (en particular los de Ilocos Norte) al principiar á cortar árboles en
los montes, entonan los siguientes versos:

Barí, barí!
Dika agung̃et pári
Ta pumukan kamí
Iti pabakirda kada kamí.

Cuya traducción literal es la siguiente: “barí-barí (interjección ilocana que no

tiene equivalente en castellano) no te incomodes, compadre; porque cortamos lo
que nos mandan.” Esto lo hacen á fin de que no les odien los espíritus llamados
mangmangkík, que habitan en los árboles, los cuales, según cree el vulgo de
Ilocos, suelen vengarse produciendo graves enfermedades. En la Memoria sobre
etnología y etología de Filipinas para la Exposición filipina de Madrid, se halla
un cuento ilocano que el autor de la citada memoria me hizo escribir. Se titula
Ni Juan Sadút (Juan el Perezoso); según este cuento, se apareció al héroe de la
narración un mangmangkík en forma humana, cuando trataba de cortar un árbol,
sin haber antes pedido permiso á dicho anito.

Los ilocanos, no pueden darnos perfecta idea acerca de la naturaleza de los

mangmangkík y dicen que no son demonios, según la idea que los católicos
tienen de los demonios, ni sombras ó espectros, ni cafres; por lo cual yo opino
que son los antiguos anitos2 de los árboles, aquellos ilocanos en la época de la
conquista, que habiendo sido víctimas del rayo, caiman ó cuchillo, se enterraban
por lo regular al pie de algún árbol con su especie de túmulo, y á quienes, según
el P. Concepción3 se pedía licencia para entrar en los montes ú otros lugares á
cortar árboles ó plantas.

II

KATATAO-AN Ó SANGKABAGÍ.
Los katatao-an4. Son unos … no sé qué diré, si no anitos. Al igual de los
mangmangkík, ni son demonios ni fantasmas ó espectros; son según la fábula
ilocana, séres visibles unas veces, y otras nó; suelen tomar las formas humanas
ú otras de gigantescas proporciones y tienen una barañgay (barca), en la cual
viajan por el aire como en globos aerostáticos, solo de noche. Cual piratas,
cogen á los que encuentren en parage despoblado así como los cadáveres
humanos: por cuyo motivo los ilocanos se desvelan guardando los cadáveres de
sus muertos, antes de enterrarse.

En Ilocos Norte no se conoce al katatao-an. En cambio tienen á los llamados

sangkabagí5 que son análogos al primero y creo que katatao-an y sangkabagí,
indican un mismo anito, lo cual no será extraño porque en Ilocos Norte hay
palabras que no se entienden en Ilocos Súr, como salaysay, kain, buyubuy etc.
Hay en Ilocos Norte curanderos que pretenden ser amigos de los sangkabagí y
dicen que por ningún valor se ganan el aprecio de los espresados anitos. Estos
se aparecen á media noche y sus escogidos en las ventanas ó en los agujeros,
desde donde les despiertan con voz apenas perceptible y les hacen embarcarse
en una barañgay ó nave aerostática, parecida á la de los katatao-an, en la cual
viajan por el espacio á la una de la madrugada, dando en media hora la vuelta al
rededor del mundo. El vulgo ilocano dice que los sangkabagí se aparecen á
muchos; pero algunos hombres no aceptan su amistad, porque estos anitos
prohiben á sus amigos usar rosarios, oir misa, persignarse y cumplir con sus
obligaciones religiosas de cristiano, confesando los sangkabagí que no pueden
acercarse á sus amigos, si estos practican actos piadosos.6

Los sangkabagí se vengan de los que desdeñan su amistad, arrastrándoles por el

suelo, cuando están dormidos ó llevándoles á otros lugares ó sacándoles el
hígado, para llenar el hueco con yerbas. Y cuéntase que los sangkabagí tienen
una vista tan perspicaz, que pueden ver las entrañas de los hombres vivos, al
través de la piel. Y otras veces hacen que el anay (ternes monoceros) ó el
gorgojo destruyan las ropas, el palay, el maiz y semillas de la persona que les
haya causado algún disgusto. En cambio, entregan á sus amigos más estimados,
un libro (llamado) de la compañía7 y este libro les conducirá con inconcebible
prontitud á donde quieran aunque sea á lugares muy lejanos, con solo señalar el
sitio á donde deseen trasladarse. Se cuenta que un viejo natural de Sarrat (Ilocos
Norte) iba de su pueblo á Laoag (cosa de una legua de distancia) á hacer
compras y á los cuatro minutos volvía con los objetos comprados. Y esto lo
hacía todos los días por la mañana, mediodía y noche. Los sangkabagí—dice
además el vulgo—enseñan á sus amigos á hacer relojes y les entregan raices
para curar en un momento cualquier enfermedad, con solo acercar esas raices
maravillosas á los pacientes.

El sangkabagí, como el mangmangkík, mora invisiblemente en los árboles. Por

eso, los curanderos, que dicen ser amigos de los sangkabagí, cuando son
llamados para curar á algun enfermo, llevan una orquesta al pie del árbol, que se
cree morada de los sangkabagí y allí ofrecen una mesa8 adornada con banderas,
y repleta de platos sin sal9 (ésta no gusta á los anitos). Algo alejados de la mesa,
bailan hasta la puesta del sol. Prohiben acercarse á la mesa, porque no agrada
esto á los anitos obsequiados, sin que nadie lo vea—dicen los charlatanes—los
manjares y el basi, (vino) desaparecen como por encanto, de los platos y copas.
Probablemente los mismos curanderos (pillastres) roban las viandas y el basi,
porque no se permite acercarse á las mesas, cuando comen los anitos, es decir,
los falsos amigos de los sangkabagí, Después de esta fiesta dedicada á los
sangkabagí, el curandero va á la casa del enfermo, y cerca de la cama coloca
dos ó cuatro asientos para los anitos y prohibe sentarse en dichas sillas, puesto
que están ocupadas por los sangkabagí. Hechas estas ceremonias el curandero,
al igual de las antiguas pitonisas filipinas llamadas katalonan ó babailan,
predice si es curable ó no la enfermedad, señalando el mes y el día de la
completa curación ó la muerte del doliente.

