Dredging

ICE design and practice guides

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ICE design and practice guide

Dredging

Denis Yell and john Riddell

I Thomas Telford
Published by Thomas Telford Publications, Thomas Telford Services Ltd,
1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD

First published 1995

Distributors for Thomas Telford books are

USA: American Society of Civil Engineers, Publications Sales Department,
345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017—2398
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Austrnfin: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,
Victoria

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

-TOntispiece: The Humber MnTlin, a modern trailing suction hopper dredger emplo y-
ed in K port mnintennnce dredging

Classification
Availability: Unrestricted
Content: Recommendations based on current practtce
Status: Refereed
User: Practising civil engineers and designers

ISBN: 0 7 277 2049 X

C Institution of Civil Engineers, 1995, except Chapter 4 C British Crown

Copyright, 1995

All rights, including translation reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of
this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Books Publisher,
Publications Division, Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas Telford House,
1 Heron Quay, London E14 4jD.

This book is published on the understanding that the authors are solely respon-
sible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publica-
tion does not necessarily imply that such statements andJor opinions are or
reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. Every effort has been made to
ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed in this publication
provide a safe and accurate guide; however, no liability or responsibility of any
kind can be accepted in this respect by the publishers or the authors.

Typeset by Gray Publishing, Tunbridge Wells, Kent

Printed in Great Britain by Cromwell Press, Melksham, Wiltshire
Acknowledgements

The initiative for this design and practice guide was taken by the Maritime
Board of the I nstitu tion of Civil Engineers. The Board members responsibile
for the development and editing of the guide were Denis Yell, Director of
Engineering for Associated British Ports, and John Riddell of the Department
of Civil Engineering at the University of Strathclyde. The text was generated
from contribu tions by the editors and from the following individuals:
Charles Ford Charles R. Ford and Associates
Lindsay Murray Ministry of Agricultur e Fisheries and Food, Burnham
Phil Roland Westminster Dredging Company Limited
Albert Treffe rs Wirteveerr + Bos/NEDECO
Peter Whitehead ABP Research and Consultancy Limited
Jon Wood Sir William Halcrow and Partners Limited

The Maritime Board is grateful to all the contributors and their organizations
for their support, and emphasizes that the views expressed in the guide do not
necessarily reflect the opinions of individual contrib u tors or their organi-
zations.

The editors gratefully acknowledge the assistance provided by Lesley Wilson

of the Institution of Civil Engineers and Safly Smith cif Tho mas Telford Ser-
vices Lim iteci in the prod uc tion of the guicie, and to all who have provided
illustrations.
Picture credits

Figure Source
Frontispiece, 23, 24, 28, 30 Associated British Ports

1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, john Riddell

18, 19, 21, 22, 27, 29, 3i

3, 15 Westminster Dredging Co Ltd

5, 20 Holland Dredging Co (UK) Ltd
6 British Waterways
10 Tees fi Hartlepool Port Authority Ltd
25, Soi1 Mechanics Ltd
26
Preface

I n this age of environmental aware ness, the significance of water-borne

transport is ever increasing because of its ene rgy cfficie ncy and convenience.
To facilitate the development of water-bor ne transport, navigation channe1s
have to be created or deepened to allow the safe passage of vessels.

Meanwhile, in its efforts to transport products as safely and econtiniicall} as

possible, the oil and gas industr y needs to lay pipelines on the sea -bed. These
pipelines are freque ntly placed in a trench and the tre rich backfilled.

In these two examples of excavation or reprofiling of the sea-bed or river-beer

the work would be carried out by dredgers. They illustrate the key role which
dredging now plays in our lives.

Civ il enginee rs have le a rued to accept that much of their effort is expended in
works below ground level and tha t the general pu blic will probably never
adequate l}' appreciate the skill and resources involved. Dredging is an acti›'ity
which takes place not only under ground bu t also under water. It is scarcely
surprising that ver ' few people have a real unders tanding of wha t d rec4ging
involves, and that ma ny believe it to be su rrounr4ed in a mystiq uc ivlaic h is
jealously guarded by a handfu1 of large in ternational organizatitins.

The prinlar y tibjective of th is guide is ter e nable the target a uclie rice of the
design a nd practice gri ides to achieve a broach u nc4erstanding of the Lvl ‹ale
dredging process. The seque rice of tasks that ni tist be addressed for a dredgi rig
project—front scheme ide n tific ation and des ign, through preparation of
doc ume nts, to supervision and exec u tion of the work—la ave been reviewed b}'
the con tribu ting ati thors, each of them ;'idely expe rie nced in the ir field. This
guide shouted not I e vie»'ed as an autlatarita tive text or code of practice.
Rat he r, it is looped that the reader will achieve a su ffic ient unc4erstanci i rug of
this fasc i nating inciustr to encou rage fti r ther stu‹4 y; pe rhaps scjjpe re ac4crs
may' e$ e Iâ, as a restl lt, be te I4âpted to expe rie lace tlâc rigt3kl rs a lâkg cl4<4lle
lfiges rIf the clrcc4ging ivorlc4 themse Ives.
Contents

1. Introduction 1
Reasons for dredging
The dredging industry
The dredging project 5
2. Types of dredger 6
Mechanical dredgers 7
Bucket ladder dredger
Grab dredger 8
Backhoe/dipper dredger 9
Hydraulic dredgers 11
Profile or plain suction dredger 11
Cutter suction/bucket wheel dredger
Trailing suction hopper dredger 13
Barge unloading dredger
Other types of dredger 14
Control of dredgers 16
Ancillary equipment 16
Barges 17
Booster station 17
Tugs 17
Survey launches 17
The rockbreaker 17
S umniar y 17
3. Cost and production estimating 18
The estiiJzator's task t8
Cost analysis 18
Survey 21
Site management 22
O ther cos ts 22
Royalties 22
Con trac r insurances 22
Produc tion assessmen t
The c4redging cycle 25
Estal lishing the rates 26
4. Environmental considerations 29
The dredging operation 30
Disposal at sea
International controls
Disposal to land 34
Beneficial reuse of dredged material
Summary 36
5. Forms of contract 37
Standard forms of contract 38
Capital works 38
Maintenance works 39
Amendments to standard conditions (ICE or FIDIC) 39
Types of payment 40
Insurance 13
Tendering procedure
Summary 4‹
6. Design and site investigation 45
Design criteria: dredging requirements for navigation 45
Depth considerations 45
Width considerations 48
Side slopes 49
Berth pockets 49
Site investigation 49
Bathymetric survey 50
Geotechnical investigation 50
Environmental surveys 54
Summary 54
7. Supervision and measurement 55
Risk management 55
Superviion 56
Duties a net responsibilities of supervising engineer 56
Quality cont ro1 57
Remote supervision 57
M etlaods of measurement 58
Mcasu renient of cttiantity 58
Measurenie nts at the d redging site 58
Meas u reme nts in the iiieiins of conveyance 59
Me asure me n ts at the disposal site 60
Measu renient of q tiality 60
Measu reme n t of tiiiie 61
Dredging inst r urine n totion 61
Position fixing 61
Depth measu reme n rs 61
Otla er instruments tion 62
CafIsCs t3f c1aims and r ispfi tes :414d How tt3 lâalAd Ie the F14 63
II rn rlJ •1PQ 64
References 65
Appendix. Sources of further information 66
 I . Introduction

