CHAPTER 2 : DATA [pgs : 45-74]

TRANSMISSION
 Transmission Of Data

• Data transmission is the movement of data in the forms of bits

between two or more digital devices.
• Transmission of data takes place via some form of transmission
media (for example copper wire, optical fiber, as radio waves, infra-red)
TRANSMISSION OF
DATA

Data is frequently transferred from one device to another. The two devices could be in the
same building or thousands of kilometres away. Irrespective of the distance travelled, the
transmission of data needs to be considered with respect to:
• How the data is transmitted?
• How can errors following transmission be detected and can the data be recovered?
• The role of encryption to make sure data that falls into the wrong hands can’t be used
• It is also important to consider ways of checking for errors in data once it has been
entered into a computer
2.1.1 Data packets

• Data sent over long distances is usually broken up into data packets (sometimes called
datagrams).
• The packets of data are usually quite small, typically 64 KiB, which are much easier to
control than a long continuous stream of data.
Benefit of using data packets
 If a particular transmission route was out of action or very busy. Then packet can be sent along a
different route to its destination.
Drawback of splitting data into packets
 It needs to reassemble the data when it reaches its destination
Packet structure

A typical packet is split up into:

• A packet header
• The payload
• A trailer.
Packet header

For each packet, the packet header consists of:

» the IP address of the sending device
» the IP address of the receiving device
» the sequence number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the packets can be
reassembled into the correct order once they reach the destination)
» packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets have
arrived intact).
(Note: the header often also contains another value indicating how many packets there are in
total for this transmission.)
Payload

For each packet, the payload consists of the actual data being sent in the packet (this is
usually about 64 KiB).
Packet Trailer
For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:
» some way of identifying the end of the packet; this is essential to allow
each packet to be separated from each other as they travel from sending to
receiving station
» an error checking method; cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) are used to check data
packets:
– this involves the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload
and storing this as a hex value in the trailer before it is sent
– once the packet arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of
1-bits in the payload
– the computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
– if the two values match, then no transmission errors have occurred;
otherwise the packet needs to be re-sent.
Packet structure
Packet switching : Example
• Let us now consider what happens when a photograph, for example, is sent from
computer ‘A’ to computer ‘B’.
• The photograph will be split up into a number of packets before it is sent.
• There will be several possible routes for the packets, between computer ‘A’ (sender)
and computer ‘B’ (receiver).
• Each stage in the route contains a router. A router receives a data packet and, based
on the information in the header, decides where to send it next. For example:
Packet switching
• Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is broken up
into a number of packets.
• Each packet can then be sent independently from start point to end point.
• At the destination, the packets will need to be reassembled into their correct order
(using the information sent in the header).
• At each stage in the transmission, there are nodes that contain a router.
• Each router will determine which route the packet needs to take, in order to reach its
destination (the destination IP address is used in this part of the process).
• Suppose the photograph has been split up into five packets that have been sent in the
following order:
Packet switching
• Each packet will follow its own path (route)
• Routers will determine the route of each packet
• routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed at each
node
• The shortest possible path available is always selected – this may not always be the
shortest path that could be taken, since certain parts of the route may be too busy or
not suitable
• Unfortunately , packets can reach the destination in a different order to that in which
they were sent.
• Figure 2.5 shows one possible scenario. Notice the different paths taken by each
packet from computer ‘A’ to computer ‘B’. Also notice that the packets have arrived in a
different order compared to the way they were sent, namely
PACKET SWITCHING
BENEFITS OF PACKET SWITCHING

• There is no need to tie up a single communication line

• It is possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty lines by simply re-routing packets
• It is relatively easy to expand package usage
• A high data transmission rate is possible.
DRAWBACKS OF PACKET SWITCHING

• Packets can be lost and need to be re-sent

• The method is more prone to errors with real-time streaming (for example, a live
sporting event being transmitted over the internet)
• There is a delay at the destination whilst the packets are being re-ordered.
HOPPING
• Sometimes it is possible for packets to get lost because they keep ‘bouncing’ around
from router to router and never actually reach their destination.
• Eventually the network would just grind to a halt as the number of lost packets mount
up, clogging up the system. To overcome this, a method called hopping is used.
• A hop number is added to the header of each packet, and this number is reduced by
1 every time it leaves a router (Figure 2.6).
HOPPING
• Each packet has a maximum hop number to start with. Once a hop number reaches
zero, and the packet hasn’t reached its destination, then the packet is deleted when it
reaches the next router.
• The missing packets will then be flagged by the receiving computer and a request to
re-send these packets will be made.
HOMEWORK : ACTIVITY 2.1 Q4 PG 49

