ME313-Theory of Machines

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National University of Science and Technology
College of E M E

Contact: [email protected]
 Introduction

Introduction to Theory of Machines

Theory of machines deals with the study
of masses, motions and forces in
machines.

But what is machine?

A machine is a combination of rigid
bodies, so farmed and connected that
they move upon each other with relative
motions and transmit force from source
of power to the resistance to be
overcome.
OR

A device which transforms energy

available in one form to another to do
desired work.
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 Introduction

In short:
This course deals with kinematics, kinetic and dynamics of machinery in
respect to the synthesis of mechanisms in order to accomplish desired
motions or tasks, and also the analysis of mechanisms in order to determine
their rigid-body dynamic behaviour.

Kinematics
Describes the motion of bodies, neglecting the
forces producing the motion. i.e.
displacement, velocity, acceleration
Dynamics
Kinetic combination of kinematics
Describes the relationship between force and and kinetics.
motion. Or The study of forces on systems in
motion. (F=ma)
Mechanism
A Mechanism is a combination of rigid or resistant bodies joined together to
provide a specific absolute motion
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 Introduction

This course has been divided into

Kinematics of Mechanism: Motion of machine parts without considering

the manner in which the influencing factors (force and mass) affect the motion.
It deals with displacement, velocity, acceleration.
Dynamics of Machinery: Divided into two subdivisions static and kinetics
of machinery, treat of machine parts that are acted upon by both balance and
unbalanced forces, taking into account the masses and accelerations of the parts
as well as the external forces.

Machine Design
In designing any machine the first task is to determine the kinematic
configurations needed to provide desired motions. Force and stress analysis can’t
be done until the kinematic issues have been resolved. Any machine or device that
moves contains one or more kinematic elements such as linkages, cams, gears,
belts and chains.

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 Introduction
Kinematics applications
A car cantinas many examples of kinematic devices, its wheel
suspension, steering system, piston engine all contain linkages, engine
valves are opened by cams. Even windscreen whippers are linkage
driven

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 Introduction

A simple bicycle an example of a kinematics system that contains a

chain drive to Provide torque multiplication and simple cable operated
linkages of breaks.
 Kinematics Fundamentals

Kinematics Fundamentals
Plane Motion (2D): The motion of a machine member is usually such that all its
points move in parallel planes. This type of motion is called plane motion.
Translation of a machine member
occurs when any line drawn on the
member remains parallel to its self
during the motion. Changes linear
position but does not change angular
orientation.

Rotation is present when such a line

does not remain parallel to itself and
member possesses one centre of
rotation.
Combination of translation and
rotation. Any reference line drawn on
the body will change both its liner
position and angular orientation.
 Kinematics Fundamentals

Degrees of Freedom
One of the most important concept in the analysis and design of a mechanical
system is its mobility (M) or its degrees-of freedom (DOF). A mechanical system’s
DOF is equal to the number of independent co-ordinates required to define its
position in space at any given time.

How many degree of freedom?

Three parameters are required to completely

describe the position of the pencil on the
paper. Two linear coordinate (x, y) and one
angular coordinate, θ. Therefore this system of
the pencil on the paper has 3 DOF.

What if we hold this pencil in our hand and move it about.

How many parameters are required to define its position?
Its 6DOF system and requires six parameters to define its
configuration. (x, y, z) and (θ, Φ, ρ).
 Kinematics Fundamentals

Constituents of Mechanism
Before embarking onto kinematics of mechanism one need to get familiarise
with basic concepts and constituents of a mechanism which are
Link or element
A machine part or a component of a mechanism is called a kinematic link or simply a
link which possess at least two nodes which are points for attachment to other links.
A link is assumed to be completely rigid, or under the action of forces it does not
suffer any deformation, signifying that the distance between any two points on it
remains constant. Although all real machine parts are flexible to some degree, it is
common practice to assume that deflections are negligible and parts are rigid when
analysing a machine’s kinematic performance.
Types of Links
Binary link: Link which is connected to other links at two points.
Ternary link: Link which is connected to other links at three points.
Quaternary link: Link which is connected to other links at four points.
 Kinematics Fundamentals

Kinematic pair or Joint

when two or more links or elements of a mechanism, when in contact, are said to
form a pair. This connection between link allows some motion or potential
motion between the connected links.

Classification of kinematic pair

The kinematic pairs may be classified according to the following considerations :
BY the type of contact between the pairing elements
Lower pair: A pair of links having surface or area
contact between the members is known as a lower
pair. e.g. Nut and screw, shaft rotating in bearing,
slider crank mechanism, etc.

Higher pair: When a pair has a point or line contact

between the links, it is known as a higher pair. E.g.
Wheel rolling on a surface, cam and follower pair,
tooth gears, ball and roller bearings.
 Kinematic pairs according to nature of relative motion

Prismatic or Sliding pair: Sliding pair is constituted by

two elements so connected that one is constrained to
have a sliding motion relative to the other. DOF = 1

Rolling pair: In a rolling pair, one element undergoes rolling motion with
respect to the other. e.g. Wheel rolling on a flat surface, belt and pulley.
DOF = 1

Revolute or Turning pair: When connections of the two

elements are such that only a constrained motion of rotation
of one element with respect to the other is possible, the pair
constitutes a revolute pair. e.g. is a shaft with collars in a
circular hole.
 Cylindrical pair: If the relative motion between the pairing
elements is the combination of turning and sliding, then it is
called as cylindrical pair. E.g. a solid cylindrical bar inside a
hollow shaft

Spherical pair: A spherical link turns inside a

fixed link and will have surface contact and three
degrees of freedom. Eg. Ball and socket joint.

Helical or screw pair: When the nature of contact between

the elements of a pair is such that one element can turn
about the other by screw threads. E.g. Nut and bolt.

Planar pair: Two coordinates x and y describe the relative

translation in the xy-plane and the third 'theta' describes the
relative rotation about the z-axis.
 Based on the nature of mechanical constraint (or mechanical Contact)

Form closed pair: When the elements of a pair are held together mechanically, it
is known as a closed pair. The contact between the two can be broken only by
destruction of at least one of the member. These pairs are also called self-closed
pairs.e.g. all lower paris

Forced closed pair : When two links of a pair are in contact either due to force
of gravity or some spring action, they constitute a Forced closed. E.g. cam
follower, belt running on pulley
 Based on number of DOF allowed at the joint

The pin joint or revolute (R) and the translating

(prismatic) slider joint (P) are 1 DOF joints
because they allow only one degree of freedom
Revolute (R) joint Prismatic (P) joint
between the joint links. These are also referred 1 DOF 1 DOF
to as full joints (i.e., full = 1 DOF) and are lower
pairs.
The (R) and (P) joints are both contained within (and each
is a limiting case of) the helical (H) joint. The helical joint
Helical (H) joint
is achieved by a screw and nut arrangement. 1 DOF

These joint are sometimes referred to as a “half

joint.” Example of these joints are the cylindric
(C) lower pair joint, and the pin in slot and the Cylindrical (C) joint
cam roll-slide higher pair joints. 2 DOF
 Examples
A link free in space has six DOF since it is free
to translate in each of the X, Y, and Z directions
and to rotate about each of the axes.