Los palurdos de Ilocos Norte esparcen un poco de morisqueta y sal, antes de

sentarse á la mesa, diciendo: ¡vamos á comer! y creen que así se evita que los
sangkabagí les arrebaten la comida. Cuando trasnochan en los bosques, valles,
montañas ú otros lugares fuera de la casa, fijan cruces en la cabecera de la
cama,10 en los costados y en el lugar de los piés; con esta precaución—dicen—
no pueden acercarse los sangkabagí.

Y cuando improvisan una choza donde pasar la noche, fijan en la puerta una
cruz para el mismo objeto. En Ilocos tambien hay la creencia de que cuando los
gallos se asustan y chillan por la noche, los consabidos anitos sangkabagí están
robándolos y es fatal ir al gallinero para averiguar la causa del susto. Cuentan
los indígenas de Ilocos Norte que uno que intentó ir a ver si había algún
escamoteador, murió repentinamente, apenas so movió de su sitio.
III

EL KAIBAAN Ó KIBAAN.

Según se dice, es una criatura como de un año de edad; anda automáticamente

con piés puestos al revés, tiene una cabellera extraordinariamente larga y vive
invisiblemente en ciertas malezas; rarísimas veces aparece, haciéndolo solo á
sus amigos, pretendidas ó novias. Hay muchos kaibaanes, son de dos sexos y
procrean juntándose, ó bien un kaibaan y una mujer humana.

Y cuando los kaibaanes se enamoran de una mujer, se aparecen á ella, en forma

de hombre con boca abierta, mostrando sus dientes, que despiden una luz
intensa que deslumbra á la mujer pretendida. Dá el kaibaan serenatas con su
guitarrita á su amada. Si la mujer humana acepta el amor ofrecido, el kaibaan la
regalará un capote de los que tienen la especialidad de hacer invisibles á los
kaibaanes y á cuantos se vistan con él. La novia del kaibaan vendría pues á ser
invisible como su amante; participaría de su poder y no le faltará el pan
cuotidiano, porque valiéndose de su invisibilidad, irá á hurtarlo. El kaibaan
muere, y en ese caso irá la viuda (humana) á llorar al lugar mortuorio, llevando
un tabo11 lleno de sal en señal de luto. El dolor de la viuda, por lo regular, es
premiado por los kaibaanes sobrevivientes y parientes del difunto, entregándole
los bienes que hubiera dejado el finado.

El kaibaan posee un tabo llamado kiraod, que tiene la virtud de producir arroz,
siempre que se introduzca en una tinaja, aunque ésta se halle vacía; y además
una olla, que, sin embargo de su estremada pequeñez, contiene de un modo
misterioso cuatro chupas de arroz.

Cuando el kaibaan desea ganarse la amistad de algun hombre, le agasaja con

una serenata, permaneciendo invisible, y una vez ganada la voluntad del amigo,
le regala tinajas de oro, plata, esquisitos manjares, el maravilloso tabo, el capote
mágico y otros objetos valiosos. El kaibaan á pesar de ser rico, tiene mucho
gusto en hurtar y encarga á sus amigos (hombres) que si desaparece algun
objeto suyo, no lo busquen; y si no cumplen este encargo, el kaibaan les arroja
un puñado de ciertos polvos, que les produce asquerosas enfermedades de la
piel, que son rebeldes á todo tratamiento. Los ilocanos tienen miedo á los
kaibaanes y siempre que derramen algun líquido caliente en cualquier sitio,
dicen ¡alejaos! antes de efectuarlo. La persona, que les haga algun daño ó
proporcione disgustos, padecerá tambien de enfermedades cutáneas. Estas
enfermedades se atribuyen casi siempre á los kaibaanes, y abundan muchos
crédulos, que van á las malezas á decir: pakaoanennak kadi, Apo (perdóname,
señor,) y creen que con esta satisfacción, se obtiene el perdon del ofendido
kaibaan, que hará desaparecer los efectos de su venganza.

IV

EL «LITAO» Y LA SIRENA.

Probablemente Litao fué el anito del mar y de los ríos, y nó la Sirena: la idea de
ésta fué introducida en Filipinas por los españoles12; lo cual confirman las
mismas tradiciones ilocanas, y además la sirena es nombre español, y no tiene
equivalente en ilocano.

La sirena, al decir de los ilocanos, era al principio una niña hermosa; vivía con
su madre en un tugurio, asentado en las orillas de un río, cuyas aguas bañaban el
zaguan de la referida casucha; un día en que estaban cosiendo ellas, cayó la
aguja de la niña y ésta intentó bajar á buscarla; pero su madre se opuso á ello,
diciendo á su hija dejase ya el objeto perdido, pues temía que el litao (deidad
varon de las aguas) la raptase con sus encantamentos ó poderes sobrenaturales.
Sin embargo, la niña, viendo su aguja en el fondo del agua cristalina, se bajó
furtivamente, cuando su madre estaba distraida y apenas puso sus lindísimos
piés en el líquido, éste la tragó produciendo muy grandes burbujas. Desde
entonces quedó dotada del poder de encantar ó hacer cuanto guste. La sirena de
los ilocanos es muy diferente de la sirena de la tradición española, según la
describe una colaboradora del Folk-Lore Andaluz, y creo que muchos de los
caracteres de la ilocana, proceden del antiguo anito, llamado Litao.
Este ha perdido su importancia desde que la sirena se ha introducido en las
preocupaciones ilocanas, y hoy está casi olvidado del todo, Litao. Este, según
he oido en Vígan, es un varon pequeño, que vive en las ramas de las cañas, que
se encuentran en las riberas de los ríos; es el marido de la sirena, y él fué quién
la dió el poder sobrenatural que tiene.

¡Qué curiosa combinación de fábulas ó consejas, la española é ilocana! Los

Agustinos Buzeta y Bravo dicen que «como los filipinos no creen posible vivir
sin muger, á cada Dios dan también una diosa.»

Los ilocanos dicen que la sirena vive en un magnífico palacio de oro (¿domus
aurea?) submarino ó que está debajo del agua de un río. Es creencia bastante
comun en Vígan que en el horno, que según me aseguran, está dentro del río
hácia la parte Norte del Palacio Episcopal, vive la reina de las aguas.