Dredging is the operation of removing material from under water. In all but a
few sitnations the excavation is undertaken by specialist floating plant, known
as a dredger. Dredging is carried out in ma ny different locations and for many
different pur poses, but the main objectives are usually to recover material
which has some value or use, or to crea te a greater depth of water. The latter
is often associated with navigation, and it is the dredging of ports and harbours
tha t is the most common form of dredging and the one with which most
engineers are fani iliar. But clredging can form part of many othet constructio n
activities and it is important to be able to recognize both the capabilities of
modern dredgers and the proble ins associated with their use.

Dredging is ntiw a very specialist activity. The plant and equipment involved
may have a capital cost of inany millions of pounds; the largest of the modern
dredgcrs founcl ope rating in the world toc]ay are capable of moving hundreds
of thousands of cubic me tres of material each week. Dredgers can bring great
benefits. They allow new ports and harbours to be developed, new land to be
created and water transport to function safely. They allow pipelines to be laid
in the N or th Sea, oil to be extractec4 from the Arctic and sandy beaches to be
enjoyed by holiday Quakers.

Dredging can be carried on t wherever there is sufficie nt wa ter ter aHow a

drec{ger to ope ra te. Th us c4recige rs can be fotind arou nd the coasts, in rivers
and in canals. They can be four ink in lakes and poncis far front the sea and t hey
can be founc4 in exposecl offshore locations far from land. Dredgers operate in
every tice an tif t lie ivorId, and they can also be fern net working in rese rvtiirs
high up in the mountains of the Andes. Dredgers exist in a wide variety of
shapes and sizes, r•1I3giI4g ill ct)l44plex ity (rr3II1 •â sil4dple grab craHe k3n a f
oatinQ pontticin to sorite of the must sopli istica ted and tec lurologically adva
nced vessels afloa t. Some drec]gers can be iii‹ived froin site to site by react tra
nspor t; others are capable of sailing Isa lf way arou nd the worlci unde r
the ir town

DredgiI3g ilâvt3Ives I11a14}' cliffe re14t sk ills. EsselAtially ‹4 civil enQil4Cfi riI4g •1c tivity,
the work req tiires kntiwledge of inec ha nic a1 ain1 electrical engine ering, elec-
tronics, naval arcl4itectti re, the marine env im'nune nt and] rna ny orher disc i-
plines. Above all it is a practic al subjec t. Many of the activities are computerizecJ
and liiglily au tomated, belt the re is still great re liance on t lie expe rierice of
tllcâse iFlVtJlVed ill bc3tl4 Llae [81aI4 l4ilâ3 a lâcd tl4C eXCC t1t itâlâ tIf tlâfi rIiffc fcI4 t
types
‹if projec t.
Dredging

The operation of dredging involves four disti net processes. The in-situ mate-
rial must first be clistur bed and loosened from its natu ra1 state. I t then has to
be moved front th at position to the u a ter surface. These two phases are
genera11 ' considered to be the dredging o per ation. Following on are the equal-
ly important transp‹sr t and re loca tion pleases. Transpor t may ta ke place in a
barge or hopper, or as a suspension in pipeline flow. The cost of transport may
be a high proportion of the c verall clredging cost, especially if the relocation
site is at sonic conside rable ciistance from the dredging site.

Dredging is recognized as having the potential for major environmental impact.

Whether in the dredging operation, in the disposal of the dredged material or
in the completed works, care must be taken to minimize disturbance to marine
life. Also, the dredged material should not be regarded simply as waste.
Consideration has to be given to the potential for some form of beneficial use
of the material. With increasing environmental awareness and tightening
legislative control, finding a suitable site to relocate the dredged material can
be a major constraint on the implementation of a dredging project.

Reasons for The recovery from under water of material which has some value or use is the
dredging first major objective of dredging. In this instance dredging can be regarded as
a form of mining. The dredging of tin ore was an early example of mineral
dredging, but gold, coal, rare eartlis and phosphates are among other materials
which are won by dredging. The dredgers involved in this type of mining are
highly specialized and custom built for a par ticular project. They may include
some form of on-board processing of the rec‹ vered material and are usually
owned by the mining compan}'.

A niu ch more common material won b ' dredging is sand and gravel for use in
concrete ma n ufactu re. Sea- drec4ged aggregate is a valuable alte rna tive to
land -based son rces of these construc tion materials. The UK's marine -
aggregate dredging ind ustry is one of the largest in the world and la rids many
millit as of tonnes of sand and gravel each year. Aggregate dredging also takes
place in man} inland wa ters, including rivers, lakes and ponds. Aggregate
dredgers are usually speciall) des igned and constructed for the par tic ular
opera tion and are owned and opcratecl by companies whose main activity is
constr uc tion material supply.

The creation of new land by hydraulic fill is an important use of d redged

material. In rna n5' coasra I situations there is a great Bho i toge of land suitable
for develc›pnicnt. One way of providing additional space is tc› ra ise the existing
sea-be‹4 levels by the place men t vt su itable mate rial recovered from another
location. The ‹4 redging site rna ' be one where there is a need for free per ivate r
assoc iatec4 «'itli the new land, bu t more usuall is some mat ural depcasit of sedi-
ment iv hic li can be d recJgec4 easily and q u ickly. After transpc›r t to the area to
he reel aimed, the ma te rial is p u nape cl as1aore as a suspe nsion. The sand cpu ickly
settles tr leave a co inpac t base fc›F StlC h projects as ne w ind ustry, housing,
transport infrastruc ture and port cleve lopiiient. The eniphas is is very inuc h on

Beach nourishment is run ther aspect of ci reciging ivhete the prime objec tive
is ac hieved b ' the recovery of suitable material. W here coastlines e rtade and
clegrade an al ter na tive tt the construe titan of such hard for ms of protection
as

2
 Introduction

rock armour and concrete walls is the placement on the shore of natural sands
and gravels, perhaps recovered front where the eroded material has deposited.
By nourishing or replenishing the beach the natural balance is maintained.
This type of work requires dredgers able to place the sand on what is often a
shallow' and exposeci coastline. The crea tion or enhancement of we tlands by
using finer sized dredged material is another potential beneficial use, as is the
construction of offshore ber ms and islands.