4 a. Explain how it is possible for packets to be lost during their transmission across a
network.
b. Describe how it is possible for a system to deal with lost packets and prevent them from
slowing down the transmission process.
c. Explain why you think packet switching might improve data security.
 2.1.2 DATA
TRANSMISSION
• Data transmission can be either over a short distance (for example, computer
• to printer) or over longer distances (for example, from one computer to another in a
global network).
Important factors for data transmission:
• The direction of data transmission (for example, can data transmit in one direction
only, or in both directions)
• The method of transmission (for example, how many bits can be sent at the same time)
• How will data be synchronised (that is, how to make sure the received data is in the
correct order).
These factors are usually considered by a communication protocol.
Data Transmission Modes
Data Transmission Modes
Transmission mode defines the direction of flow of
signal between two connected devices.
 Simplex Data Transmission

• Simplex is data transmission in one direction. Simplex requires only

one lane (in the case of serial).
Examples
• Keyboard to CPU. The CPU never needs to send characters to the
keyboard but the keyboard always sends characters to the CPU.
• Computer to printer. Computers almost always send characters to
printers, but printers usually never send characters to.
 Half-Duplex Transmission

• Half-Duplex is like the dreaded "one lane" road you may have
run into at construction sites. Only one direction will be allowed
through at a time.
• The IEEE-1284 allows printers to send messages to the
computer. The printer cannot send these messages while the
computer is sending characters but when the computer stops
sending characters, then the printer can send messages back.
• The only advantage that Half-Duplex would have is the single
lane or single track is cheaper then the double lane or double
track
 Full Duplex Transmission

• Full-Duplex is like the ordinary two-lane highway data is transmitted

in both directions. In communications, this is most common with
networking.
• A fiber optic hubs have two connectors on each port, one for each lane
of a two-lane roadway. Full-Duplex fiber is two cables bundled or tied
together to form the two-lane roadway.
 Data Transmission Modes

• Simplex transmission — sending data in one direction only at a

time.
• Duplex transmission - sending data in both direction at the
same time.
• Half-duplex transmission — sending data in both directions
but only one direction at a time.
Applications of Simplex, Half Duplex and
Duplex Data Transmission
Simplex Half Duplex Duplex
Microphone to Walky -talky Telephone call
computer
Sensor to computer Computer to printer/Printer to Voice over IP
computer
Printer to computer CB-Radio citizens band channels are Instant
shared by many users. Only one messaging
station may transmit at a time; other
stations must listen and wait for the
shared channel to be available
Computer to speaker Video
Conferencing
Types of Data Transmission
 Serial Transmission
• In serial transmission data is transmitted one bit at a time over a
single wire.
• Computers are linked by using a single wire. Data are transmitted
down the wire in the form of bits, so a byte that represents a single
character is transmitted as eight bits in sequence, one signal for each
bit.
• Bits can be transmitted as simplex, half duplex or full duplex
 Serial Transmission

Advantage:
• It is simple and reliable because next bit is not transmitted until the current bit has
been received.
• Cost of transmission is low as one wire is required to transmit data.
Disadvantage:-
• The transmission is slow because one bit is transmitted at one time.
Application : -
• All peripheral devices that connect through a universal bus(USB) use serial data
transmission.
• It works on long distances i.e data from computer to a modem for transmission over
a telephone line.
 Parallel Transmission of Data
• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted
simultaneously on separate communication lines.
• All bits of byte are received at the same time.
• Bits can be transmitted as simplex, half duplex or full duplex
 Parallel Transmission:
Advantages:-
• Transfer of data is faster than serial transmission because all the bits
are travelling at the same time.
• Data can be transmitted in less time
Disadvantage:-
• It is less reliable as the bits can become muddled up. The bits might
reach out of sequence at the destination. This problem is called
‘skew’.
• More Costly because in order to transmit n bit, n wires are use
Application : -
• It is suitable for short distances.
• sending data from a computer to a printer
• internal data transfer (buses)
Comparison Of Serial And Parallel
Transmission
 Integrated Circuits(Ics)