En toda la comarca ilocana ninguno (hasta los indígenas ilustrados) he oido que
se haya atrevido á gritar ó hablar de la sirena estando en un río. Temen que
salga á matarles.

La sirena siempre lleva desplegada sobre las espaldas una exhuberante

cabellera, cuyas extremidades las arrastra en el suelo.

Ella suele ir al pueblo á cazar víctimas humanas; se presenta en forma de mujer

hermosísima é invita á ir al río con pretextos y halagos; y allí ya, el agua la
ayuda en su empresa con una súbita crecida ó con descomunales remolinos y
burbujas, como dicen. Y con sus uñas fenomenalmente largas, mata á su
víctima; pero si ésta no tiene antigua culpa á la sirena, como por ejemplo, si no
ha hablado mal de ella, le perdona la vida y allí agasaja con manjares
exquisitos, regalándole prendas valiosas y contándole su pasado.

Cuéntase que una mujer fué llevada á su magnifica morada por un cetáceo, y al
llegar, éste la presentó á su augusta soberana, quien le había confiado aquella
órden.

Apareció la sirena y se mostró sobremanera afable, diciéndole que nada

temiese, que no iba á ser asesinada por su bondad y virtudes extraordinarias. Y
en efecto, la sirena la trató como una amiga ó hermana y no la hizo nada
desagradable, sinó al contrario.
La cautiva tuvo vivas ansias de ver á su familia y pidió permiso á la sirena. Ésta
se lo concedió con órden de volver, so pena de morir ahogada. La ingrata ya no
regresó y temerosa de su culpa, no quiso bañarse nunca en ningun río ó mar;
pero se lavó en una artesa y murió ahogada en ella.

A veces, dicen, se vé á la sirena detrás del carro de la Virgen en las procesiones;

anda majestuosa, grave y con los ojos fijos en el suelo.

Cuando sale del fondo del agua, ésta se divide en dos muros dándola paso,
como á un Moisés, que pasa con los piés enjutos.

La sirena tiene por sirvientes á los peces; es hermosísima en toda la plenitud del
pensamiento, pero tiene el olor desagradable de los pescados podridos. En su
cabellera está el quid encantador, el poder preternatural. Si alguien puede
arrancarle una hebra, á él pasará la virtud de encantar ú omnipotencia; Su
cabellera es poderosa como una red metálica con que envuelve y arrastra á su
víctima.

A pesar de estar en el fondo de su babilónica habitación, puede oir todas las

conversaciones sobre ella.

Si me tomara la molestia de contar sus hazañas, llenaría muchas páginas. Citaré

solo una muy curiosa.

Cundía la noticia en 185 … de que la sirena prestaba febril actividad á sus cazas
(en Ilocos nadie muere ahogado que no sea por la dichosa sirena) y que todas
las madrugadas aparecía al Norte de la Catedral de Vigan. Varios jóvenes
acordaron ir á cogerla (¡qué valientes! iban á jugar con fuego …. sobrenatural):
la empresa era atrevida, pero en fin la llevaron á cabo.

Llegó, la hora de la cita; la sirena, en efecto, estaba ¡qué horror! habrá sabido
los propósitos de sus adversarios y salió á su encuentro. Los jóvenes avanzaban
y retrocedían con los pelos erizados; más por un esfuerzo lograron acercarse á la
sirena y conseguir la captura de la soberana de las aguas … ¡supuesta! Era una
soltera, que estaba esperando á su amante.
V.

EL PANANGYATANG Y EL CAIMAN.

Morga13 y Colin dicen que los filipinos adoraban, en la época de la Conquista

del país por los españoles, al caiman llamándole nono y le rogaban no les
hiciese ningun mal, dándole algo de lo que traían en el barco, y que los
pescadores arrojaban como primicias los primeros pescados, que sacaban de su
red, y de lo contrario, no entrarían otros peces en ella. Esta preocupación existe
hasta el día en Ilocos y según el Catecismo ilocano del P. Lopez (que estuvo en
Ilocos á principios del siglo XVII) se llama panangyatang: pero en aquellas
provincias no se encuentra este anfibio. Probablemente el P. Colin se había
equivocado al aseverar que los filipinos llamaban al caiman nono, porque esta
palabra es tagala, y significa abuelo y espectro, y tanto los ilocanos como los
tagalos llaman buaya al caiman. Parece ser exacto que en los puntos de
Filipinas donde hay caimanes, arrojen morisqueta á estos y otros objetos
supersticiosos, como las rocas de formas singulares, á fin de que el viaje sea
próspero.

VI.

EL «PUGÓT.»

Los ilocanos temen al Pugót que toma diversas formas; unas veces la de un gato
con ojos de fuego, que creciendo, se metamorfosea en perro siniestro y
aumentando más y más su bulto, se transforma en un gigante negro de
horripilantes dimensiones. Figúrese el lector que sentado en el alfeizar de la
ventana de una casa de 18 metros de altura, sus piés tocan en el suelo y dice el
vulgo que el Pugót gasta cigarros de grandísimo tamaño.

Los naturales de Vigan aseguran que allá por los años 1865 á 67 cayó una lluvia
de piedra sobre una casa durante algunas noches y como se atribuyera á
incógnitos pillastres, se rodeó la casa y sus alrededores de agentes de policía,
cuya presencia no impidió la continuación de la tirada de piedras y lo más
curioso era que, según se dice, no dañaban las piedras á quien tocaban, á pesar
de que al parecer eran tiradas con fuerza.

Según la versión ilocana, el Pugót (algunos españoles lo llaman cafre) se

alberga en las habitaciones desocupadas, en las casas en construcción ó en las
ruinas de un antiguo edificio. Por esto opino que el Pugót es uno de los anitos
caseros de la antigüedad.

VII.

OTROS SERES Y OBJETOS VENERADOS.

Los ilocanos temen mucho á una ave fabulosa, invisible llamada kumao, que
según el vulgo, roba cosas y personas.

—El ilocano detiene sus pasos, cuando encuentra una culebra ó estornuda,
como los tinguianes.

—Dicen los ilocanos que el canto de la lagartija anuncia la llegada de alguna

visita, y los ahullidos de los perros, la presencia de un espectro.