The second main objective of dredging is the creation of deeper water. If the
natural dep tlis in an area are increased for the first time the activity is known
as 'capital dredging', ‘deve lopnient dredging' or ‘neu' ivcirks dredging'. With
capital dredging the full range of geotechnical materials ma)' be encountered.
‘Soft’ material, such as sand, silt and cla ', may well be mixed with much stiffer
clays, boulders a net in some cases rock.

Deepening below the pre -existing bed leve Is can result in sediment being
moved into the deepened area by the actions of water currents and waves. The
siltation then has to be rems ved to maintain the required depth. This type of
dredging is k now n as ‘mainte nance dredging'. In some situations maintenance
dredging may be required only once every few years. In others it may be need-
ed tiwi or th ree times each 3'ear. And in others it may be a continuous opera-
tion throughout the ye ar.

Dredging for deeper water or greater cross-sectional area may be undertaken

for many cliffe rent reasons. The clrcdging may be part of a water supply or flood
relief project. Dredgers can be used to construct reservoirs, deepen flood-
proie rivers and forin irrigation channels. The storage capacity of reservoirs
subject to sil tation can be maintained by d re‹4ging, and hydro-e lectric powe r
projects can be assisted with their water supplies.

The incas t his ual re ask n for sec king flee pe r water is to iimprove nav igation.
This applies to ships a net struc rures of all types, in the sea, in estuaries and in
inland water ways. Nov igationa1 d reef ging is the most cont nicin to rin of
dredging activit ' ance is uncle r take n in por ts, harbour s a net shipping channe
ls through- ou t the wor ld. I n some 1c'c a t io us the d reciging may be for
vessels with deep draugl4 ts, s IIc14 •âs It4rge o i1 t<414ke rs, bulk carrf£•rs a led co Iâ
tainer ships. In €3the rs it i ay be for cr›as term or inland Eva terwa5' biirges, fishing
vessels, nava I vessels, ferries or leisure craft. Shrine r›f the work may iiu'olve
iiacreas ing the natural de{0 tins as sly ips bectH4Ae latgfi r t)r new p00r ts are de
velope . Much n<1vigatiol2 a I d rec4ging is the periodic re mtival of scclime n t
ciepositec4 in the ctee pe ned chan nels. Ma in te nance c4reclgi rig is a necessit ' fo
r alrruis t every navigable wate rwoy Hlâd p£3r t in the â't4r U .

3
Dredging

Civil engineering construction work is another activity that can create a

demand for dredging. Here the nature of the work is not dissimilar to that
undertaken on land. The creation and bac kfilling of trenches for pipelines and
tunnels, and the forming of foundations for structures, are all dredging activ-
ities which have their counterparts in the dry. The dredging is generally a
specialist subsidiary activity to the main construction with the work often, but
not always, being stib-contracted to the specialist dredging contractor.

An expanding area of d redging activity is that termed 'environmental dredg-

ing'. There is incre asing recognition of the amenity value of waterways,
especially in urban areas. With many rivers, canals, drains and lakes being
choked with all forms of rubbish, their clearance has presented new challenges
to the dredging industry. Sometimes the sediment is contaminated with pollu-
tants that require special handling to minimize risk to the environment. The
clearance of industrial sludge lagoons and settlement ponds is another highly
specialist area of dredging activity, which may even involve the use of a remote
- controlled dredger.

The dredging The many different reasons for dredging illustrate that it is not one single
industry activity. The objectives and requirements can vary widely, as determined by
the organization wishing the dredging to be undertaken. For navigation dredg-
ing this organization is usually a port or harbour an thority or a government
department of some form. Reservoir dredging, river dredging and canal dredg-
ing are again usually undertaken for the authority which either owns these
facilities or is responsible for their operation. The same applies to beach
replenishment and to many amenity dredging projects. Reclamation dredging
and constructional dredging, on the other hand, may form only a small part of
some larger project. Again the dredging may be undertaken directly for a
client or on a sub-contract basis to a main contractor.

Organizations with the capability of executing a dredging project are similarly

wide ranging. Many organizations with a reQuirement for dredging operate
their own dredgers. This is especially true for maintenance dredging where the
work is restricted in location and the opportunity exists to provide a dredger
specially designed for rhat particular project. Thus many port authorities own
and operate one or more dredgers, as do inland waterway authorities and
gove rnment age ncies responsible for drainage, irrigation and transport. 1s the
UK the majority of port maintenance dredging (in terms of annual volume) is
undertaken by dredgers tow ned by port authorities.

The alternative to operating an in- house dredger is to employ a dredging con-

tractor. This is the prac t ice followed by Continental ports, such as Rtit
terdani a nd Antwerp, as well as by many U K ports. Dredging contractors
are very varied in size and capability. Some contractors operate only at a loc
al level, providing a service within a par tic ular river or harbou r to one or
more clients. Larger contractors may operate on a national basis, or
occasionally take con tracts overseas. An inter national dre‹4ging contractor
will work in any part of the world and will have the plant and equipment
able to undertake any type of capita l or rna inte nance dredging project. Today
the ind ilsrry is dominated by a small number of very large companies, mainly
based in Be lgium and The Ne therlands. These companies have the financial
resources to keep the ir d hedging eqn ipruent in the tec hnologically
a‹4vanced state requirec4 ro under-

4
 Introduction

take dredging efficiently and to carry out the vast range of projects found
throughout the world.

Supporting those requiring and undertaking dredging projects are dredging

consultants and dredging equipment suppliers. Because of the relative infre-
quency of their dredging, many clients use not only dredging contractors but
also consultants who are experienced in dredging. These may be parts of
general engineering consultancies, but are frequently businesses with a very
small number of staff. Dredgers and dredging equipment are similarly special-
ist. The world market is not large and there are only a few shipyards, for
example, that can construct a modern dredger.

The dredging Some may regard dredging as a relatively simple activity. But excavating mate-
project rial from below the water surface can present many problems, and if mistakes
are made the additional costs can be very high. Dredgers are expensive to
purchase and tun and their capital cost and operating rates can only be
justified by high utilization and high production. Production is the key to
successful dredging for both client and operator. But the difficulty of working
under water—the results of a dredging project are seldom visible—in an often
hostile natural environment means that there are many risks. It is thus impor-
tant that dredging projects are adequately designed and supervised and that
all involved have a proper appreciation of what can and cannot be econom-
ically achieved.