• An integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate

("chip") of semiconductor material, normally silicon.
• Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment.
Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home
• Solid State storage use integrated circuits, for example, flash drives.
Serial and parallel data transmission
in ICs
• Parallel transmission is used in simple computers such as integrated
circuits where speed is important.
• As ICs are built into devices there is a little chance of interference to
occur and device can be controlled very quickly through the use of
parallel transmission.
• The internal components of a computer use parallel data transmission
to operate.
• Integrated circuits are more expensive when they have more pins. To
reduce the number of pins in a package, many ICs use a serial bus to
transfer data when speed is not important.
CLASSWORK : ACTIVITY 2.2: PG. 51
Asynchronous Transmission Data
Synchronous Transmission Of Data
2.1.3 UNIVERSAL SERIAL BUS (USB)
• As the name suggests, the universal serial bus (USB) is a form of serial data
transmission.
• USB is now the most common type of input/output port found on computers and has led
to a standardisation method for the transfer of data between devices and a computer.
• USB allows both half-duplex and full-duplex data transmission.
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

• The USB is an asynchronous serial data transmission method.

• Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a type of connector that links devices. It
is mostly used on PCs but can also be used on other devices such as
the PlayStation, and the Xbox.
USB CABLE

The USB cable consists of a four-wired shielded cable, with two

• wires for power (red and black).
• The other two wires (white and green) are for data transmission.
What happens when a device is plugged
into computer using USB port

• The computer automatically detects that a device is present (this is

due to a small change in the voltage level on the data signal wire in
the cable)
• The device is automatically recognised, and the appropriate device
driver is loaded up so that the computer and device can communicate
effectively
• If a new device is detected , the computer will look for the device
driver which matches the device; if this is not available the user is
prompted to download the appropriate software
 Advantages of USB

• Devices are automatically detected and configured when

initially attached
• Impossible to connect device incorrectly/connector only fits
one way
• Has become the industry standard
• Supports multiple data transmission speeds
• Lots of support base for USB software developers
• Supported by many operating systems
• Backward compatible
• Faster transmission compared to wireless
 Disadvantages of USB Systems

• The maximum cable length is about 5metres

• Even though USB is backward compatible, very early USB standards
(V1) may not always be supported by the latest computers
• Even the latest version 3 (V3) and version 4 (V4) USB-C systems
have a data transfer rate which is slow compared to, for example,
Ethernet connections (Note: USB V2 has a maximum data transfer
rate of 480 Mbps.)
 Latest Developments

• A new type of USB connector, referred to as USB-C, is now becoming

more common in laptops and tablets/phones.
• This is a 24-pin symmetrical connector which means it will fit into a
USB-C port either way round.
• It is much smaller and thinner than older USB connectors, offers 100
watt (20 volt) power connectivity, which means full-sized devices can
now be charged.
• It can carry data at 10 gigabits per second (10 Gbps); this means it can
now support 4K video delivery.
• USB-C is backward compatible (to USB 2.0 and 3.0) provided a
suitable adaptor is used, and is expected to become the new industry
standard (universal) format.
CLASSWORK : ACTIVITY 2.3: PG. 53
2.2.1 THE NEED TO CHECK FOR ERRORS
When data is transmitted, there is always a risk that it may be
corrupted, lost or
even gained. Errors can occur during data transmission due to:
» Interference (all types of cable can suffer from electrical
interference, which can cause data to be corrupted or even lost)
» Problems During Packet Switching (this can lead to data
loss – or it is even possible to gain data!)
» Skewing Of Data (this occurs during parallel data transmission
and can cause data corruption if the bits arrive out of
synchronisation).
CORRUPTED TEXT
WHY ERROR CHECKING IS IMPORTANT?
• Checking for errors is important since computers are unable to
understand text, for example, if the words are not recognised by
its built-in dictionary.
• Data corruption is therefore a very real problem to a computer.
• Text on previous slide could be the result of some data
corruption following transmission which would make the text
unintelligible to a computer.
• This is why error checking is such an important part of computer
technology.
 Error Detection Methods