—El raton dá ó cambia los dientes, de modo que cuando les cae alguno, lo
arrojan al tejado del escusado, suplicando al raton lo cambie, y cuidando de no
reir, cuando miran al monte Gosing (mellado) de Ilocos Súr, so pena, dicen, de
que no crecerá el diente caido. ¿Podemos, pues, opinar que el raton fué el anito
de los dientes?

—La lechuza, según el vulgo ilocano, anuncia alguna muerte, como el pájaro
salaksak y la mariposa negra; pero esta preocupación parece la han introducido
los españoles.

—Si mal no recuerdo, en la vía fluvial de Ilocos Súr al Abra, hay algunas
piedras tradicionales, en cuyo obsequio tiran los viajeros, morisqueta.
Pasando las aguas de Zambales en mayo de 1880 á bordo del vapor Rómulus en
dirección á Manila, á indicación de mis paisanos, nos arrodillamos juntos para
rezar delante de un peñasco en forma de horno, y me dijeron que si no
cumpliamos con aquella obligación, habíamos de enfermar continuamente en
Manila. En vista de todo esto, debe ser cierto, que los ilocanos adoraron en
promontorios y peñascos.

Tanbién veneraron á ciertos árboles, entre ellos el Bagao, según los PP. Buzeta y
Bravo. Hasta ahora temen al árbol llamado tigbeg, pero si respetan este árbol,
no es porque de suyo es sagrado, sino porque so cree morada del consabido
mangmangkik.

VIII.

SABEISMO Y ASTROLOGÍA.

Es probable que los ilocanos hayan rendido culto al sol y la luna, á los que hasta
ahora dan el tratamiento de Apo (Señor). Aseveran que las manchas de la luna
son un árbol, bajo cuya sombra está durmiendo San José, recordando su huida á
Egipto14. Se observan aquí dos noticias de diferente procedencia, curiosamente
enlazadas: una conseja ó tradición fabulosa y otra verdad evangélica, como el
sueño de S. José en su huida á Egipto. En vista de ésto, ¿no se puede opinar que
el hoy durmiente S. José, era antes de la introducción del catolicismo en Ilocos,
el Dios Superior de la teogonía ilocana primitiva? Es decir, que los ilocanos
adoraban á la luna, no como divinidad, sino morada del Bathala, esto es, como
cielo.

Según el P. Villaverde en su Informe publicado en el Correo Sino-Annamita en

1879, los igorrotes del Kiangan entienden por lugar de los dioses, las estrellas y
planetas, especialmente el sol.

Hay un canto popular, del vulgo no ilustrado, que he oido en dialecto ilocano,
tagalo y pangasinan, de música puramente filipina. Este canto reseña un
banquete celebrado en el jardin del cielo (¿Paraiso?), diciendo que un manco
tocaba la vihuela, (es histórico que los filipinos tuvieron una especie de vihuela
de cinco cuerdas, que los ilocanos llamaban kotibeng), cantaba un mudo,
bailaba un cojo, contemplaban un ciego, un tuerto y un bizco, reía uno sin
dientes, tocaba la flauta un mellado, palmoteaba un débil y otros cuyos defectos
físicos eran contrarios á sus instrumentos; de modo que al tocar ellos,
provocaban la risa. Es de advertir que este canto curioso es antiguo y muy
popular y no se conoce su autor. Ahora nos preguntamos: si es cierto que los
cantares filipinos por lo regular eran sus antiguallas y fábulas, como dice un
historiador antiguo, ¿no podremos deducir del citado dal-lot (canto) que el cielo
de los filipinos ó al menos de los ilocanos, era un jardin, donde se riera á
mandíbula batiente?

Respecto á los cometas, podemos copiar literalmente lo que un autor había

escrito, refiriéndose á la astronomía china. Según los chinos, como los ilocanos,
«los cometas son precursores de hambre y miseria y pronostican casi siempre
pestes, guerras, caidas de reyes, derrumbamiento de imperios.»

Los astros fugaces venían á ser su estrella del amor (los ilocanos creen que se
mudan de lugar y se llaman layáp los aerolitos, cuando caen cerca), y el vulgo
de Ilocos cree que si se hace nudo en un pañuelo, cuando pasa el layáp (cuando
cae un aerólito,) se consigue encerrar en el nudo el babató (piedra milagrosa)
del amor. Pero también en Ilocos se comparan los frenéticos amantes á un ser
fabuloso llamado Dongguial, que según el vulgo ilocano «se ahogó de amor en
un pantano, donde no pudiera ahogarse una mosca por su poca agua.» ¿Es
Dongguial una especie de Cupido? En la nomenclatura de dioses filipinos, que
trae el Diccionario de Buzeta y Bravo, se encuentra uno ó una, (no se sabe),
llamada Sehat, palabra ilocana que significa hermosura; y los ilocanos como los
tagalos invocan casi siempre en sus cartas amorosas á Venus. ¿Hubo quizá
antiguamente una especie de Venus, que se llamara Sehat?

IX.

DIOSAS.
En Ilocos Norte hay curanderos teomaniacos llamados maibangbang̃on además
de los amigos de los sangkabagi. Los maibangbang̃on dicen estar inspirados en
sueños por una vieja. También dice el vulgo ilocano que en las epidemias de
viruelas, hay una vieja que en sueños ofrece maiz frito y el que lo acepte,
padecera aquella enfermedad. Una anciana formal, no mentirosa, me ha dicho
seriamente que la Madre de María Santísima no fué Sta. Ana, como dicen los
católicos, y el que llegue á conocer el nombre de su madre verdadera, irá al
Cielo. La vieja me dijo que sólo me descubriría aquel nombre secreto, en la
hora de la muerte. Aquí tenemos tres viejas fabulosas, cuyos nombres no se
conocen; y los Agustinos Buzeta y Bravo dicen: «Como los filipinos no creen
posible vivir sin mujer, á cada Dios dan también una diosa»15. Por lo tanto,
además de los anitos varones, hubo también diosas ó anitos mujeres, una de las
cuales probablemente se llamaba Aran, nombre de la esposa de Angng̃aló (Adan
fabuloso de los ilocanos.) El P. Gonzalez de Mendoza confirma que había ídolos
de mujeres.16

Además de los anitos de ambos sexos y los animales venerados, los ilocanos
han tributado, si no culto verdadero, cierto respeto á los objetos muy útiles. Los
campesinos ilocanos dan el tratamiento de Apo (señor) al oro17, plata, dinero,
arroz, sal, la tierra y todo lo muy útil en general, (lo cual recuerda á los chinos
que no comen carne de buey, porque dicen no es justo, despues de haber servido
tirando del carro; y lo entierran como muestra de agradecimiento), y como dice
Anot de Maizieres, llegó un tiempo en que todo sobre la tierra fué Dios, excepto
el verdadero Dios.