Planning the dredging project requires that the work is seen to be practically
and economically feasible. Different site conditions and material types and
quantities require different types of dredging equipment. Thus there must be
the ability to determine those site conditions which affect the likely produc-
tion of the dredger and hence the cost and time to project completion. Even
such relatively familiar construction activities as surveying, setting-out and
measurement present many difficulties when the site is under water and can-
not be seen. The problems of horizontal and vertical control require special
equipment, techniques and skills. Geotechnical investigation to determine the
nature of the material to be dredged becomes very important. Wrong inform-

5
Dredging

ation or an inaccurate assessment can mean not only that production cannot
be achieved, but may alsti result in the dredging equipment mobilized to the site
—possibly at some considerable cost—not being able to complete the work. It
is not always recognized that the prime objective of a dredging site investigation
is to allow the feasibility of dredging and the expected produc- tion to be
assessed. The more usual indications of bearing capacity or con- solidation rate
are not of major importance.

Every cubic metre of material dredged has to be relocated or disposed of. If the
objective is to create deeper water and not recover the material, a suitable
disposal site has to be identified. This is becoming increasingly difficult.
Licences and approvals are rectuired to dispose of dredged material. The tradi-
tional disposal by dumping in the sea may still be the best practicable e nviron-
mental option, but tether possibilities have to be investigated. Disposal of the
material may be complicated by the presence of contaminants. These may
require special, and costly, techniques for all phases of the dredging cycle.
Maintenance dredging of inland waters presents particular problems for re-
locating the dredged sediments—where can the large volumes of sediment
which might be involveci in the de-silting of a major reservoir be disposed of!
The e nvironniental impact of the dredging prtiject may require assessment.
The possible effects of the dredging and disposal operations will need ro be
reviewed as well as the potential impact of the completed ivor ks. Approvals for
new dredging projects are not now easily obtained and it is essential ter allow
aciequate time for full consultation and study.

The cost implications of future mainte nance have to be properly assessed for
any capital dredging project. Thus the design of a new c4iedging project has to
include a study of the likely sil ta tion or infilling rates. The dredging of a
chan nel is one of the very fen' construc tion projects which may prod uce a
require men t in the year following completion for expencii ture on mainPenance
th‹\t is possibly equal t‹› the initial capital cust.

Summary DrekgilâJ el2ct4rlâpasscs i1 88’icie ral4Je of acti$'itics ated offers lnany clAalle IJges to
t1i‹ise who are involved in it, wlictlie r einpIoye‹t by those u'isIsing the dre‹4ging
tO be tiiAde r£akel4 t8r b}' tl4c kdrccd ilâg Pipe ratc9r. Hue ct)I44plete€J dredging prt4ject
Will his tli4lly l4tâ t be $’isi10lL, ‹Had tlâfi \vtJrk nâ‹1y se ld£iI44 ac l4ie 'c the accl aim
c3f t31I1c lâew bt tIcqttIre, belt k/reef oil Q iS a13d will ccH3till tie IU lie UIF essel4 tial
part
 2. Types o£ dredger

Dredgers may be broadly classified into two main groups or types depending
upon the method used to transport loosened material from the sea-bed to the
water surface. These are:
(o) mechanical dredgers
(h) hydraulic dredgers.
Not all dredgers fall neatly into these classifications so it is convenient to
include a third, which can best be described as 'other types’. These dredgers
are usually small, sometimes unique, and normally intended for quite specific
dredging or disposal situations.

f'1echanicaI Mechanical dredgers come in a variety of forms, each involving the use of grab
dredgers or bucket to loosen the in-situ material and raise and transport it to the
surface.

Bucket ladder Bucket ladder dredgers are one of the oldest types of dredger. They usually
dredger comprise a rectangular pontoon with a central well in which a heavy
steel frame or ladder is suspended. The ladder supports an endless chain
of buckets, each of which is equipped with a cutting edge. By rotating the
bucket chain about flat-sided wheels (known as tumblers) at each end of the
ladder, material can be loosened and transported. A small proportion of
the dredgers of this type are self-propelled. The propulsion machinery is used
to move the vessel from site to site, but is not used in the dredging
operation.

The dredging action starts when a bucket reaches the bottom of the ladder,
where it loosens and scoops up a quantity of material. This material is carried
in the bucket to the top of the ladder where, at the highest point of the chain,
the bucket overturns and the contents are discharged. The material falls into
drop chutes and into a barge moored alongside the dredger. Each bucket then
returns empty on the underside of the chain to the bottom of the ladder where
the cycle begins again. T[ie size of a bucket dredger is usually described by the
capacity of the buckets, which is in the range 100—900 litres.

Bucket ladder dredgers are able to dredge almost any material up to the point
where blasting is requited, and if fitted with ripper teeth may even be directly
able to dredge weak rock. A minimal amoun t of water is adcJed to the dredged

7
Dredging

material c4uring careful use of the buckets. This is advantageous to production

and costs, especially ivhe n dredging in silt and mud.

ln tiperation, a buc ket lac4c4er drec4ge r is held accu rately in position by up to six
nioorings or anchors a nd the bucket lac4der moved from side to side to
excavate inaterial. The iuooring wires can obstruct other shipping, and high
noise levels are a cciiiiiiic»4 problem if special steps are not taken to control
soun‹4 emissions. M ucli of the power erf a bucket dredger is used in turning the
chain, but rlae high inertia tof th is can also assist in overcoming localized hard
spots. The max int teiji wee kly ou tpu t of a buc ket dredger can vary between
10.000 ariel 100 OOO m’ (in- situ) c4epe net ing upon sizc, loca tion and material.
Max inuini d rec4gi ng de ptlas are nor mall ' arounr4 20 m. Bucket ladr4er
dredgers are complex anc4 expeiasi ve machines to opera te bu t can d
redge to the
Pt 0] t11T't• 0/ C{9 t 4 VV r)' HC C II f t3 Lt• .