In planar linkages, motion is restricted to the XY

plane. The DOF is hence reduced from six to
three

If we attach this link to the ground with a

single DOF pair, such as a turning pair, then its
DOF is further reduced from three to one
 Joints Reduce System DOF
In planar linkages, motion is
restricted to the XY plane. The
mobility is hence reduced from six
to three for each link.

Pairs Attaching these 2 links

together with a full single DOF
pair, such as a turning or sliding
pair, then its mobility is further
reduced from three to two for
each link.

Attaching these links with a half rolling

and sliding 2DOF pair, such as a rolling
and sliding pair, then the total number
of mobility is reduced by one from six
to five.
 Kinematic Chains, Mechanisms and Machines

A kinematic chain is defined as an assemblage of links and joints, interconnected in

a way to provide a controlled output motion in response to a supplied input motion.
A mechanism is defined as a kinematic chain in which at least one link has been
“grounded,” or attached, to the frame of reference (which itself may be in motion).
A machine is a collection of mechanisms arranged to transmit forces and do work.

Kinematic chains or mechanisms may be either open or

closed. A closed mechanism will have no open attachment
points or nodes and may have one or more degrees of
freedom. open chain closed chain

An open mechanism of more than one link will always have

one or more degree of freedom, and requires as many
actuators (motors) as it has DOF. A common example of an
open mechanism is an industrial robot. open mechanism closed mechanism
An open kinematic chain of two binary links and one joint
is called a dyad.
 Degrees of Freedom (M) of Spatial (3D) Mechanisms
Let L= No of links in which one link is fixed

Total No. of movable links (L-1) In 3D single link will

have 6 DOF
DOF of single link when not connected = 6(L-1) Suppose 3 links then 6x3=
DOF
When connected pair are formed then DOF reduced Sliding pair
Turning pair
When links are connected DOF or Mobility would be
M = 6(L −1) − 5J1 − 4J2 − 3J3 − 2J4 − 1J5

M = degree of freedom or mobility

L = number of links Link 2 and 3 is turning pair
J1 = having 1 DOF joints or pair It has five restrictions
J2 = having 2 DOF joints consequently its 1 DOF
J3 = having 3 DOF joints
J4 = having 4 DOF joints
J5 = having 5 DOF joints
5, 4, 3, 2 &1 Restricted motions
 Degrees of Freedom (M) of Planar (2D) Mechanisms

Maximum number of possible motions are 2 Translatory +1 Rotatory =3

M or DOF = 3(L −1) − 2J1 − 1J2

Kutzbach’s Equation for Mobility

 M or DOF=?

L=8
J1=10
J2=0
M=DOF=1
 Mechanisms and Structures
The degree of freedom of an assembly of links completely predicts its character.

L=4 M > 0 mechanism, links will have relative

DOF ? J1 = 4 motion
J2 = 0
M = 3(4-1) – 2×4 – 0 = 1

L=3 M = 0, structure, no relative between links is

J1 = 3 possible.
J2 = 0
M = 3(3-1) – 2×3 – 0 = 0

L=2 M < 0, preloaded structure, no relative between

J1 = 2 links is possible and some stresses may be
J2 = 0 present.
M = 3(2-1) – 2×2 – 0 = -1
 Paradoxes
Kutzbach’s equation does not account for link geometry (size and shape), in rare
instance it can lead to misleading result

According to Kutzbach’s Eq.

L=5
J1 = 6
J2 = 0
M = 3(5-1) – 2×6 – 0 = 0
The arrangement shown, it has Under certain link length conditions, the
(DOF = 0) according to Kutzbach’s constant distance constraint imposed by
criterion. one of the links becomes redundant. OR in
other words parallel links are equal in
Link 3
length and remain parallel. DOF=1.

Link 2
L=3 DOF=1 because the centre
J1 = 3 distance, or length of link 1, is
J2 = 0 exactly equal to the sum of
Link 1
M = 3(3-1) – 2×3 – 0 = 0 the radii of the two wheels
Link 1
Generally two cylindrical rollers (half joints) have two DOF, due to rotation and slipping
 Link Classifications
Ground or fixed Link: Fixed w.r.t. reference frame (already familiar with this link)

Input Link : Link where by motion and force are imparted to a mechanism (Driving
link)
Output Link : Link from which required motion and forces are obtained (Driven link)

Coupler
Connecting rod, is not directly
connected to the fixed link or
frame, it in effect connects inputs
& outputs Rocker
Crank
Pivoted to ground, has
Pivoted to ground, makes
oscillatory (back & forth)
complete revolutions; i.e.
motion
Link that rotates
completely about a fixed
axis
Four bar mechanism consists of four rigid links connected in a loop by four one degree of
freedom joints.
 Inversion of Mechanism
A mechanism was defined as a kinematic chain with one of its links grounded. An
inversion of a mechanism is obtained by releasing the grounded link and
grounding a different link from the original kinematic chain. The number of
.
possible inversions of a mechanism is equal to its number of links, and all
inversions have the same mobility or DOF.

L=4
J1 = 4
J2 = 0
M = 3(4-1) – 2×4 – 0 = 1
 Inversions of slider-crank mechanism
Has one sliding pair and three turning pairs. Link
2 has rotary motion and is called crank. Link 3
has got combined rotary and reciprocating
motion and is called connecting rod. Link 4 has
reciprocating motion and is called slider. Link 1
is frame (fixed). This mechanism is used to
convert rotary motion to reciprocating and vice kinematic chain having four links
versa.

Inversions of slider crank mechanism is obtained by fixing links 2, 3 and 4.

Inversion 1

Piston Engine
 partial rotating pin
Inversion 2
D
This is obtained by fixing of link 2 of a slider – crank mechanism. When C
its link 2 is fixed instead of link 1, link 3 along with the slider at its end D
becomes a crank. This makes link 1 to rotate about A along with the
slider which also reciprocates on it.

C
B
A
Fully rotating pins

Application: Whiteworth quick- return mechanism

Quick return mechanisms are used in machine tools

such as shapers and power driven saws for the
purpose of giving the reciprocating cutting tool a
slow cutting stroke and a quick return stroke with a
constant angular velocity of the driving crank.
 partial rotating pin
Inversion 3
By fixing link 3 of the slider crank mechanism, third inversion is obtained. D
Here link 2 again acts as a crank and link 4 oscillates. C
Applications:
Crank and slotted – lever mechanism Oscillating cylinder engine

B
A, D
A
B
Fully rotating pin

C
C
 Inversion 4
partial rotating pin
D
If link 4 (slider) is fixed the fourth inversion is obtained. This makes end
C
B of link2 to oscillate about C and end A to reciprocate along the axis of
the fixed link 4.