X.

PSICOLOGÍA.

Yo creo que los ilocanos conocieron una especie de alma porque hasta ahora
dicen que hay una cosa incorporal, llamada karkarmá innata al hombre; pero
que se la puede perder en los bosques y jardines, y el hombre que la pierde se
queda sin razón (ya sabemos que hombre sin alma es hombre sin razón) y como
loco ó maniático, callado, como si estuviera pensando en una cosa muy
profunda, no habiendo nada que le distraiga: abstraido. Y el que pierda su alma
ó karkarmá, no tiene sombra, de modo que el karkarmá parece ser la misma
sombra del hombre.

Los ilocanos cuando se retiran de un bosque ó campo exclaman: intayón,

intayón (vámonos, vámonos), llamando á su karkarmá, para evitar que éste se
distraiga, se quede en aquel sitio y se pierda. Cuando uno se queda loco
meditabundo ó maniático, creen los ilocanos que ha perdido su karkarmá y sus
parientes acuden á los curanderos, para que éstos lleven al loco á los lugares por
donde haya andado y allí gritan ¡intayon, intayon!, con objeto de que el
karkarmá extraviado vuelva al cuerpo del que lo ha perdido.

Hay otra razón para creer que los antiguos ilocanos conocieron una especie de
alma. Es indudable que las supersticiosas creencias de los ilocanos, de hoy, que
no fueron introducidas por los españoles y asiáticos, son heredadas de los
antiguos ilocanos, sus ascendientes. Pues bien, hay en el día una preocupación
ilocana de que los espectros (no quiero decir almas según las ideas cristianas; el
alma del Catolicismo tiene nombre en el idioma ilocano, que es kararua) de los
difuntos al tercero y noveno día de su muerte, visitan su casa y todos los lugares
por donde hayan estado en vida. Los ahullidos de los perros, anuncian la
presencia de un invisible espectro y para verlo, debemos poner legañas de perro
en nuestros ojos. Este espectro se llama al-aliá, arariá y anioa-ás, en ilocano.

Además, los ilocanos aseguran que las almas de los difuntos suelen entrar en el
cuerpo de algún vivo y que allí se las oye hablar con su propia voz. Me han
dicho algunos campesinos que una mujer sin causa alguna cayó desvanecida,
tiritando como si sintiera frío. Los presentes comprendieron que era un alma
que se introdujo en el cuerpo y que deseaba hacer algún encargo: por eso, se
apresuraron á cubrir con un lambong (velo de negro brillante) á la atacada, y
empezaron, á hacer preguntas al alma ó almas (porque eran muchas las que
entraron) y éstas contestaron con voces iguales á las que tenían en vida. Dejo á
los lectores el adivinar si aquella pícara atacada, merecía palos ó era
ventrílocua, ó si la credulidad de los campesinos les engañó.

De estas supersticiosas preocupaciones muy comunes en Ilocos, se deduce que

los ilocanos conocieron una especie de alma, pero grosera ó absurda, esto es,
que además de ser espiritual, era susceptible de caracteres materiales como la
voz, su visibilidad en algunas ocasiones etc.
XI.

GINGINAMMUL Ó BABATÓ.

Son estas unas piedrecitas á las que los ilocanos atribuyen virtudes milagrosas.
Su hallazgo es imposible, porque según la preocupación ilocana, se encuentran
en donde no hay posibilidad de hallarlas. Se llaman babató en Ilocos Norte y
ginginammul18 en Ilocos Súr.

El corazón ó fruta embrionaria del plátano echa una piedra, que metamorfosea
en un Samson al que tuviere la dicha de encontrarla. Para poseerla, debe uno
situarse en su tronco por la noche, esperando que en forma de fuego la arroje la
flor del plátano, al inclinarse al suelo; pero el que desee poseerla, debe armarse
de valor, para hacer frente á los diablos, que indefectiblemente aparecerán á
arrebatarle la piedra, y si la presencia de los demonios le infunde miedo, se
volverá loco. El hombre meterá en su boca la piedra, que teniendo él, nunca se
le vencerá.

—El limon tiene tambien una piedrecita milagrosa, la cual suele encontrarse en
las grietas de la cáscara. El poseedor de la piedra será amado y disputado por las
mujeres.

La piedra del limón es redonda y pequeñita con una mancha negra en medio,
como el ojo de un pescadito. Así lo dicen, como si hubieran visto alguna.

—Las habas tienen tambien su babató, el cual aleja al poseedor de los peligros
y enemigos, moviéndose cuando estamos cerca de alguna contingencia.

—El que consiga el babató del tabtabá (especie de lama), adquirirá la especial
virtud de penetrar en los lugares más impenetrables, v. g. un cuarto cerrado.

—El huevo de la garza hace invisible á su poseedor.

—El babató de la anguila hace que su poseedor no pueda ser sujeto con
ligaduras, pues se evade siempre que quiera.

XII.

TAGIROOT19

Se llaman así las yerbas amatorias, en ilocano; gayuma en tagalo.

El que adquiera la flor de la yerba llamada en ilocano pakó, será rico y amado
frenéticamente por las mujeres. Parece que esta yerba no es florífera. Nos
recuerda la encantadora carissia de los antiguos, a que se atribuye igual virtud.

—El que pueda adquirir la flor del kanónong, que dá el tamarindo,20 será
admirado en las peleas y guerras, pues los proyectiles no le hieren y el que
intente descargarle puñetazos, garrotazos ó apedrearle, tendrá los brazos
inmóviles y extendidos. En una palabra, será del todo invulnerable; pero como
se ve, es imposible que un árbol produzca flores de otro de diferente especie.

Las yerbas amatorias se encuentran en el día del Viernes Santo, según los
ilocanos.