• Parity Check
• Check Digit
• Checksum
• Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ)
• Echo check
 Parity Check

• A parity check uses a parity bit to make sure that that the data has been
sent accurately.
• Data is sent in bytes, normally made up of 8 bits.
• In a parity check, the first 7 bits of the byte are the data itself, the last
bit is the parity bit.
• A parity check can use odd parity or even parity.
• Systems that use even parity have even number of 1’s
• Systems that use ODD Parity have odd number of 1’s
Parity Checking
 Error checking using Parity Check :
Method
• The sending and receiving computers agree the protocol
to be used (even or odd)
• The sending computer adds the correct parity bit to the
binary data (either an extra 1 or 0)
• The sending computer sends the binary data, including
the parity bit
• The receiving computer checks to make sure the overall
parity of the data received is as agreed (an even or odd
number of 1 bits)
• If the parity of the data is incorrect, the receiving
computer will request that the data is transmitted again
 Drawbacks of parity checks

• If two bits are transposed (change places) then the computer could be
fooled into thinking the data is correct and not corrupted
• If two random bits change state then the system could also be fooled
Activity 2.5 : Pg 56
 Parity Block

• This method of error checking is similar to a traditional parity check

except the data is arranged in a virtual table with parity bits added to
each row and column.
• A block of data is sent and the number of 1-bits are totaled
horizontally and vertically(parity check is done in both horizontal and
vertical directions)
• A single corrupted bit can be spotted at the intersection of a corrupted
row and column.
• Multiple corrupted bits would also flaw this system.
Parity block example(EVEN PARITY

Parity Bit 2 Bit 3 Bit 4 Bit 5 Bit 6 Bit 7 Bit 8

bit
Byte 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0

Byte 2 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
Byte 3 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
Byte 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Byte 5 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1
Byte 6 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
Byte 7 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
Byte 8 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
Byte 9 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
Parity 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
byte
Parity block example(EVEN PARITY
 Classwork : Q 1

What is the parity bit for the following data

a. 1101101 even parity is used
b. 000111 even parity is used
c. 0111000 even parity is used
d. 1110100 odd parity is used
e. 1011011 odd parity is used
 Classwork : Q 2

Which of the following bytes have an error following

data transmission?
a. 11101101 Even Parity used
b. 01001111 even Parity used
c. 00111000 even parity used
d. 11110100 odd parity used
e.11011011 odd parity used
Activity 2.6 : page 58
 Checksum
• A block of data is sent along a calculated checksum value. The receiving
computer also calculates what it believes should be the checksum. The
checksum values are then compared to see if an error has occurred during
transmission.
Method
• The sending computer uses the block of data to be sent, and a predefined
mathematical algorithm, to calculate a checksum value
• The sending computer sends the data, plus the checksum value
• The receiving computer uses the data it receives to also calculate the
checksum, using the same mathematical algorithm
• The two checksum values are compared by the receiving computer
• If the checksum values don’t match, the receiving computer requests that the
data is transmitted again
 Echo Check
With echo check, when data is sent to another device, this data is sent back again to the
sender. The sender’s computer compares the two sets of data to check if any errors
occurred during the transmission process. In short
• A copy of the data is sent back to the sender
• the returned data is compared with the original data by the sender’s computer
• if there are no differences, then the data was sent without error
• if the two sets of data are different, then an error occurred at some stage during the
data transmission.
 Drawback of echo checks
• If the two sets of data are different you will have no way of knowing whether the
error occurred when originally sent, or when it was sent back
• Echo checks require a lot of extra data to be transmitted
Home work :Activity 2.6 : page 58
Q2
 Check Digit

A Check Digit is the final digit included in a code; it is calculated from all
the other digits in the code. Check digits are used for
• Barcodes
• Product codes
• International Standard Book Numbers (ISBN)
• Vehicle Identification Numbers (VIN).

66
 Types Of Errors Identified By Check Digit

• Transcription Error : An incorrect digit entered, for example

5327 entered instead of 5307
• Transposition error : where two numbers have changed order,
for example 5037 instead of 5307
• Omitted or extra digits, for example 537 instead of 5307 or 53
• Phonetic Errors : for example 13, thirteen, instead of 30, thirty.