Application: Hand pump B

A
Fully rotating pins
 The Grashof Condition
The Grashof Condition is a relationship that predicts the rotation behaviour of
the inversions of a four bar linkage based only on the lengths of the links
Consider four bar mechanism

length of longest
link, L
length of one remaining link, P
length of
shortest link, S

length of other remaining

link, Q

According to the Grashof, for at least one link to be capable of making a full
revolution

If this condition(s) are not met then no link is capable of making a complete
revolution
 Now consider S+L<𝑃+𝑄

Case1: Shortest link adjacent to fixed link, Crank Rocker Mechanism

is obtained

Case 2: Shortest link is fixed link, Double Crank

Mechanism is obtained

Case 3: Shortest link is opposite to the fixed link,

double-rockerMechanism is obtained, in which both
links pivoted to ground oscillate and only the coupler
makes a full revolution.
 Now consider S+L=𝑃+𝑄

In such a chain configuration the links become collinear at least once per revolution
In this case links can be joined in two ways

Parallelogram linkage
Deltoid linkage

All inversions will be either double-cranks or crank-rockers but will have “change
points” twice per revolution of the input crank when the links all become collinear.
At these change points the output behaviour will become indeterminate. At these
.
collinear positions, the linkage behaviour is unpredictable as it may assume either
of two configurations
 becomes collinear
Input link A

Becomes unpredictable
could go either way
First change point

2nd change point

 What if ? S + L > 𝑃 + 𝑄 Non-Grashof

None of the links can fully rotate relative to an adjacent link. Triple Rocker
Mechanism obtained.

All inversions will be triple-rockers

 Linkage transformation

The basic four bar linkage is a loop of four links joint by four revolute joints. If we
relax the constraint that restricted us to only revolute joints, we can transform
this basic linkages to a wider variety of mechanisms with greater usefulness.
There are several transformation rules that we can apply to planar kinematic
chains

Basic transformation techniques are

1. Revolute joints can be replaced by prismatic joints with no change in DOF of

the mechanism
2. Full joints can be replaced by half joints, increasing DOF by 1
3. Removal of a link will reduce the DOF by one
4. The combination of rule 2 and 3 will keep the original DOF unchanged
 Example

The crank-slider (right) is a transformation of the fourbar crank rocker, by

replacing the revolute joint at the rocker pivot by a prismatic joint, maintaining
the same one degree of freedom. Note, slider block is actually Link 4.

Replacing revolute joints in any loop by prismatic joints does not change the
DOF, provided that at least two revolute joints remain in the loop
 Example

Curved Slot Straight Slot

Fourbar slider-crank transformed via rule No. 4. Removed the link 3 and full
joint converted to half joint
Determine the d.o.f or mobility of the planar mechanism
Make kinematic sketch define the types of all the links and joints and
determine the dof of the mechanisms shown
 Sketch a kinematic diagram of this device and draw its equivalent linkage.
Determine its DOF under two conditions.

Brake pads not contacting the wheel rim.

Brake pads contacting the wheel rim.

 Position Analysis

Position Analysis
Introduction
A principal goal of kinematic analysis is to find acceleration of moving link in a
mechanism and hence finding dynamics forces. Dynamics force are required to
find stress in the components to make sure proposed mechanism will not fail
under certain operating conditions. In order to find acceleration one must find
first positions of the all the links. There are several methods by which we can
perform a position analysis: graphical, vector and analytical.

Coordinate systems and inertial frame of reference

A coordinate system is a method for identifying the location of a point and is used in
engineering to understand and solve problems.
Global or Absolute Coordinate: often attached to Earth, though it could as well be attached
to another ground plane.
Local Coordinate: within global frame work
 Example

Global or Absolute Coordinate system Local Coordinate system

attached to object

Inertial frame : means constant velocity, acceleration,

a=0
Are we in inertial frame? Yes But technically No

If Earth is used as an Global reference frame but it

is not stationary. When we speak about absolute
position, velocity and acceleration keep in mind
that ultimately until stationary point in the
universe is not found, all motion are relative.
 Position
The position of a point in the plane can be defined by the use of a position
vector
Cartesian coordinates: The cartesian form
provides the X and Y components of the
vector

Polar coordinates: The polar form

provides the magnitude and the angle of
the vector
Each form is directly convertible
into the other by:
 Displacement
is the change in its position and can be defined as the straight-line distance
between the initial and final position of a point which has moved in the
reference frame

One body in two successive positions => Two bodies simultaneously in separate positions
position difference => relative position
The vector RBA denotes the difference in position, or the displacement, between
A and B. This can be expressed as the position difference equation RB and RA are
absolute positions of A and B:
𝑅𝐵𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 − 𝑅𝐴
OR
𝑅𝐵𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵𝑂 − 𝑅𝐴𝑂

subscript O denoting the origin of the XY reference frame

Fourbar Linkage: Coordinate systems
 Graphical Position Analysis
In planar mechanisms, kinematic analysis can be performed either analytically or
graphically. Before finding velocity and acceleration of all the links in a
mechanism, first, one need to determining position of linkages. As the title
suggests, in a graphical analysis, instead of analytically solving sets of linear or
non-linear equations, the unknowns are found graphically.

In the graphical position analysis it is assumed that the link lengths are given. The
objective is to graphically construct the mechanism for a given value of the input
link. Then by direct measurements from the constructed polygon, values for the
unknown lengths and angles are obtained.
 Construct the four-bar for a given value of θ2
Example

Four-bar Mechanisms
we are given the position of the input link
and the lengths of the output and coupler
links.
𝑅𝐴𝑜2 = 𝐿2 , 𝑅𝑂4𝑂2 = 𝐿1 , 𝑅𝐵𝐴 = 𝐿3 , 𝑅𝐵𝑂4 = 𝐿4

The procedure is to draw the input and

ground links (or vectors), which are
known (the angular orientation of the
input link is expressed with respect to
ground). Then, draw circles equal to
the known radii of the coupler and
output links centred on the end of the
input and ground links, respectively.
The intersection of the circles represents the position
of the joint connecting the coupler and output links.
The angles of the links can then be measured directly
from the drawing using a protractor.