—Si en el lugar, donde se enlazan las ramas de varios árboles, se encuentra una
flor y debajo de ésta, allá en el suelo y en línea vertical, se halla una yerba, ésta
será la deseada. A más de ella, se debe buscar otras dos de diferentes colores y
con las mismas condiciones.

Las tres yerbas se ponen en un cañuto lleno de aceite de coco, que servirá de
alimento á las yerbas. Con éstas se consigue el caso singular de que las mujeres
se enamoren del dichoso poseedor.

—Si la yerba es la llamada aribobó, su virtud de atraer será mayor que en otro
caso, pues basta pensar en enamorarnos de cierta jóven, para que ésta, por mas
virtuosa que sea, llegue á declararnos su amor.
—En mi niñez tuve un amigo tinguian. Era el famoso capitan Aquino, que
envenenó á muchos chiquillos. El me vendió en dos cuartos unas raices que se
parecían á cabellos crespos, aseverándome, que tenían el poder de conquistar
corazones.

«Para eso, me dijo, ponlas en un frasquito lleno de aceite, para que no mueran;
mójalas con tu lengua antes de aplicarlas á la mujer, que te agrade. Y cuidado
con comunicar este secreto á otro, porque perderían su virtud.»

Á pesar de este encargo, se lo dije á nuestros criados, los cuales me aconsejaron

arrojarlas, diciéndo que el tinguian trataba de envenenarme.

No hubo tan mala intención: los chiquillos de mi amistad me las pidieron y

aplicaron á una vendedora de golosinas, que …. la emprendió con ellos á
bofetadas.

—El humo de cigarrillo, rociado con aceite de coco que tiene un solo ojo,
tambien atrae el amor de las babbalasang. Llaman ojos de coco los ilocanos, los
agujeros, que tienen las frutas de dicha palma en la parte superior.

XIII.

CURANDEROS TEOMANIACOS, ADIVINOS ETC.

Los ilocanos tienen curanderos supersticiosos, denominados maibangbang̃on,

mang̃o-odon y amigos de los sangkabagí; á los llamados mannuma (tauak en
tagalo) que dicen haber nacido en un mismo día que una culebra y por esta sola
circunstancia son respetados y temidos por los reptiles y tienen poder para curar
por medio de piedras milagrosas las mordeduras de las culebras y son
obedecidos cuando llaman con un silbido á todos los reptiles del lugar donde
ocurra la desgracia; y además, nosotros los ilocanos tenemos á los adivinos
llamados mammadlés ó mannilao.

Para averiguar quién ha encontrado ó hurtado un objeto perdido, se hace mascar

arroz á aquellos, sobre quienes recaigan sospechas. Y mascado ya, que lo
arrojen. El que haya mascado arroz, que ha salido amarillo, será el autor del
hurto.

—Hay otras muchas maneras de averiguar quién es el ladron de las cosas

perdidas. Se escriben separadamente los nombres de los sospechosos en varios
papelitos. Estos se ponen en una olla de agua hirviente; se enciende una vela
bendita y se rezan unos credos. Al final de estas ceremonias, se examinan los
papelitos, en los cuales desaparecerán los nombres escritos, excepto el del
ladron.21

—En Ilocos abundan taos que dicen saber adivinar quién es el ladron y el lugar
donde se encuentran las cosas perdidas.

Parece probable que no hubo en Ilocos Mangasalat, pues allí se dice que las
yerbas, piedras ú otros objetos amatorios no se confeccionan ó se hacen, sino
que por su naturaleza misma son maravillosos, á diferencia de lo que la historia
de Filipinas dice del Mangasalat.

XIV.

COSMOGONÍA

Tenemos los indígenas una tradición, que en ninguna crónica hallé escrita y que
sin embargo ningun ilocano ignora; según ella, en un principio, ó sea antes de la
creación del cielo, de la tierra y del mar (no digo del hombre, pues según dicha
tradición, el hombre existió antes que el cielo etc.) había un gigante llamado
Angng̃aló—¿sería el citado por los PP. Buzeta y Bravo?—de formidables
proporciones. Figúrese el lector que de pié tocaba su cabeza en el cielo y con un
paso venía de Vígan á Manila, es decir, salvando cosa de setenta y una leguas.

Angng̃aló cavó el suelo que antes era plano, y las tierras que extrajo son hoy los
montes, siendo las colinas las tierras que caían de los agujeros que formaban sus
dedos mal unidos.
Hecho un abismo, alivió su vejiga y formó los océanos y los mares; pero no por
eso sus aguas fueron saladas como la orina. Angng̃aló tenía una mujer
nombrada Aran, de la cual tuvo tres hijas. Estas trataban de venir á Manila, para
traer sal y rogaron á su padre las trasportase. Angng̃aló accedió á ello; pero
estando en medio del mar cayeron con sus cargas al agua y desde entonces el
mar se quedó salado.

Angng̃aló fué tambien el que colocó la bóveda del cielo,22 el sol y las estrellas.

Los ilocanos del campo todo lo materializan, efecto quizás de su escasa

penetración, por manera que para ellos el cielo no es mas que esa bóveda azul y
cóncava que nos cubre. Se figuran que la tierra no es esférica, al igual de los
antiguos geógrafos; es una circunferencia plana sobre cuyos límites se levanta el
cielo; y para ellos, es de extensión muchísimo mayor que la real, de modo que
para que uno pudiera llegar á sus límites ó á los piés del cielo, necesitaria, desde
que nace hasta su vejez, correr sin cesar en dirección al horizonte.

Según esta tradición, pues, Angng̃aló y Aran fueron los primeros hombres, y
quizás los padres de los demás, como Adan y Eva; pero debemos advertir que
en esta tradición no se menciona la creación del hombre, y que los ilocanos
cuando quieren decir que aún no había nacido Fulano en tal tiempo, expresan
con esta frase metafórica: estaba aún en el otro lado del mar, que viene á ser el
Asia, lo cual parece indicar que según creencia antigua, los hombres vienen del
extrangero como el trozo de caña arrojada por las olas á los piés del milano, de
que salieron los primeros hombres, según otra tradición antigua de Filipinas,
que mentan algunos historiadores. En Ilocos, cuando uno dice en broma no
haber nacido de mujer, le contestan:—Entonces has salido de un trozo de caña.