Grab dredger
Cira h cireci gers, shrine times ca1le‹4 clamshells, can ex ist in ptintoon and self-
protiel feel forrns, the la tter usually inc1uding a hopper u'ithin the vessel. The
b8t)Iâtt)t)I4 t§'[3e PL1 clPfikl5fir i4%811iI3 Cc3144pFiSCS a F€ C taHg kllar Qt0l4 toOH OU WUiCh iS
main n tech a revolving crane capi ippcc4 with a grab . The dredgi rig ope rat icon
con- sists of lou'ering tldc grab tra the bo trim, closing the grab, raising the filled
grab to the su rfa ce ‹inil Eliseliiirging the conte nts in to a barge ter, if appropriate,
onto t lie acljo ining b‹ank. The siie ot this t pe is cieterin ineck by the capacity
cif the rab hue ke t, whic li can var ' betu eeia 1.0 a wet 10 ni’, depenr4ing
upon the
9
 Types of dredger

f•igure d A pontoon
mounted grub dredger bas
the ability to dredge a u'ide
range o{ materials

vessels have a single crane, but some of rhe larger craft have up to four.
Production depends upon crane and grab size, water depth and, in the case of
the self-propelled variety, on the distance to the material disposal sire.

Grab dredgers are usually held in position while working by anchors and moor-
ings but a few are fitted with a spud, or pile, which can be dropped onto the
bottom while the dredger is operating.

A wire line grab generally produces an irregular bottom profile with peaks and
troughs and is thus most suited to bulk excavation. The grab is a relatively
simple and inexpensive machine and performs best in consolidated sift, clays
and loose sand, but the large, heavy versions are good for removing rubbish,
old piles, rubble and similar obstructions. Grabs can also be used effectively for
removing material from close to quay walls and ir corners of docks and basins
that are otherwise difficult to. access.

A basic grab dredger can be quickly and economically made up from con-
ventional land machines securely fixed to pontoons for short term ad hoc
tasks, but care needs to be taken to check stability.

Backhoe/dipper
Backhoe and dipper dredgers again consist of a rectangular pontoon, on which
dredger is mounted the excavator unit. The excavator can be either an integral part of
the dredger or a proprietary mobile type adapted for marine working. Material
is excavated using a bucket of size compatible with the in-situ strength tif the
material being dredged. The excavated material is either loaded into barges or
placed ashore. The older form of this type of dredger, the dipper or face shovel,
used a wire operated integral excavator and was very heavily built to allow for
dredging of hard materials such as old masonry and unblasted rock.

The wire operated excavator unit has now been large ly superseded by
hydraulically operated back hoc machines. These operate more efficiently than
the face shovel. The size of a bac khoe dredger is described by the bucket
capacity, which can vary between 0.5 and l3 in’. Productiixa is dependent
upon bucket size and the hardness of the material. Breakout forces in excess

9
Dredging

Figure § The bac#/+oe

dTedg!°! ‘ OlOSSus’ tflOTkitJg itJ
fair Isle

of 90 t can be exerted by the larger mach iries, and because of the very high
horizontal loads developed b5' the ‹digging action the backhoe dredger usually
works orr spuds. These are heavy pile -like struc tures which can be dropped
into the sea-bed by the dredger. Two spuds are mourn ted at the digging end of
the backhoe pontoon to pre» ide resistance and one aft to assist in movement
through the working area. A moder ii bac khoe excavator is very efficient and
has good vertical and horiztintal control; carefully z'orked it will produce
a smooth profile. Because the bucket is lie avy and relatively rigid, care
needs to be taken to avoid r4ana age to such features as quay walls and canal
linings.

l!yJIa!! licGllJ oQerilled 5{JHrf

leg
 Types of dredger

Hydraulic The principal feature of all dredgers in this category is that the loosened mate-
dredgers rial is raised from its in-situ state in suspension through a pipe system connect-
ed to a centrifugal pump. Various means can be employed to achieve the
initial loosening of the material. If it is naturally very loose, suction alone may
be sufficient, but firmer material may require mechanical loosening or the use
of water jets. Hydraulic dredging is most efficient when working with fine
materials, because they can easily be held in suspension. Coarser materials—
and even gravel—can be worked but with a far greater demand on pump
power and with greater wear on pumps and pipes.

Profile or plain In its most simple form this type consists of a pontoon able to support a pump
suction dredger and suction pipe and to make the connection to the discharge pipe. More
sophisticated vessels have separate suction and delivery pumps, water jets at
the suction inlet and articulated suction pipes. While working, a dredger may
be held in position by one or more spuds or, in deeper water, by a complex
system of moorings. Plain suction dredgers are mainly used to win fill material
for reclamation, with the material being placed ashore through a floating
pipeline. Very long distances can be pumped by the addition of booster pumps
in the line. Material may alternatively be loaded directly into barges moored
alongside. The normal measures of size are the diameter of the discharge pipe,
which can vary between 100 and 1000 mm, or the installed horsepower.

Another use of plain suction dredgers—common in the USA—is to dredge

from the navigation channel of a river and side cast the material to nearer the
bank through a short pipeline or simply by jetting. In this role they are more
commonly known as dust-pan dredgers.

Modern suction dredgers can recover material from great depths and can also
extract sand from below a clay overburden. Known as a deep suction dredger,
this type offers the potential to recover fill material from depths up to 100 m.
Production is very dependent upon the permeability of the material dredged
and is best in clean sands.
Dredging

Cutter suction/ When the in-situ material is too compact to be removed by suction action
bucket wheel alone, some form of mechanical loosening must be incorporated near the
dredger
suction mouth. The most common method is a rotating cutteri the main
feature of the en tter suction dredger. This is mounted at the lower end of the
ladder used to support the cutter drive and the suction pipe. The loosened
material then enters the suction mouth, passes through the suction pipe and
pump (or pumps) and into the delivery line.

Cutter suction dredgers operate by swinging about a central working spud

using moorings leading from the lower end of the ladder to anchors. By pulling
on alternate sides the dredger clears an arc of cut, and then moves forward by
pushing agains t the u'orking spud using a spud carriage. A generally smooth
bottom can be achieved, and mode rn instrumentation allows profiles and side
slopes to be dredged accurately. Some of the larger cutter suction dredgers are
self-propelled to allow easy iiiovement froirt site to site.

Figure 8 A large liea v y

‹1utj' ciiite r suction dreJge
r
kisckaiQt!g th roHgh a
/o«ring pi)elitie to n

The size of a cutter suction dredger is me asured by the diame ter of the suction
pipe and by the installed machinery power. Pipe diameters are in the range 100
t‹s 1500 mm. A modern highly automated cutter suction dredger is capable of
achieving high outputs o er sustained periods and production rates of around
500 OOO ni’/week are possiblc under good conditions.

Cutter suction dredgers can be used to deliver through a pipeline or to load

barges. They may also be used simply as loosening devices for material to be re-
handled b ' another type of dredger, in which mode discharge is directly over the
stern to the sea. Pipeline discharge is most common but is vulnerable to waves
and currents and causes an obstruction to other vessels. To avoid these problems
part of the pipeline wrap' be submerged and laic4 on the channel- or sea-bed.

