CELLULAR REPRODUCTION

The Chromosome
All living things contain a self-replicating genetic
material that directs the activities and functions of
the cells. Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA is the
genetic material located inside a chromosome in
the nucleus of the cell. The DNA from the parents
is transmitted to the offspring to ensure the
continuity of life. The DNA is a helical structure
consisting of two strands. Figure 1 also shows the
organization or packaging of DNA molecules by
proteins or histones to form different levels of
chromosome packaging. This is necessary so that
the long and numerous DNA molecules can be
organized and accommodated inside the nucleus
of a eukaryotic cell. The DNA helix illustration
shows a structure called nucleosomes which is
composed of globular structures known as
histones where the DNA strands are attached and
coiled looking like beads attached on a string in a form of chromatin measuring up to 11 nm. The next level of
organization is a series of chromatin molecules forming a 30-nanometer chromatin fiber of packed coiled
nucleosomes called a solenoid. This solenoid level of packaging becomes supercoiled forming loops that are
visible and are usually called chromatin loops which further leads to condensation of the chromosomes up to
700 nm. When the DNA molecules are replicated and undergo also packaging and coiling, they form the entire
mitotic chromosome or metaphase chromosome which measures up to 1,400 nm.

Parts of the Chromosome

1. Chromatids – two identical halves of a replicated chromosome
after the Synthesis phase or the S phase of the cell cycle.
2. Centromere – the attachment points of the two chromatids of a
chromosome. It is also described as the constriction point which
divides the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.”
3. Short arm – or p arm - upper arms of the chromosome which is
usually shorter.
4. Q arm - lower arms of the chromosome which is usually longer.

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle may be divided into two stages: the interphase where the chromosomes are long, and extended,
and the cell division or mitotic phase where the chromosomes become condensed or thickened.
Interphase is the interval between two cell divisions. During this stage,
the cell is not dividing. It obtains nutrients and metabolizes, grows, and
replicates (produces a precise copy of itself) its DNA in preparation for
mitosis.
1. First gap period or G1 where: cell grows initially; synthesis of protein
and ribonucleic acid or RNA occurs; mitochondria increase in number
2. Synthesis stage or S phase where: DNA are synthesized thus
replicating the chromosomes in preparation for the next cell division.
3. Second gap period or G2 where: cell grows rapidly; cell prepares for
the actual cell division
CELL DIVISION
The cell division phase occurs every after interphase. In eukaryotic cells, these types of cell division occur:
mitosis and meiosis.
1. Mitosis: a cellular process wherein two nuclei and two cells are produced due to the division of the
original nucleus, each of which contains the same chromosome number as the parent cell.

Prophase Stage
 The repeated coiling of chromosomes occurs resulting in its thicker and shorter structure. These are made up
of two sister chromatids that are identical to each other because of the replication of DNA during the S phase.
 The two chromatids are still attached at the centromere.
 The nuclear membrane breaks down.

Metaphase Stage
 Chromosomes align at the equatorial plane.
 Each spindle fiber from both centrosomes connects to each chromosome through its kinetochore.

Anaphase Stage
 Spindle fibers begin to contract and become shorter. Continued contraction causes the separation of the
genetically identical sister chromatids.
 Centromeres divide.
 The single chromatids move towards the opposite poles.

Telophase Stage
 The chromosomes are now at the opposing poles of the spindle.
 The microtubules disappear.
 Two sets of chromosomes are surrounded by new nuclear membranes, completing the nuclear division
process known as karyokinesis.
 Cytoplasmic division called cytokinesis occurs concurrently, splitting the cell into two.

In animal cells, two grooves or indentations known as cleavage

furrows form at both ends of the metaphase plate during telophase.
These grooves deepen and lengthen and meet, to separate and form
the two new daughter cells.
Plant cells do not form cell furrows. Instead, a new cell wall known as
a cell plate forms between the two new nuclei.
 2. Meiosis: a type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and
produces four gamete cells. This process is required to produce egg and sperm cells for sexual
reproduction.

Meiosis involves two divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each follows similar stages as mitosis
(prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase). Before meiosis, the reproductive cell is in the
interphase stage whereby DNA replicates to produce chromosomes having two sister chromatids. Then,
the cell will undergo a second growth phase called interkinesis. This stage happens between Meiosis I
and II, however, DNA does not replicate in this stage.

Meiosis I. is a reduction division phase (diploid - haploid). There are two daughter cells produced after
Meiosis 1, each daughter cell carries a haploid number of chromosomes.

1. Prophase I
Events that occur during the
prophase of mitosis also occur
during prophase of meiosis. The
chromosomes coil up, the nuclear
membrane begins to disintegrate,
and the centrosomes begin moving
apart. The two chromosomes may

exchange fragments by a process called crossing over. When the chromosomes partially separate in late
prophase, they separate during anaphase resulting in chromosomes that are mixtures of the original
two chromosomes.
2. Metaphase I Bivalents (tetrads) become aligned in the center of the cell and are attached to spindle
fibers. Independent assortment refers to the random arrangement of pairs of chromosomes.
3. Anaphase I Anaphase I begins when homologous chromosomes separate.
4. Telophase I The nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reappear.

Meiosis II. The second meiotic division forms four daughter cells, each carrying a haploid number of
chromosomes.
1. Prophase II The chromosomes
coil up, the nuclear membrane
begins to disintegrate, and the
centrosomes begin moving
apart.
2. Metaphase II Spindle fibers
form and sister chromatids
align to the equator of the cell.
3. Anaphase II Sister chromatids
separate.
4. Telophase II & Cytokinesis II The
chromatids reach the poles, and
uncoil into thin threadlike
chromatin. The nuclear
membrane reforms from 2
diploid (2n) cells into 4 haploid
(n) daughter cells.
Differences in Characteristics between Mitosis and Meiosis

Roles of Mitosis and Meiosis in Cell Division