67
 Check Digit Calculation :ISBN-13
An example of a check digit calculation is ISBN 13, where the 13th digit
of the ISBN code is calculated using the following algorithm.
1 Add all the odd numbered digits together, excluding the check digit.
2 Add all the even numbered digits together and multiply the result by 3.
3 Add the results from 1 and 2 together and divide by 10.
4 Take the remainder, if it is zero use this value, otherwise subtract the
remainder from 10 to find the check digit.

68
 Check Digit Calculation :Example
Using the ISBN above 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 without its check digit:
1. 9+8+3+0+8+8 = 36
2. 3(7 + 0 +4+ 9 + 3 +2) =75
3. (36 + 75 )/10 =11 remainder l
4. 10 - l =9 the check digit.

69
 Checking Check Digit Calculation
To check that an ISBN 13 digit code is correct a similar process is
followed.
1. Add all the odd numbered digits together, including the check digit.
2. Add all the even number of digits together and multiply the result
by 3.
3. Add the results from I and 2 together and divide by 10.
4. The number is correct if the remainder is zero.
Using the ISBN above 9 7 8 0 3 4 0 9 8 3 8 2 9 with its check digit:
1. 9+8+3+0+8+8+9 =45
2. 3(7+0+4+9+3+2) = 75
3. (45 + 75 )/ 10 =12 remainder 0
Remainder is 0 therefore number is correct 70
FIND THE CHECK DIGIT USING ISBN-13
A.ISBN=978190612400
B(I) ISBN=9718780171500
• Check Digit = 6
B(II) ISBN=9781234567897
Modulo 11 check Digit Calculations

Using modulo 11 method the check digit is calculated as follows:

• Each digit in the barcode is multiplied by its digit position
• The result of each multiplication is added to a total
• The final total is divided by 11
• The remainder after division, if any, is subtracted from 11 to give the
check digit(if check digit =10 this shown as an ‘X’)

74
 Example 2: Modulo-11
Calculation 1 – Generation of the check digit from the
other digits in a number
The following algorithm generates the check digit from the other 7 digits:
Step 1 7-digit number: 4 1 5 6 7 1 0
weighting values: 8765432
Step 2 sum: (8 × 4) + (7 × 1) + (6 × 5) + (5 × 6) + (4 × 7) + (3 × 1) + (2 × 0)
= 32 + 7 + 30 + 30 + 28 + 3 + 0
total = 130
Step 3 divide total by 11: 130/11 = 11 remainder 9
Step 4 subtract remainder from 11: 11 – 9 = 2 (check digit)
So we end up with the following eight-digit: 4 1 5 6 7 1 0 2 75
Re-calculation of the check digit from the eight-
digit number
To check that the eight-digit number is correct, including its check digit, a similar process is
followed:
1 each digit in the number is given a weighting of 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1 starting from the left
2 the digit is multiplied by its weighting and then each value is added to make a total
3 the total is divided by 11
4 the number is correct if the remainder is zero
Using the 8-digit number: 4 1 5 6 7 1 0 2
Step 1 : weighting values: 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Step 2 sum: (8 × 4) + (7 × 1) + (6 × 5) + (5 × 6) + (4 × 7) + (3 × 1) + (2 × 0) + (1 × 2)
= 32 + 7 + 30 + 30 + 28 + 3 + 0 + 2 = 132
Step 3 divide total by 11: 132/11 = 12 remainder 0
Step 4 remainder is 0, therefore number is correct
76
FIND CHECK DIGIT USING MODULO-11
• 1127

Check Digit =4
Automatic Repeat ReQuests (ARQ)