C tit ter sue tion dredgers are mainl} used for capi tal d redging, especially when
rec laniation is associated with the dredging. Snia Her vessels can be dismantled
into sections a net iiioved by road or ra il for ivor k in inla nd ivate rivays, s1udge
lagt ons, reservoirs ance similar isolater4 areas. Large heavy-duty cutter dredgers
are capable of dredging scenic types of roe k which have not been pretre ated.

An alter nativc form of ltiose ning is the use of a rotating buc ket wliee I nt rhe
suctir n mouth. Bucke t u 1 ee l cirec4gers are most commonl used in røineral
dredgiiag opcrations ariel te ciate have not føund ø•cnera1 favour among the
iiiajor inte rnation al cl rec4ging cøutrac tors.

12
 Types of dredger

of/e!s an o/femotifle To fhe

mole usual cutter /1eod

Trailing suction Trailing suction hopper dredgers, commonly known simply as ‘hoppers’ or
hopper dredger ‘trailers’, have a hull in the shape of a conventional ship, and are both highly
seaworthy arrd able to operate without any form of mooring or spud. They are
equipped with either single or twin (one on each side) trailing suction pipes.
Material is lifted through the trailing pipes by one or more pumps and
discharged into a hopper contained within the hull of the dredger. The
measure of size of a hopper or trailer dredger is the hopper capacity. This may
range from a few hundred cubic me rres to nearly 20 000 m'—increasingly
larger vessels have been constructed in recent years to allow economic
transport of the dredged material, especially for reclamation projects.

The suction pipe terminates in a draghead, which may be of the plain type or
may incorporate a water jet system, blades or teeth, or other means of dislodg-
ing compacted material. The function of the draghead is to allow the material
to flow to the suction inlet as efficiently as possible.

A trailing suction hopper d redger operates very much like a floating vacuum
cleaner. It sails slowly over the area to be dredged filling its hopper as it
proceeds. On completion of loading the dredger sails to the dispersal site ivhe re
the cargo can be discharged, either by opening the doors or valves in the
hopper bottom, by using the dredging pump to deliver to a shore pipeline, or
directly ro shore by using a special bow jet. This last technique is known as
rainbowing and is commonly' used for reclamation and beach nc›urishment.

Sterne trailer c4redge rs split eve r the ir entire le ngth to ac hieve a rapic4 c4ischarge
Dredging

of material which may be difficult to discharge through doors. Such special

vessels are understandably more expensive to build than those with a rigid
hull.

Trailing suction hopper dredgers operate best by skimming off layers of

material in long runs, such us might be found in channel dredging. They are
unable to get into corners and may be difficult to inanoe uvre in confined
spaces close to quays and jetties. They are not very effective on hard materials
such as the stiffer clays, but can ci redge rock which has been blasted, or
lotiseneci by a cutter dredger. These c4reclgers are very efficient for the mate-
rials they can hancile effectively. Mtist harbour rnainte nance dredging today is
carried out hy trailers, anet they are also employed fear capital projects, pipe
wrenching anet reclaiiiarion.

Barge unloading
Barge unlc›acling clreclgcrs ,ue usc‹l to triinsfer iiiate rial Arthur hopper barges to
dredger
shame, ti6t1•4ll3' tier rec1r1r1â•1tit)Iâ. A [0<3rge tI141t3tâder is basica1ly a pt)14toon
stippr3r tilts 0 stic tic3l4 [^tiillp ft4I' tl4c cdiscl4t4rQ£', t4l2d a l4iglh pressure $S'ater pti lâ4p
usecl to fluic4 ize the b‹irge con renrs by jetting. The mixture is then pumped

Other types of Spec i‹41iZccd fiy}*eS Ot ktreclger nrc USti‹3l1} Ob s111all siZe a i4d c3ti tpti t. They inclUde
dredger sirriplc jet- lift ‹anil ai r-1 ift, ause r sue rion, {One uir 4t ic ance umplcibions drec4ge rs.

14
 Types of dredger

Augur sucti‹ n d ledgers operate on the same principles as a cutter suction

dredger, except that the mechanical cutting tool is a rotating Archimede an
screw placed at right angles to the suction pipe. The screw dislodges material,
which is fed to the centrally placed suc tion pipe. Most units have a shroud
over the cutting screw which reduces the spread of the plume of distur bed bed
material which Ivoriually escapes from all dredgers. The augur suction dredger
ad vances into the cutting face b}' hauling itself along a wire deployed directly
ahead. Very accurate horizontal and vertical dimensions can be achieved.

Pneumatic dredgers work on the ‘evacuator’ principle. A chamber with inlets

for bed material is pumped out with the inlets closed. The inlets are then
opened and water and material drawn in. The mixture is then pumped out 'and
the c)'c1e repeatecl. The unit is generally suspended from a crane on land or
from a small pontoon or barge. The dredging action is intermittent and
suitable only for easily flowing material.

Amphibious dredgers have the unusual feature of being able to work afloat or
elevated clear of the water surface on legs. They can be equipped with grabs,
buckets or a shovel installation.

All the above specialist t 'pcs of dredger (and others) have been developed for
specific situations and generall}' for small scale work such as narrow canals,
inrlustrial lagoons and reser voirs. Some types have been developed to handle
contaminated sediments with minimum disturbance. They are not normally
employed for large scale maintenance or capi tal dredging work.

A further type of dredger is the plough or bccl level Ie r. This consists of a blade
r bar u.'hich is pulled behind a suitable tug or work-boat. The me thod can be
used for direct d reciging over short dis ta nces a rich for le i elling off the bed
to the design depth wire n a trailer or grab dredger is operating. I t may also
be used to pull material from close to qua ' walls and othe r places iv he re a trailer
cannot reach into a more accessible area. Some times the trailer itself operates
the leveller if no tug or work- boat is available.

15
Dredging

Pigtcre l2 The 6ed levcTTcr

conjunction with a trailer

die?Igei and for direct
dredging o} small fiqrbo«rs

A relatively recent development in dredging equipment is the water injection

dredger. This can be very effective in some situations. The technique involves
pumping water into the bed material in order to fluidize it and create a
turbidity current of higher density than the surrounding water. The bed mate-
rial then moves in its own current. The system works best in mud and fine
sand beds and has been used successfully in a number of port areas. Careful
assessment must be made of the likely destination of the turbid water.

Control of All modern dredgers are equipped with a range of sophisticated electronic
dredgers control and data-logging systems apprtipriate to their type. These assist with
positioning, loading and recorciing. VDU c4isplays showing the position and
at tit ude of a trailer draghead, cutter head, backhoe stick and bucket, or even
a grab are set in front of the t›perattir. S insilar displays shtiw in plan the loca-
tion of the dredger and, where appropriate, its track and heading. Depth of
cu t, current dredged depth anal slopes are a1st displayed on the same or
separate monitors.