One advantage of this graphical technique is that it

is clear from the figure that there are two possible
configurations for this linkage

Possible solution 1 Possible solution 2

 Analytical Position Analysis
In planar mechanisms, position analysis can also be performed analytically. But
before we embark on to doing analytical analysis. Lets refresh our memory about
vectors.
Vectors
Vector algebra forms the mathematical foundation for kinematics and dynamics.
Geometry of motion is at the heart of both the kinematics and the dynamics of
mechanical systems. Full understanding of vector algebra is necessary in order to
perform kinematic and dynamic analysis of mechanical systems.
starting point
A vector is presented as a directed line with a (tail)
known length (magnitude). A vector is
geometrically presented as an arrow. The starting
point of a vector is called the tail, and the end
point is called the tip. end
A PBA point
(tip)
Naming Vectors: PBA is a vector connecting point B to B
point A, where the tail is at A and the tip is at B.
Vector direction: The direction of a vector is usually described by an angle. We always
measure the angle between the vector and an horizontal line starting at the tail of the
vector pointing to the right (positive x-axis). Counter-clockwise (ccw) direction is
defined as positive 336°

−73° 180°
156°
50°

Complex Numbers as Vectors

Vectors in two-dimensions can also be represented as complex numbers. In
complex number notation, and taking advantage of Euler’s equation relating the
component form to the exponential form for complex numbers, we can express
the vector as:
 Vector-loop method
The vector-loop method is a classical procedure that provides a set of vector
equations that can be solved analytically for the kinematics of a planar
mechanism. In this method a vector loop (or loops) around the linkage is
created. The links are represented as position vectors that form a vector loop.
This loop closes on itself making the sum of the vectors around the loop zero.

Analytical Analysis of A Four-bar Mechanism

The four vectors form a vector loop equation:

complex number notation for each position

vector:

unknown zero
Input, known

We have two unknowns θ3, θ4. We need two equations

By Substituting Euler equivalent
Now square both sides and add them
1

𝑑
𝑎

Freudenstein’s Eq.
 Now consider Eq. 4.8b again. Assume θ2 and lengths are known.

Substitute cosθ4 and sinθ4 for their expressions in terms of the half angle tangent

The solution for angle θ3 is essentially similar to that for θ4. solution is
If the solution is complex conjugate, the link lengths chosen are not capable of connection

The solution will usually be real and unequal

• Crossed (+)
• Open (-)
 Vector Loop For A Slider-Crank A
RBA
RAO2
B
The three vectors form the following vector-
O2
loop equation:
RBO2
RAO2 + RBA - RBO2 = 0

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑒 𝑗𝜃3 − 𝑅𝐵𝑜2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃1 = 0

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 − 𝑅𝑩𝒐𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 0

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 − 𝑅𝑩𝒐𝟐 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = 0

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 − 𝑅𝑩𝒐𝟐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 0

Since 𝜃1 =0, now for known values of L2 and L3 , and given value for 𝜃2 , these
equations can be solved for 𝜃3
 Vector Loop For An Offset Slider-Crank
Kinematic analysis of Offset Slider-Crank is similar to previous case

Vector loop equation

RAO2 + RBA - RBQ –RO2Q= 0

RAO2 = L2, RBA = L3, RO2Q = a (offset)

Position equations are

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 − 𝑅𝐵𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 − 𝑅𝑂2𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 𝜃1 = 0

𝑅𝐴𝑜2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑅𝐵𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 − 𝑅𝐵𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑅𝑂2 𝑄 𝑠𝑖𝑛90° = 0

Position analysis:
For a given crank angle 𝜃2 , solve the position equations for 𝜃3 and RBQ .
 Transmission Angles

O2A is the input link, the force applied to the output link, BO4, is transmitted
through the coupler link AB. (That is, pushing on the link BO4 imposes a force on
the link AB, which is transmitted through the link AB.) For sufficiently slow
motions (negligible inertia forces), the force in the coupler link is pure tension or
compression (negligible bending action) and is directed along AB. For a given
force in the coupler link, the torque transmitted to the output bar (about point
O4) is maximum when the angle between coupler bar AB and output bar BO4 is
π/2. Therefore, angle ABO4 is called transmission angle.
 Transmission Angles

So, transmission angle (𝜇) is defined As angle 𝜇 becomes smaller, the

as the angle between the output link mechanical advantage decreases and
and the coupler. It is usually taken as even a small amount of friction might
the absolute value of the acute angle cause the mechanism to lock or jam.
of the pair of angles at the
Four-bar linkage should not be used to
intersection of the two links and
overcome a load in a region where the
varies continuously from some
transmission angle is less than, say,
minimum to some maximum value as
45◦ or 50◦.
the linkage goes through its range of
motion. In essences, 𝜇 is a measure 𝐵

of the quality of force transmission at

𝐴
the joint, O4. 𝛽

When β =0◦ or β =180◦—linkage is said to be in a toggle

𝑂2 𝑂4
 Extreme Values of the Transmission Angle, i.e. Min. or Max. angle values
For a Grashof crank-rocker
the minimum value of the The other extreme transmission
transmission angle will occur when angle will occur when 1 and 2 are
links 1 and 2 are colinear and colinear and nonoverlapping
overlapping

The values of the transmission angle in

these positions are easily calculated from
the law of cosines since the linkage is in a
triangular configuration.
For a Grashof double-rocker linkage the transmission angle can vary from 0 to
90 degrees because the coupler can make a full revolution

For non-Grashof triple-rocker linkage

The transmission angle will be zero degrees in the toggle positions which occur
when the output rocker c and the coupler b are collinear In the other toggle
positions when input rocker a and coupler b are collinear the transmission
angle can be calculated from the cosine law
 Toggle positions
Consider a Crank Rocker mechanism

Toggle positions
Toggle positions
• O2C2D2 Link 2 & Link 3
become collinear
• C1O2D1

• The toggle positions are determined by the collinearity of two of the moving
links.
• when the crank O2C (link 2) is collinear with the coupler CD (link 3), either extended
collinear or overlapping collinear . It cannot be back driven from the rocker (link 4)
through these collinear positions, but when the crank (link 2) is driven, it will carry
through both toggles because it is Grashof.

• These toggle positions also define the limits of motion of the driven rocker
 Crank angles corresponding to the toggle positions ?