• This form of error detection uses a system of

acknowledgements and timeouts. Automatic
Repeat ReQuests are often used to
ensure reliable transmissions over an unreliable
service.
Automatic Repeat ReQuests (ARQ):Method
1. ARQ uses positive and negative and timeout
2. Sender sends an an error detection code to the receiver (Cyclic
Redundancy Check)
3. Positive acknowledgement is sent by the receiver to sender in case of
no error
4. A negative acknowledgement is sent by receiver in case of error along
with the request of retransmission
5. A time-out is used by the sending device by waiting a pre-determined
amount of time
6. If no acknowledgement has been received by the sending device
within this time limit, it automatically re-sends the data until a positive
acknowledgement is received
7. Or until a pre-determined number of re-transmissions has taken place
8. ARQ is often used by mobile phone networks to guarantee data
integrity.
ACTIVITY 2.7 PG. 62
2.3.1 The purpose of encryption
• When data is transmitted over any public network (wired or wireless),
there is always a risk of it being intercepted by a hacker.
• Using encryption helps to minimise this risk.
• Encryption alters data into a form that is unreadable by anybody for whom
the data is not intended.
• It cannot prevent the data being intercepted, but it stops it from making
any sense to the eavesdropper.
• This is particularly important if the data is sensitive or confidential (for
example, credit card/bank details, medical history or legal documents).
 Plain Text and Cypher Text
• Plain Text is described as the normal representation of data before it goes
through encryption algorithm.
• Cypher Text is the output from an encryption algorithm.
Key
Encryption Cypher
Algorithm text

Plain
Text
 Encryption
• Encryption is the translation of data into a secret code.
• Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security.
• To read an encrypted file, a secret key is needed to decrypt it.
• Encryption is used primarily to protect data in case it has been hacked
but it won’t prevent hacking.
• It makes the data meaningless unless the recipient has necessary
decryption tools
• There are 2 types of encryptions
 Symmetric Encryption
 Asymmetric Encryption
 Symmetric Encryption

• In this type of encryption a secret key (string of random

letters/numbers) is applied to a text message to change the
content in a particular way. Both sender and receiver should
know the key to encrypt and decrypt the message.
• In symmetric encryption the same key is used to encrypt and
decrypt the message.
 Symmetric Encryption : Example
• 10-digit denary encryption key is:

4291362856
• Message
COMPUTER SCIENCE IS EXCITING.

Decryption key is, 4 2 9 1 3 6 2 8 5 6. But in this case, the decryption process would
be the reverse of encryption and each letter would be shifted –4, –2, –9, –1, and so
on. For example, ‘G’ ‘C’, ‘Q’ ‘O’, ‘V’ ‘M’, ‘Q’ ‘P’, and so on.
Problem with symmetric encryption :
KEY DISTRIBUTION PROBLEM
• In symmetric encryption sender and the receiver have the same
encryption and decryption key.
• There is a security risk as sender has to supply the key to the
recipient.
• This key can be intercepted by the hacker during the transmission.
This is called Key Distribution Problem.
• In order to avoid this problem both sender and receiver use an
algorithm to generate the key, then there is no need to transmit the
key.
 Asymmetric Encryption
• Asymmetric encryption has 2 keys that are mathematically linked.
• In asymmetric encryption, one key is used to encrypt a message and
another is used to decrypt the message. This is known as public-key
encryption. This avoids the risks surrounding the symmetric
encryption
• For asymmetric encryption a private and public key both are needed
 A public key is made available to everyone
 A private key is kept secret on your computer. Your computer can
use it to decrypt the message. It is never transmitted
Asymmetric Encryption : Example
Tom (Sender) Message Jane (Receiver)

Jane generate matching pair of keys

• Jane uses an algorithm to generate a matching pair of keys (private and public) that they must
keep stored on their computers; the matching pairs of keys are mathematically linked but can’t b
derived from each other.
• Jane now sends her public key to Tom.
ASYMMETRIC ENCRYPTION
Message
Tom (Sender) Jane (Receiver)

Tom send and

encrypted
Jane send public message to Jane
key to Tom to
encrypt the
Keys are public message
and private

Jane generates
a matching
pair of keys
that are linked
mathematically
Tom wants to
send a
message to
jane
 Asymmetric Encryption : Example
• Jane can also exchange her public key with any number of people working in the company, so she
is able to receive encrypted messages (which have been encrypted using her public key ) and she
can then decrypt them using her matching private key:

• For a a two-way communication all five workers, then they all need to generate their own
matching public and private keys. Once this is done, all users then need to swap public keys so that
they can send encrypted documents/files/messages between each other. Each worker will then use
their own private key to decrypt information being sent to them.
 Asymmetric encryption
application in banks