All these aims leach to increased efficie ncy c4f operation as they miniru ize
overd redging. They reduce u nnecessary travel or cove rage (traversing an area
alrcacdy tt9 prt3file) ated ill4prove the precisiolâ t0f dtiI44ping, par ticti lar y
$vhen ftirining the lower layers of a rec laru atit4n ter where strict environmental
controls ex ist. Later chapters considc r the feat ures and applications cut these
systems in more c4etail.

Ancillary If a dreclging project is to proceed siiitiri rhly, the cire‹4ger must be su ppor ted by
equipment appropriate ancillary eqn ipine n t. In arlrlit ion to the dre‹4gers a complete
drer4g- ing fleet will incl ucie t ugs, barges, wtirk-boa ts, srirvey la u riches,
floating and shore pipelines ance assortecl pipeline vaIves anc4 fitti rigs. A typical
selec tion of srich eq uipinen t is describe‹J overleaf.

16
 Types of dredger

barges
Barges may be equipped with bottom doors, or they may be of the split type or
the closed type. The split hopper type is particularly suitable for the movement
and discharge of material which is prone to stick, such as heavy clays or large
rock fragments. Hopper barges may be self-prope lled or may be dumb (for use
with conventional or pusher tugs). They may be designed for sheltered water
or deep -sea use. The size of these vessels is expressed in terms of hopper
capacity, which ranges between 250 and 2000 m’.

Booster station A booster station can be of either floating or land based type. It incorporates
a pump able to transport the mixture of soil and water over a given distance.
Booster stations are introduced in the floating or land delivery pipelines
lead- ing from dredgers and can be repeated almost indefinitely to give very
long delivery distances.

Tugs are a necessity where non-self-propelled dredgers or duiaib barges are

used. They are generally small, less than 1000 hp. At the lower end of the
power scale they are usually heavy-duty work-boats and launches which
double as tugs. Fc:r heavy seas or open sea movements larger unirs will be
contracted or chartered. They are freque ntly engaged locally ratlae r than being
part of a contractor's fleet.

Survey launches A survey launch is an essential feat ure of a dredging set and numerous propri-
etary makes are availaio1e. Survey launches are now fitted out with highly
acc urate pr sitioning systems and computerized fixing, sounding and logging
equipme nt. Larger units may have an on-board compute r plo tting facility for
fast chart produc tion.

Therockbreaker A rockbreaker consists of a heavy polAtoon on wlAic A is n3r3unted either a drop

chisel or a pne uniatic or hydraulic hamnie r or bre ake r installation. Rock-
breakers are not eqn ipped with means for raising and transporting the broken
material, whic li is usually under taken by a dredger. Rockbrea ke rs may
be e mployeci when the use of explosives is nut pe rmitted and the mate rial is
too hard for direct dredging.

Summary Ma ny diffe ren t types r f drcctge r ex ist, eac li with its aciv:ua tages aml cms
adVFl14tages. The fil4Lll ClAc3iCC Of L$Fek QeP ftpr FIIvy paf LiC tllaF pPc3jCC C iS a balal3CC
be twecn t3pti144tIFH prt4d tic titâI4, ctls t a14d c4vail<4bility. U tâless there •1re sb9ec ific
reasons ftir rrot using ii par ticii lar ty pc of clredge r, t lie cli‹iice of type, size and
nuia her usua lly lies wi th t he typera ttir or con trim ttir.

17
 3. Cost and production
estimating

The estimator's While modern dredgers are very versatile—indeed it is a prerequisite for the
task major dredging contractors that their equipment should be as versatile as
possible—there will probably be only one or two types of dredger that can
undertake a particular project economically. The correct assessment of the
most economical procedure is the task of the contractor's estimator, and
ultimately is the key to the success of the dredging project.

The part science/part art of estimating production and cost relies firstly on
the discipline of gathering appropriate data both from the proposed site and
from similar previous operations. This must be done in a form which can
allow analysis. The second requirement is a fundamental appreciation of the
physical characteristics and operating costs of the dredging plant proposed.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, there is the rather more intuitive and
interpretative experience and ‘feel’ of the people involved in preparing the
estimate. What foI lows attempts to identify and summarize the
development and logic of a typical dredging estimate.

Before pu tting estimating pen to paper, it is essential to ensure that the ‘rules
of the game’ are established and are cle arly understood by the estimator. These
rules may be the specification and conditions of contract for a conventional
contract let under ICE 6th Edition, FIDIC 4th Edition or something similar,
or alternatively the terms of a private treaty, such as may exist between a port
au thority and its own direct labour dredging organization. These rules are the
framework that is essential for the proper estimating of both cost and produc-
tion. Should this framework be deficient or ambiguous in some way, the
estimator must attempt to clarify and define the estimate in order to avoid
equivocation or dubie ty by stating clearly the terms on which the estimate has
been prepared.

Cost analysis In advance of the execution of any dredging project, there will be site pre para-
tion, set-up and plant iaiobilization costs. Similarly, on the project's conclu-
sion, there will be various disestablishment and de mobilization costs. These
costs are normally estimated as (a series of) lump sums, and guidance as to
their estimation is given later. The most important elenient of the estimate is
the cost of execution of the works, wliic h is nor iually rectuired in the form of

!8
 Costs and produccion estimating

a unit rate. Very simply, this is an expression of cost per unit of time, divided
by said production forecast as achieved over the same unit of time, and then
su bject to adjustment for risk and profit. Costs are normally estimated over
sufficient time to allow averaging of the relative time/activity disposition fac-
tors that may affect the works. Most frequently this is per week, occasionally
per month.