Consider non-Grashof triple-rocker

Line h is shared by two triangles and hence using

trigonometry, we could write

To find the maximum and minimum values of input angle θ, above expression can be
differentiated w.r.t to 𝜇 and setting to 0
−2𝑎𝑑 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃 = −2𝑏𝑐(−sinμ𝑑𝜇) 2

𝑑𝜃 𝑏𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇 This expression can only be zero when

= = 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜇 = 0, 𝑒𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝜇 = 0° 𝑜𝑟 180°
𝑑𝜇 𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Since links a,b,c & d can not be zero.
If μ = 0° 𝑜𝑟 180° then cos𝜇 = ±1, Substituting these two values for cos𝜇 in Eq. 1. give a
Solution for 𝜃
 Applications
The toggle mechanism has many applications where overcome a large
resistance with a small driving force is necessary, for example, clutches, rock
crushers, truck tailgates, punching machines, forging machines, injection
moulding machines

Input

Foutput Finput
Output

Stone crusher
Punch press
truck tailgate
 Example 1
A crank-rocker four-bar linkage is shown in one of its two toggle postures.
Find θ2 and θ4 corresponding to each toggle posture.
What is the total rocking angle of link 4?
What are the transmission angles at the extremes?

r1=400mm, r2=200mm, r3=500mm, and r4=400mm

 Example 2
The angle between the X and x axes is 25°, Find the angular displacement of link
4 when link 2 rotates clockwise from the position shown (+37°) to horizontal
(0°).
How does the transmission angle vary and what is its minimum between those
two positions? Find the toggle positions of this linkage in terms of the angle of
link 2.
 velocity analysis

Velocity Analysis

The study of velocity analysis is very important for determining the acceleration of
points in the mechanisms. Kinematics deals with study of relative motion between the
various parts of the machines. Kinematics does not involve study of forces. Thus
motion leads study of displacement, velocity and acceleration of a part of the
machine. As dynamic forces are a function of acceleration and acceleration is a
function of velocities, study of velocity and acceleration will be useful in the design
of mechanism of a machine. Many methods and approaches exist to find velocities in
mechanisms. The velocity analysis can be carried out both by graphically as well as
analytically.
 Velocity
P
Rate of change of displacement is velocity ω
r x
Δ𝜃 𝜃𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 −𝜃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 Ө
For angular motion 𝜔 = =
Δ𝑡 𝑡𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙−𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
At start 𝜃𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0
𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 0
𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜔= or ω =
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒,Δ𝑥
𝑑𝑥
For linear motion: velocity, 𝑉 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity

𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑟𝜃, 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑠

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
=𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔
 Vector Addition
There are two major ways of adding vectors,
Triangular construction
Parallelogram construction
To add two or more vectors using the triangular construction we simply connect
the arrows head to tail. The vector sum is the arrow starting at the tail of the
first vector and ending at the head of the last vector.

(b) (c)
(a)
Figure 1 Triangle construction

To add two vectors using the

parallelogram construction you first join
the vectors at their tails then draw
parallel lines from the head of each
vector forming the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram. The diagonal is the
resultant of the two vectors
Figure 2 Parallelogram construction
 Consider two points A and P on a rigid link AP, as
shown in figure. Let one of the extremities (P) of the
link move relative to A, in a clockwise direction.
Since the distance from A to P remains the same,
therefore there can be no relative motion between A
and P, along the line AP. It is thus obvious, that the
relative motion of P with respect to A must be Absolute velocity
perpendicular to AP. VPA=VP

Proof:
The position vector RPA can be written as a complex number in polar form,

𝑅𝑃𝐴 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃

ሶ
𝑉𝑃𝐴 = 𝑉𝑃 = 𝑅𝑃𝐴
By differentiating
= 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖 𝜃ሶ = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜔
 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖 𝜃ሶ = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜔
The velocity expression has been multiplied by the (constant) complex operator i.
This causes a rotation of this velocity vector through 90 degrees with respect to the
original position vector. However, the velocity expression also multiplied by ω, which
may be either positive or negative. As a result, the velocity vector will be rotated 90
degrees from the angle θ of the position vector in a direction dictated by the sign of
ω. Imaginary
Vector r can be written as:
rei = r  cos  + i sin  
r cos 
Multiplying by i gives:
irei = r  − sin  + i cos  
r

r sin 
Multiplying by i rotates a vector 90° Real
r sin  r cos 

Hence velocity of any point on a link with respect to another point on the
same link is always perpendicular to the line joining these points on the
configuration (or space) diagram
 If point A is moving:
Pivot A is no longer stationary and it has a linear
.
velocity VA as part of the translating carriage, link
3. If ω is unchanged, the velocity of point P versus
A will be the same as before, but VPA can no longer
be considered an absolute velocity. The absolute
velocity Vp must now be found from the velocity
difference. Graphical solution: Velocity Diagram

𝑉𝑃𝐴 = 𝑉𝑃 − 𝑉𝐴 (Velocity difference)

𝑉𝑃 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝑃𝐴
= 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜔
Absolute velocity: an absolute velocity is the velocity of a point measured from a
fixed point.

Relative velocity: is the velocity of a point measured relative to another that may
itself be moving.
 Further examples
Figure shows the instantaneous position diagram for a
link OB of length 0.5 m rotating about O at 10 rad/S
clockwise. O is the fixed point at which link OB is hinged.
The velocity of link OB can be found using relationship
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔

Where r is the distance between the point under analysis and the point of
reference O, 𝜔 is the angular velocity of the link in magnitude and sense, and V is
the tangential velocity of the point relative to the reference point. Its direction is
at right angles to the link and in the sense of the angular velocity.

𝑣𝐵𝑂 = 𝑂𝐵 × 𝜔𝐵𝑂 Magnitude of the velocity of B with respect to point O

𝑆𝑜, 𝑣𝐵𝑂 = 0.5 × 10 = 5 𝑚/𝑠 Direction ⊥ 𝑡𝑜 𝑂𝐵
Velocity Diagram
The point O has zero velocity and so, mark O as the velocity
origin. Draw the vector representing ab (Parallel to vector
V).
 Four-bar mechanism is shown , crank has VBA
angular velocity 𝜔2 , determine 𝜔3 and 𝜔4 . VBO4
Assume 𝜔2 CCW VAO2

Velocity Diagram
O2 and O4 are fixed points (references for zero velocities)

Compute the magnitude of VA as AO2ω2 . Construct vector

VA perpendicular to VAO2 by rotating VAO2 90° in the
direction of ω2.
O2, O4

From A draw a line perpendicular to VBA

O2, O4
 Draw a line perpendicular to VBO4 .

Construct vectors VBA and VB .

Measure the magnitude of VBA from the

polygon. O2, O4
Compute 𝜔3 = 𝑉𝐵𝐴ൗ𝐿𝐵𝐴
Direction of 𝜔3 : In this example it is CW
since VBA must rotate 90o CW

Measure the magnitude of VB from the

polygon. O2, O4
Compute 𝜔4 = 𝑉𝐵ൗ𝐿𝐵𝑂4
Direction of 𝜔4 : In this example it is CCW
since VBO4 must rotate 90o CCW.
In a four bar mechanism ABCD, AD is fixed and crank AB rotates at
200 rpm in a clockwise direction. Links dimensions are as follow
AB= 40mm, BC=AD= 150mm, CD=80mm and ≺ 𝐷𝐴𝐵 = 50∘

Find angular velocity of links BC and CD?