• When a user logs onto a bank’s website, a copy of bank’s public key is
downloaded to the user’s browser.
• Communication from bank is encrypted with private key.
• User’s browser decrypt message using public key
• Similarly, any messages from user’s browser are encrypted with public
key
• Only bank holds the private key to decrypt them.
• Therefore the Bank is trusted because it has key to encrypt the
messages
DATA PACKETS : KEY TERMS
Data packet – a small part of a message/data that is transmitted over a network;
after transmission all the data packets are reassembled to form the original
message/data

Packet header – the part of the data packet that contains the IP addresses of the
sender and receiver, and includes the packet number which allows reassembly of the data
packets
Packet trailer – the part of a data packet that indicates the end of the data
packet and cyclic redundancy check error check

Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) – an error checking method in which

all the 1-bits in the data packet payload are added and the total is stored in the packet
trailer; the same calculation is repeated at the receiving station

Payload – the actual data being carried in a data packet

DATA PACKETS : KEY TERMS
Node – stages in a network that can receive and transmit data packets; routers are
nodes in communication networks

Packet Switching – a method of transmission in which a message is

broken into many data packets which can then be sent along pathways independently of
each other

Router – a device that enables data packets to be moved between different

networks, for example to join a LAN to a WAN

Real Time Streaming – the transmission of data over a network for

live events where the data is sent as soon as it is received or generated

Hopping/Hop Number – a number in a data packet header used

to stop data packets that never reach their destination from ‘clogging up’ the data
paths/routes
DATA TRANSMISSION : KEY TERMS
Simplex – data that can be sent on one direction only
Half-duplex – data that can be sent in both directions but not at the same time
Full-duplex – data that can be sent in both directions at the same time (simultaneously)
Serial Data Transmission – sending data down one channel/wire one bit at
a time

Parallel Data Transmission – sending data down several channels/wires

several bits at a time (usually 1 byte)

Skewed (data) – data that arrives at the destination with the bits no longer
synchronised

Universal Serial Bus (USB) – a type of asynchronous serial data

transmission which has become the industry standard for connecting computers to devices via a USB
port
ERROR CHECKING METHODS : KEY TERMS
Parity Check – a method used to check if data has been transferred correctly; it
makes use of even parity (an even number of 1-bits) or odd parity (an odd number of 1-
bits)

Parity Bit – a bit (either 0 or 1) added to a byte of data in the most significant bit
position; this ensures that the byte follows the correct even parity or odd parity protocol

Parity Block – a horizontal and vertical parity check on a block of data being
transmitted

Parity Byte – an extra byte of data sent at the end of a parity block; it is
composed of the parity bits generated from a vertical parity check of the data block

Checksum – a verification method used to check if data transferred has been

altered or corrupted; calculated from the block of data of data being sent; the checksum
value is sent after each data block
 ERROR CHECKING METHODS : KEY TERMS
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) – a method of checking transmitted data for
errors; it makes use of acknowledgement and timeout to automatically request re-sending
of data if the time interval before positive acknowledgement is too long
Acknowledgement – a message sent to the receiver indicating that data has been
received correctly (used in the ARQ error detection method)
Timeout – the time interval allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received
(in the ARQ error detection method)
Echo Check – a method used to check if data has been transferred correctly; data is
sent to a receiver and then immediately sent back to the sender; the sender then checks if
the received data matches the sent data
Check Digit – an additional digit appended to a number to check if the entered number
is error-free; check digit is a data entry check and not a data transmission check
 ENCRYPTION : KEY TERMS
Eavesdropper – another name for a hacker who intercepts data being transmitted on a
wired or wireless network
Encryption – the process of making data meaningless using encryption keys; without the
correct decryption key the data cannot be decoded (unscrambled)
Plaintext – the original text/message before it is put through an encryption algorithm
Ciphertext – encrypted data that is the result of putting a plaintext message through an
encryption algorithm
ENCRYPTION : KEY TERMS
Encryption Algorithm – a complex piece of software that takes plaintext
and generates an encrypted string known as ciphertext
Symmetric Encryption – a type of encryption in which the same encryption
key is used both to encrypt and decrypt a message
Asymmetric Encryption – a type of encryption that uses public keys and
private keys to ensure data is secure
Public Key – a type of encryption key that is known to all users
Private Key – a type of encryption key which is known only to the single
computer/user