En el monte de piedra, Bangbang, que hay en la bocana del Abra, hay una
huella muy grande al parecer de hombre, y otra, según dicen, en la cumbre del
Bul-lagao, Ilocos, ó en Cagayan, que se atribuyen á Angng̃aló.23 Lo cual nos
recuerda la tradicional y fabulosa Bota del Mandarín, que hay cerca de Fochow,
más arriba de los puertos de Mingan. Angng̃aló dejó estas huellas al subir al
cielo.

En Abra hay un gran subterráneo que dicen ser de Aran, y cuyo agujero llega á
Cagayan, según la conseja, cual un tonel.
Angng̃aló fué el Criador; según la tradición ilocana, pero de órden de un Dios
cuyo nombre se ignora, y no hay noticia de que fuera objeto del culto de los
ilocanos, lo cual es incomprensible, puesto que según todas las demás religiones
de que tengo conocimiento, todo Criador del Universo es Dios, y es acorde la
creencia de que sólo la omnipotencia de un Dios es capaz de obrar tantas
maravillas como las que encierra la creación.

¿O es que la actual conseja ilocana es aborto de un contubernio de ideas

religiosas, de las puramente ilocanas y de las extrañas, quizás las chinas,
introducidas después de la conquista?

Angng̃aló, por ser gigante (los mandayas de Mindanao hablan también de un

gigante llamado Tagamaling) se asemeja al Atlas ú Océano filipino de los PP.
Buzeta y Bravo.

Como en la conseja ilocana citada, no se menciona la filiación de Aran y

Angng̃aló, éstos pudieron haber sido los mismos hombres, que salieran de dos
cañutos expresados por el P. Colin.24 Y por último, hemos visto que las consejas
relativas á las huellas de Angng̃aló son semejantes á las chinas.

He aquí lo que sobre ésto me escribe el sábio Blumentritt:

«Mi muy querido amigo: acabo de recibir su muy, muy interesante artículo
sobre la cosmogonía ilocana25. No solo las Visayas sino tambien otros pueblos
de la raza malaya, dicen que los primeros hombres salieron de un trozo de caña
ó bambú. Así los indígenas de las Islas de Mentawei (O. de Sumatra), los
naturales de la parte SE. de Borneo (Pasir), los de Holontalo y los alfuros de la
Minahassa (Célebes septentrional), los indígenas de la isla Kabroeang ó
Abotean (grupo Talaur entre Célebes y Filipinas), cuentan que el primer hombre
fué Hoera Boelauro (Hura Bulao). Este cortó en el monte un bejuco ó rotang, y
en este bejuco halló á un hombre y una muger, de quienes proceden dichos
insulares. Según la conseja, los reyes de los alfuros de la isla de Ceram traen su
orígen de árboles «Waringi» (especie de balete) y otros de un cocotero. Algunas
tribus de los indígenas de Amboyna ó Ambueno descienden de trozos de
bambú, otras de caimanes ó anguilas. Hay tribus de alfuros de Ceram que
cuentan los primeros hombres deben su existencia á la cópula del cielo y de la
tierra, y los temblores son las tentativas de la tierra para restablecer dicho statu
quo anterior. La misma leyenda (muchas veces solo en rudimentos) se encuentra
en otros paises malayos. Los javaneses piden ó pidieron al Bopo-Koso (Padre
Cielo) y á la Ibu Pratiswi (madre tierra).

«Huellas de dioses, demonios y gigantes, como las de Angng̃aló, se encuentran

en todo el mundo y buscamos los etnólogos las leyendas que se refieren á ellas,
así es que mucho agradecemos á usted su artículo, que traduciré al aleman y so
publicará en una Revista científica de Austria ó de Alemania, probablemente el
mes de Junio próximo. En las cercanías de Leitmeritz hay también en una
piedra huellas (pero de manos) del diablo, llamadas Teufelspratze (Teufel =
diablo, y Pratze = mano grande de un gigante ó pata de león ó tigre).

XV.

CONSEJAS METEOROLÓGICAS

Según mis paisanos, el rayo ó el trueno (casi son una misma cosa para ellos) es
un cerdo que sale de la tierra en tiempo de tormentas. Una persona respetable y
fidedigna (no digo ilustrada), me aseguró bajo palabra de honor que en una
tormenta vió salir cerca del tronco de cierto árbol un cerdo blanco, que
convirtiéndose en fuego ¡horror! tronó y desapareció.

En Ilocos Norte se dice que el rayo al principio es cerdo ó gallo blanco, y

asegura un tao haber visto con sus propios ojos (?) un gallo blanco antes de
haber descargado una chispa eléctrica sobre el tribunal del pueblo de Sarrat; el
cual gallo, corriendo velozmente se convirtió en rayo, que luego redujo á
cenizas el referido tribunal.

Y ¿cómo se esplica esto? ¿Una descarga eléctrica habrá quizás abrasado,

reducido á cenizas y hecho desaparecer de un modo horroroso el gallo? Muchos
meteorólogos aseveran que el rayo puede reducir á pavesas á su víctima; pero
los ilocanos cuentan que el rayo absorve solo los sesos de sus víctimas
animales, fundándose ellos en que los muertos por una descarga eléctrica no
presentan otra lesión que algunos agujeros en la cabeza, y no tienen sesos.
Los ilocanos temen más al trueno que al rayo, y narran que es peligroso comer
al tiempo de estallar una tormenta, porque puede que el trueno hambriento
venga á arrebatarles la comida. Asimismo es peligroso para ellos montar en
cualquier animal cornígero; usar alhajas de valor como oro, plata y brillantes
(por esta creencia se suele encontrar en los campos muchas veces alhajas de
valor, que sus dueños arrojan mientras dura la tormenta), estar debajo de los
árboles y tener en la mano espejos, vidrios, cristales y metales relucientes.

Según los ilocanos, el rayo respeta el agua y teme las hojas de la caña de azúcar,
y así, un hombre que esté debajo del agua ó metido en la espesura de un caña-
dulzal, queda libre del rayo. Y dicen que las hojas de la caña de azúcar hieren al
rayo.

Los de Ilocos Norte suelen vendar su cabeza, cuando descarga una tormenta,
con palmas de coco, benditas el Domingo de Ramos, para evitar el peligro.