 More Examples: Point C represents any general point of interest
Consider the motion of the link ABC shown in Figure.
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝜃2 , 𝜃3 , 𝜃4 , 𝜔2 , 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝜔3 , 𝜔4 , 𝑉𝐴 , 𝑉𝐵 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 ,
.
We know VA and direction of VB
𝑉𝑏𝑎 = 𝑉𝑏 − 𝑉𝑎
VA perpendicular AC, VB perpendicular BC 𝑉𝑏 = 𝑉𝑏𝑎 + 𝑉𝑎

VBA VBA Direction

VA
VB VBA
O2, O4

VB V Direction
B

VBA = 3 ( AB )
VB = 4 ( O4 B )
11
Vc = ?
VC=VA+VCA

r
Double Scale
VC
VCA VA

VCA
r
VC

VC=VB+VCB
c
VC
VCB
b
VB
 Velocity Analysis (fourbar Linkage) : Analytical approach

The four vectors form a vector loop equation:

The algebraic position equations for a fourbar are:

R2 cos 2 + R3 cos 3 - R4 cos 4 - R1 cos 1 = 0 (a)

R2 sin 2 + R3 sin 3 - R4 sin 4 - R1 sin 1 = 0 (b)
The equations contain the following constants: R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 ,  1
The equations contain the following variables:  2 ,  3 ,  4
For a specific four bar, the constants have known (given) values.
If a value is assigned to one of the variables (for example, the angle of the input
link), the two equations can be solved for the other two variables.
The position equations are nonlinear
 The time derivative of these equations (a) and (b) yields the velocity
equations:

- R2 sin 2 2 - R3 sin 3 3 + R4 sin 4 4 = 0 (c)

R2 cos 2 2 + R3 cos 3 3 - R4 cos 4 4 = 0 (d)

Where  i = d i /dt is the angular velocity of link i. Note that  1 = 0 since

link 1 is the ground. Also note that the variables are  2 ,  3 and  4:

Following a position analysis, since the values of the angles are known, if a
value is assigned to one of the velocities (for example, the angular velocity of
the input link), the two equations can be solved for the other two angular
velocities.
−𝑅3 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 𝑅4 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃4 𝜔3 𝑅2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 𝜔2
𝜔4 =
𝑅3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 −𝑅4 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃4 −𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 𝜔2
 Alternate approach
velocity equations are:

- R2 sin 2 2 - R3 sin 3 3 + R4 sin 4 4 = 0 (c)

R2 cos 2 2 + R3 cos 3 3 - R4 cos 4 4 = 0 (d)

Multiply Eqs. (c) cos 4 and (d) with sin 4 and then add resulting equations, which will lead
to
𝑅2 𝜔2 sin(𝜃4 − 𝜃2 )
𝜔3 =
𝑅3 sin(𝜃3 − 𝜃4 )
Similarly, multiply Eqs. (c) cos 3 and (d) with sin 3 and then add resulting equations, which
will lead to
𝑅2 𝜔2 sin(𝜃2 − 𝜃3 )
𝜔4 =
𝑅4 sin(𝜃4 − 𝜃3 )

Once solved for  3 and  4 one could find linear velocity, since V=rω
 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0
where
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑗𝑅2 𝜔2 𝑒 𝑗𝜃2 = 𝑅2 𝜔2 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 + 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 )
𝑉𝐵𝐴 = 𝑗𝑅3 𝜔3 𝑒 𝑗𝜃3 = 𝑅3 𝜔3 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃3 + 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃3 )
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑗𝑅4 𝜔4 𝑒 𝑗𝜃4 = 𝑅4 𝜔4 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃4 + 𝑗𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃4 )

𝑂𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
 Velocity Analysis (Fourbar Slider-Crank) : Analytical approach

The four vectors form a vector loop equation

The position equations for this mechanism are

R2 sin 2 - R3 sin 3 + R4 sin 4 = 0 (a)

R2 cos 2 - R3 cos 3 - R4 cos 4 –R1= 0 (b)

The angle θ1 is zero and θ4 is 90°. Eq. (b) can be solved for θ3 and the result substituted
into equation (a) to solve for d
 Note that there are two valid solutions corresponding to the two circuits of the
linkage.

The time derivative of these equations (a) and (b) yields the velocity equations:

Note: link d varies with time

(c)

(d)
Two simultaneous equations and two unknowns, d dot and ω3. Eq. (d) can be
solved for ω3 and substituted into (c ) to find d dot.

The absolute velocity of point A and the velocity difference of point A versus point B are
found from equation,
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
 Acceleration Analysis
In kinematic analysis of mechanisms, acceleration analysis is usually performed
following a velocity analysis; i.e., the positions and orientations, and the velocities
of all the links in a mechanism are assumed known. Accelerations is needed to
calculate the dynamic forces from F = ma. The dynamic forces contribute to the
stresses in the links and other components.

Basic Kinematic Equations

P
ω

Ө
 Curvilinear motion of the point P
t

Product rule
O r at
n
an P
Angular acceleration
Linear velocity

at an
Tangential acceleration is always in a direction
perpendicular to the radius of rotation and is
thus tangent to the path of motion . The
normal,or centripetal, acceleration component is
toward the center
 Relative Motion Analysis

A drA A A’
rBA’
rBA rBA
drB B’
B drBA
drB=drA B

From vector addition position of B, drB

Since in case of rotation

 Since in case of rotation

Tangential Centripetal or radial

 Acceleration Analysis (Complex form)
Consider a acceleration of a link in pure
rotation with a positive (CCW) α2 and a
negative (CW) ω2 . Point A is fixed.
Acceleration of a point P

𝑅𝑃 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑉𝑃𝐴 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜃 = 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜔
𝐴𝑃𝐴 = 𝑉𝑃𝐴
= 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (𝑖𝜃)2 + 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝛼
= −𝜔2 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑖𝛼𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 Acceleration has 2 components:
Normal & Tangential
𝐴𝑛𝑃𝐴 𝐴𝑡𝑃𝐴
𝐴𝑃𝐴 = 𝑖𝛼𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝜔2 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃
Magnitudes of acceleration
components 𝐴𝑛 = 𝜔2 𝑟 , 𝐴𝑡 = 𝛼𝑟
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝑃𝐴
= 𝐴𝐴 − 𝜔2 𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑖𝛼𝑝𝑒 𝑖𝜃
 Graphical Acceleration Analysis
Example 1
A four bar mechanism is shown in figure. The link PQ rotates with constant velocity at 10
rad/s in clockwise direction. The lengths of the links are PQ= 62.5 mm, QR= 175 mm RS=
112.5mm and PS=200mm.
Find the angular acceleration of links QR and RS

Example 2
Slider Crank Mechanism
 Acceleration of any point Graphically (Example 3)
Given linkage configuration, a2. Find a3 and a4
Know AnA, AtA, AnBA, AnB, and direction of AtBA, AtB
AB=AA+ABA
AnB+AtB= AnA+AtA+AnBA+AtBA
AnA
AnB

AtB AtA
AtB line
AtBA
AnBA
AtBA line

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Acceleration of point C
Now we know a3 from previous step
AC=AA+AC/A=AnA+AtA+AnC/A+AtC/A

AnA
AC

AtA

At AnC/A
C/A

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 Analytical Acceleration Analysis

The four vectors form a vector loop equation:

In complex form
R2eiθ2 + R3eiθ3 − R4eiθ4 − R1eiθ1 = 0 (1)
The algebraic position equations for a fourbar are:

R2 cos 2 + R3 cos 3 - R4 cos 4 - R1 cos 1 = 0 (a)

R2 sin 2 + R3 sin 3 - R4 sin 4 - R1 sin 1 = 0 (b)

The time derivative of these equations (a) and (b) yields the velocity
equations:

- R2 sin 2 2 - R3 sin 3 3 + R4 sin 4 4 = 0 (c)

R2 cos 2 2 + R3 cos 3 3 - R4 cos 4 4 = 0 (d)

 - R2 sin 2 2 - R3 sin 3 3 + R4 sin 4 4 = 0 (c)

R2 cos 2 2 + R3 cos 3 3 - R4 cos 4 4 = 0 (d)

In complex form
𝑖𝜔2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 + 𝑖𝜔3 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 − 𝑖𝜔4 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 = 0 (2)

The time derivative of these equations yields the acceleration equations or

acceleration constraints. Note that the variables are  2 ,  3 and  4,  2,  3, and  4
:
- R2 sin 2 2 - R2 cos 2 22 - R3 sin 3 3 - R3 cos 3 32 + R4 sin 44 + R4 cos 4 42 = 0
R2 cos 22 - R2 sin 2 22 + R3 cos 3 3 - R3 sin 3 32 - R4 cos 4 4 + R4 sin 4 42 = 0

Rearranged as
-R2 sin 2 2 - R2 cos 2 22 -R3 cos 3 32 +R4 cos 4 42 = R3 sin 3 3 - R4 sin 44
R2 cos 22 - R2 sin 2 22 - R3 sin 3 32 + R4 sin 4 42 = -R3 cos 3 3 + R4 cos 4 4

In complex form
−𝜔2 2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 + 𝑖𝛼2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 − 𝜔3 2 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 + 𝑖𝛼3 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 + 𝜔4 2 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 − 𝑖𝛼4 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 = 0 (3)
 Following position and velocity analyses, since the values of the angles and
angular velocities are known, if a value is assigned to one of the accelerations
(for example, the angular acceleration of the input link), the two equations can
be solved for the other two angular accelerations .

Assuming that α2 is known, we re-arrange the equations as:

R3 sin 3 −R4 sin 4 3 R2 −sin 22 − cos 2 22 + −R3 cos 3 32 +R4 cos 4 42
=
−R3 cos 3 R4 cos 4 4 R2 cos 22− sin 2 22 + −R3 sin 3 32 + R4 sin 4 42

3
4
R3 sin 3 −R4 sin 4 −1
R2 −sin 22 − cos 2 22 + −R3 cos 3 32 +R4 cos 4 42
=
−R3 cos 3 R4 cos 4 R2 cos 22− sin 2 22 + −R3 sin 3 32 + R4 sin 4 42
 If we reconsider Eq. (3)

−𝜔2 2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 + 𝑖𝛼2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 − 𝜔3 2 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 + 𝑖𝛼3 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 + 𝜔4 2 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 − 𝑖𝛼4 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 = 0 (3)
Simplify and Grouping above terms
(𝛼2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 −𝜔2 2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 ) + (𝛼3 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 − 𝜔3 2 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 ) - (𝛼4 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 − 𝜔4 2 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 ) = 0

Note that these are the same relationships that we

𝐴𝑡 𝐵𝐴
used to solve problem
𝐴𝑡 𝐵
𝐴𝑛 𝐵
𝐴𝑡
𝐴
𝐴𝑛 𝐵𝐴

where
𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝑡 + 𝐴𝐴𝑛 = (𝛼2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 − 𝜔2 2 𝑅2𝑒 𝑖𝜃2 )
𝐴𝐵𝐴 = 𝐴𝑡𝐵𝐴 + 𝐴𝑛𝐵𝐴 = (𝛼3 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 − 𝜔3 2 𝑅3𝑒 𝑖𝜃3 ) 𝐴𝑛 𝐴

𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑡𝐵 + 𝐴𝑛𝐵 = (𝛼4 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 − 𝜔4 2 𝑅4𝑒 𝑖𝜃4 )

Once solved for 𝛼3 and 𝛼4 , we can then solve for the linear accelerations by substituting
the Euler identity into equations.
 Acceleration Analysis (Four bar Slider-Crank) : Analytical approach

The four vectors form a vector loop equation

(1)
Position equation in complex form
(2)

Differentiating position equation gives

(3)
Which is in fact velocity difference eq. 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐴𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0

Differentiating further gives

(4)
 Simplifying further

(5)

Again this is acceleration difference eq.

(6)

(7)

(8)
It should be noted that link 4 (Slider) is in pure translation therefore its angular
velocity and acceleration will be zero. It has only linear acceleration along the path.

Unknown in above equation (5) are 𝜔3 , 𝛼3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑.ሷ Substitute the Euler identity

(9)
 (10)

(11)

𝛼3 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐸𝑞. 11 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐸𝑞 10 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑ሷ

(12)

(13)

we can then solve for the linear accelerations from Eqs. 6, 7 & 8.
Practice question
 Dynamic Force Analysis
Mechanisms are designed to carry out certain desired work, by producing the
specified motion of certain output member. It is usually required to find the
force or torque to be applied on an input member, when one or more forces act
on certain output member(s). The external force may be constant or varying
through the whole cycle of motion. Calculation of input force or torque over the
complete cycle will be needed to determine the power requirement.

So far dealt with the kinematics of mechanisms while temporarily ignoring the
forces present in those mechanisms. Now we will deal with the problem of
determining the forces present in moving mechanisms and machinery which is
called kinetics or dynamic force analysis.

We start with a brief review of some fundamentals needed for dynamic analysis
 Dynamic force analysis involves the application of Newton's three laws of motion
which are
1st Law
A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in motion at constant velocity
will tend to maintain that velocity unless acted upon by an external force.

2nd Law
The rate of change of momentum of a mass is equal to the force acting on it.

𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡)
Ԧ 𝑑 𝑑𝑥Ԧ (𝑡)
Ԧ
𝐹 𝑡 =𝑚 , 𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐹Ԧ t = m𝑥Ԧሷ
3rd Law

For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force
 Dynamic Models
It is often convenient in dynamic analysis to create a simplified model of a
complicated part. These models are sometimes considered to be a collection of
point masses connected by massless rods. For a model of a rigid body to be
dynamically equivalent to the original body, three things must be true:

• The mass of the model must equal that of the original body.
• The centre of gravity must be in the same location as that of the original
body.
• The mass moment of inertia must equal that of the original body.