Es creencia entre los ilocanos que el fuego producido por el rayo y por la
centella, no se puede apagar con agua, sino con vinagre. Por esto, cuando se
quemó la Casa-Gobierno de Abra, todas las casas de Bangued sufrieron carencia
absoluta de vinagre.

Digamos entre paréntesis que los ilocanos extraen el vinagre de la caña-dulce á

diferencia de los peninsulares, que lo sacan de las uvas. El vinagre ilocano es de
la clase superior que se conoce en Filipinas, y es mas fuerte que el que viene de
Europa y América.

Algunas viejas ilocanas aseguran que el trueno no es mas que el ruido

producido por el coche de Dios, cuando sale.

Los ilocanos atribuyen al relámpago la aparición del hongo.

Decir que fulano es «rayo» ó «víctima del rayo», es un insulto para los ilocanos
y tagalos.

Las personas que por casualidad no mueran, al descargar cerca de ellos una
chispa eléctrica y pierden por algunos momentos el conocimiento, dícese que
solo han recibido el hedor del rayo.

—Es malo señalar con el dedo el arco-iris, pues el dedo se acortará.

—Si en el día de S. Lorenzo sopla un viento fuerte creen los ilocanos que el
mártir de la parrilla está despierto, y en otro caso aseveran que está dormido.

—El fuego de San Telmo extravía á los caminantes. Aparece como si estuviese
cerca y si nos aprocsimamos á él, creyendo que es luz de una casa, se aleja
insensiblemente. Si en una noche nos extraviamos, debemos desnudarnos la
camisa y luego volver á vestirla pero puesta revéz.

Con esto se evita el extravío, que según los ilocanos, es obra del diablo.

XVI.

PREOCUPACIONES ZOOGRÁFICAS.

El perro que mame leche humana será feroz.

—Cuando una perra pare por primera vez, cogen los cachorros y les dan de
comer, y durante la comida tocan un tambor, á fin de que sepan ladrar, y les
hacen tragar un escorpion, para que sean valientes. Esto se hace en Ilocos Norte.

—En Ilocos Sur, los cachorros de perra primeriza los tiran al rio, porque dicen
que son buisit (termino chino que quiere decir falto de suerte buena) y acarrean
á los dueños desventuras.

Los ilocanos no fuman, cuando van á pedir un perro, á fin de que no sepa cazar
gallos, y al regresar á su casa después de haber conseguido algún can, dan un
pellizco á cualquiera de los que encuentren en ella, sin advertencia alguna, á fin
de que el perro muerda calladito.

—Tambien se prohibe fumar, cuando van á comprar vacas, á fin de que éstas no
muerdan sus amarraduras.

Asimismo prohiben mascar buyo y fumar, cuando van á comprar cerdo, porque
éste no mate los gallos de la casa. Y cuando llegan á la suya despues de la
compra, comen y beben mucho con objeto de que el animal adquirido coma y
engorde.

—Lo mismo hacen cuando van á comprar ó pedir algun gato, y luego suben á
los árboles las viejas, para que el gato sepa subir y buscar ratones.

—Cuando el cerdo se sienta frente á la escalera, está maldiciendo á su dueño, y

para evitar contratiempos, persiguen al animal.

—Es bueno ir á cazar el día del Viernes Santo, porque los venados son en ese
día muy mansos y fáciles de coger.

—Cuando canta la lagartija ó alutiit, como llaman en nuestra tierra, llegan

visitas.

—Los ratones, cucarachas y otras alimañas, que los ilocanos encuentran en las
urnas de imágenes sagradas, se cree que son juguetes de Dios. Por ésto, los
simples temen matarlos.

—Los ilocanos cuídanse mucho de que ninguna rana vaya á echar huevos en las
tinajas de agua de beber, porque dicen que se vuelve venenosa.

—Los indígenas dicen que los gallos (no gallinas) ponen algunas veces un
huevo pequeño que contiene escorpion. Esta creencia está muy generalizada aún
en Europa.

—Cuando la gallina ya acabó de empollar, la sacan con las crías de la pollinera

y pellizcan á los presentes, á fin de que la gallina sea brava y pueda defender á
sus crias de las aves de rapiña.

—Cuando en el crepúsculo vespertino los gallos se recogen en los árboles y uno

de ellos canta y nadie le contesta, dicen que este gallo maldice á su dueño y
suelen en Ilocos Norte matarle enseguida, á fin de que la maldición no llegue á
cumplirse.

—En la citada provincia es creencia que el gallo que tararea bajito, maldice á
sus dueños, así que, cuando sucede esto, le persiguen con un palo ó sin él á fin
de que no prosiga.
Cuando el buho (kul-laao en ilocano), canta alrededor de la casa, indica que los
que viven en ella están cercanos á enfermar.

—Cuando algún pájaro entra por el día en una casa, temen cogerle, creyendo
que los que lo hicieran, enfermarían: lo único que hacen los que viven en la
casa, es cuidar de ver en qué habitaciones entra, pues creen que el que habita en
aquella, en donde penetre, morirá. Esta señal, dicen, es infalible, especialmente
si son pajaritos.

—Cuando un pájaro pasa, casi tocándola, por encima de nuestra cabeza y vá á

posarse á un árbol muerto, anuncia la próxima defunción de algún deudo.

—La mariposa que revolotea á nuestro alrededor ó entra en la casa, es señal de

que en otro lugar habrá muerto un pariente.

—La luciérnaga es la luz ó el candil del espíritu maligno.

XVII.

OTRAS SUPERSTICIONES.

El que quiera ver algún demonio debe rezar el Credo al dar las ocho de la noche
y al pronunciar la resurreccion de la carne, incline su cabeza hasta casi tocar la
tierra y verá entre sus piés la mar de espíritus malignos.

—Se prohibe barrer en el crepúsculo vespertino, para evitar se toque á algún ser
invisible ó que éste se manche, en cuyo caso el ofendido se venga causándonos
enfermedades.

—El que tiene remolino en la frente, sufrirá vientos contrarios, cuando navegue.

—El que sueña algún suceso, espera otro real contrario al que vió en sueños,
como por ejemplo. Si se sueña que un enfermo ha muerto, éste no morirá.

—Es malo silbar por la noche, porque acuden fantasmas.