Mass moment of inertia

is resistance to acceleration is not same as second moment of

area
 Radius of gyration

Axis of rotation
Axis of rotation Mass, M
Point Mass,m
K
J
𝐽 = 𝑚𝑘 2
𝐽
𝑘=
𝑚

The point Mass, m where whole mass of body is Concentrated in such a way that
it is located at distance K from the centre of rotation and it rotates with a radius K
in such a way that its moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of
original body of Mass, M. K is called radius of gyration of rigid body.

In short:
It is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a point mass (of
mass, m) that gives an equivalent inertia to the original object(s) (of mass, m).

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 Centre of percussion
The center of percussion is the point on an object where a perpendicular impact will
produce translational and rotational forces which perfectly cancel each other out at some
given pivot point, so that the pivot will not be moving momentarily after the impulse.
The same point is called the center of oscillation for the object suspended from the pivot as
a pendulum.

Applications
A hammer
– The impact force at the hammer head will not cause
any normal reaction at the handle
In a baseball bat,
– if on one hand the ball is made to strike at the
center of percussion while the center of rotation is
at the hands, no reaction perpendicular to the bat
will be experienced by the batter
In impact testing of materials,
– The deformation and bending of the pendulum can
be reduced if the center of percussion is located
near the striking edge. In this case, the pivot will be
free of any impulsive reaction.

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 Equivalent Systems

Spring Elements
A spring is a type of mechanical link, which in most applications is
assumed to have negligible mass and damping.

The spring force is proportional

to the amount of deformation

𝑭 = 𝑲𝒙

The work done in deforming a

spring is stored as strain or
potential energy in the spring
𝟏 𝟐
𝑼= 𝐊𝒙
𝟐

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 Spring in series

Spring are said to be in series when

• The deformation of the equivalent spring Ke is the sum of their deformation.
• The equivalent spring force is the same as the forces acting in the individual
springs
Thus, for the two-spring system shown
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
= +
𝐾𝑒 𝐾1 𝐾2
Therefore
1 1 1
= +
𝐾𝑒 𝐾1 𝐾2
𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟐
𝑲𝒆 =
𝑲𝟏 + 𝑲𝟐
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
1 1 1 1
= + + ……….+
𝐾𝑒 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛
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 Equivalent Systems
Spring in parallel: same deformaion case
Springs are said to be in parallel when
• The equivalent spring force is the sum of individual forces
• The spring have the same deformation (true only for the ‘’same deformation
case’’ it is not generally true).
Thus, for the two-spring system shown

𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐾𝑒 𝑥 = 𝐾1 𝑥1 + 𝐾2 𝑥2
But 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥
Therefore
𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2
𝐼𝑛 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 All springs have same displacements
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 but could have different restoring
𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 … … . +𝐾𝑛 forces
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 Damping Elements
In a vibratory system the damper is an element which is responsible for loss of energy in
the system. It converts energy into heat due to friction which may be either sliding friction
or viscous friction. A vibratory system stops vibration because of energy conversion by
damper.

• A damper is assumed to have neither mass nor elasticity,

• damping force exists only if there is relative velocity between the two ends of the
damper.
Damping is modelled as one or more of the following types

Viscous damping
is the most commonly used damping mechanism in vibration analysis. In viscous damping,
the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the vibrating body. Typical examples of
viscous damping include (1) fluid film between sliding surfaces, (2) fluid flow around a
piston in a cylinder, (3) fluid flow through an orifice, and (4) fluid film around a journal in a
bearing.
Fd ∝ relative velocity (v)
𝐹𝑑 = 𝑐𝑣 = 𝑐 𝑥ሶ
where
c is constant of proportionality and it is called coefficient of damping. The coefficient
of viscous damping is defined as the force in ‘N’ when velocity is 1 m/s.
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 Coulomb or Dry-Friction Damping
Here the damping force is constant in magnitude but opposite in direction to that of the
motion of the vibrating body. It is caused by friction between rubbing surfaces that
either are dry or have insufficient lubrication.

Combining Masses
In many practical applications, several masses appear in combination. For a simple analysis,
we can replace these masses by a single equivalent mass.

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Keff Ceff

Equivalent Systems
 Dynamic Force Analysis of Mechanism
In this section it is assumed that the motion of the machine parts are specified
beforehand, e.g. the position velocity and acceleration of each rigid body is known
or can be calculated by performing kinematic analysis. It is also assumed that the
mass and the moment of inertia of each machine member is known or can be
calculated from the given data.
Dynamic force analysis can be done by any of several methods. The one which
gives the most information about forces internal to the mechanism requires only
the use of Newton's law. These can be written as a summation of all forces and
torques in the system.

Newton’s Law:  F = ma G M G = I G

For two dimensional system it is also convenient to separately sum force

components in X and Y directions,

F x = max F y = ma y M G = I g
 Example 1: Single Link in Pure Rotation Consider the single link in pure
First the kinematics of the problem must be rotation
known. That is, the angular accelerations of
all rotating members and the linear
accelerations of the CGs of all moving
members . The mass of each member and
the mass moment of inertia Ig with respect External
force
to each member's CG must also be known.
In Freebody diagram, link 2 has a force F12
due to the mating link 1, the x and y Position
components of which are F12x and F12y. vector

There will have to be a torque available Position

on the link to drive it at the kinematically vector
defined accelerations. This is one (T12) of
the unknowns to be solved for. The other
two unknowns in this example are the
force components at the pin joint F12x and F12x Force of link 1 on 2 in the x direction
F12y. F12y Force of link 1 on 2 in the y direction
T12 Torque delivered from the ground 1
to the driver link 2
 From free body diagram:
SF=FP+F12 = m2a
ST=Ig=T12+(R12F12)+(RPFP)
Breaking down into components:
SFx=m2ax=FPx+F12x
SFy=m2ay=FPy+F12y
ST=Ig=T12 +(R12xF12y-R12yF12x) +(RPxFPy-RPyFPx)
Putting into a matrix format

 1 0 0  F12x   m2 aGx − FPx 

    
 0 1 0  F12 y  =  m2 aGy − FPy 
− R
 12 y
R12x
 
(
1  T12   I G − RPx FPy − RPy FPx )


[A] [B] [C]
  1 0 0  F12x   m2 aGx − FPx 
    
 0 1 0  F12 y  =  m2 aGy − FPy 
− R
 12 y
R12x
 
(
1  T12   I G − RPx FPy − RPy FPx )


[A] [B] [C]

Note that the A matrix contains all the geometric information and the C matrix
contains all the dynamic information about the system. The B matrix contains all the
unknown forces and torques.
 Example 2
The mass and moment of inertia for the links of this slider-crank are given. A
known force F acts on the slider block, and an unknown torque T acts on the
crank. In the depicted configuration, the angular velocity and acceleration of
the crank are given. The objective is to find the magnitude and the direction
of the unknown torque
A
T G3
B
G2
G4
O