It is common practice to establish initially the costs of the main item of

dredging plant, or ‘prime mover'; these are:
(a) Hire: the charge made to cover the invested capital costs of purchase of
the plant, its depreciation, and its ultimate replacement.
(8) Insurance: marine plant insurance including hull and disbursement,
marine third party and war risks.
(c) Repairs: usually divided into (i) fixed repair provisions, for such things as
engine and pump overhauls, planned maintenance and servicing of
electrical and hydraulic systems, and (ii) costs associated with wearing
parts such as engines and draghe ads, or pump linings and impe llers for
trailers, cutter teeth/pickpoints, pump parts and on-board pipework for
cutters, and bucket teeth and lips for mechanical dredgers.
(d) Fuel: the cost of fuel consumed over the estimating period, usually marine
gas oil or, for some modern dredgers, heavy fuel oil. Both are commonly
excise duty rebated. Fuel is a variable cost, directly i elated to the installed
horsepower, the number of effective (production) hours estimated as
achievable in the estimating period and/or the actual volume of material
dredged.
(e) Lubricants: lubricating oils and greases, and hydraulic oils, frequently
costed as a percentage of the fuel cost, thereby reflecting the variable usage
element.
Stores, supplies: cost of various stores and supplies used in maintaining
and cleaning the dredger—usually an establis hed charge based on
experience.
(g) Wages: crew charges are adjusted to allow for whatever shift system is
being operated—for example, a two-week on/one week off system requires
the cost of the leave time to be included as recoverable only by way of
working hours. Further costs include (i) any overtime/bonus payments not
included above, (ii) accommodation costs if crews do not live on board and
(iii) travel costs associated with transporting crews to and from the site.
The above list shows that a considerable proportion of these costs are
effectively fixed, being cale ndar-time related, and that they reflect the annual-
ized or fixed-ter m nature of factors such as bank interest rates, insurance
premiums, repair reserves and weekly or monthly salaries. In broad terms, only
the effective production hours related costs, such as the engine/wearing parts
costs and the fuel and lubricant costs, which are estimated by reference to
those hours or to the actual volume of material dredged, will vary. I t is thus
clear that, all other things being equal, it is more cost effective to operate
dredging plant on a twenty-four hour, seven-day week basis, in order that the
fixed cost element is spread over the maximum possible number of potential
working hours. General guidance as to rhe costs of different types of dredger
is given in reference 1.

The dredger will inevitably require support vesse1s, plant and equipment. Most
of these costs can be calculated in ways similar to those outlined above. The

|9
Dredging

complements of plant required by each dredging technique are given in

Box 5.1.

Box 3. I Support vessels, plant and equipment required %r dredging operations

Trailing suction hopper
Disposal at sea
• vesse!(s) for hydrographic survey of dredging sice(s) and, sometimes, disposal site, and co
effect personnel transfer:
Disposal onshore/reclamation

• as above, with the addicional task of assiscing che trailer in coupling up to ice discharge
pipeline, or in manoeuvring alongside a quay or mooring/transfer pontoon; togecher with;
• floacing pipelin ither self-buoyant, or combinacion steel pipeline. wich ball ¡oincs/flexes.
and steel floacs
• ‘sinker' pipeline (if required)
• pump ashore connection
• mooring/cransfer poncoon (if required)
• marsh/land pipeline
• land-based pipeline handling equipmenc
• land-based earth moving equipment
• reclamacion area installations
• floodlights, weir boxes.

Cutter suction
• Vessel(s) for hydrographic survey of dredging sice(s), personnel transfer. anchor and
discharge line handling, and dredger relocation.
• Where disposal of che dredged macerial is ashore, chen discharge pipeline and reclamation
planc coscs as outlined for trailer succion hopper above are relevant.
• A spreader poncoon, allowing controlled placement under wacer of dredged material, may
be required where the cutter is being employed on crench excavacion for projects such as
sewage outfalls and gas/oil pipelines, where the dredged macerial is convencionally side casc
co cemporary scorage areas, and then subsequently redredged and recurned as backfill to
che trench.

Bucket badder
• Vessel(s) for hydrographic survey, personnel cransfer, anchor handling and dredger
relocacion, anchor pontoon, self-propelled barges or tugs/dumb barges.
Backhoe/dipper/grab
• Vessel(s) for hydrographic survey, personnel cransfer and dredger relocacion. Self-propelled
barges or tugs/dumb barges.

Fignie I J The f‹irge trailer

20
 Costs and production estimating

Pipeline costs vary substantially depending on the type of pipeline in question,

its usage and the dredging technique associated with it. A substantial hire (i.e.
purchase/replacement) element may be required. On a large project it is quite
possible to have to turn and even replace a pipeline within the lifetime of the
project. Apart from insurance, and consumables such as flange packing and
bolts, the remainder of the cost is wear related and therefore volumetric
production related.

Reclamation costs normally allow for the costs of the plant and equipment
outlined for trailing suction hopper dredging in Box 3. 1, and also the costs of
a reclamation crew and plant operators, usually to accommodate twenty-four
hour working, and in the case of trailers for cyclic cargo deliveries.

Other support plant such as barge unloaders, usually used for pumping out
barges for disposal of material ashore, and ploughs/bed leveHers, usually used
in conjunction with trailers, can be costed as with other floating support
vessels as outlined earlier.

Survey The importance of position fixing and of adequate hydrographic surveys—pre-

dredge, interim and post-dredge—cannot be overstated. Where the essence of
the dredging operation is to create a finite under water excavation, removal of
material from outside the required lines and levels, be that removal vertically
or horizontally, serves little useful purpose. Some overdredging is inevitable—
dredging to a finite line or level involves, by practical definition, excavation
beyond that line or level. Such overdredging should be kept to a minimum in
the interests of cost effectiveness; or put another way, said production should
be kept to a maximum. It is essential that practical tolerances for dredging to
line and level be specified, taking account of the dredging location, ground
conditions, dredging technique and the natural exigencies of tide, swell and
wave conditions.

Monitored and controlled dredging, particularly where trailer and cutter

suction dredgers are used, is becoming progressively more predeterminable
and sophisticated. The main tools for maximizing production and minimizing
overdredging remain the position fixing of the dredging plant, the survey
vessel and, of course, the hydrographic survey itself. This is particularly the
case for the trailer dredger which dredges on the move, as opposed to all other
types of dredging equipment which dredge effectively from a fixed, albeit
transient, position.

In estimating survey/position fixing costs it is necessary to include for the

position fixing equipment on board the dredgers and attendant survey vessels;
real-time visual and recorded display, track plotter (for trailer dredgers), trans-
mitting tide gauges and receivers, echo-sounder, gyro, plotter, lasers,
distoniats, theodolites and radio equipme nt. It is also necessary to include the
sur veyors!

It is worthwhile noting that a delayed, and therefore progressively more his-

toric survey is of diminishing use in confirming dredging progress or achieve-
ment. Because surveying is under most circumstances more weather, sea and
daylight dependent than the dredging operations, it is necessary to equip the
site with sufficient surveyors and survey eqn ipment to provide the most rapid

2
I
22
Dredging

survey response compatible with the dredging plant on site and the scale of
the works.

Site The next consideration for establishing cost is the site management. Essential
management functions and responsibilities include project management, plant superintend-
ence, technical support, survey (if not covered elsewhere), planning/
production engineering, safety, quality assurance/quality control, site admini-
stration, accounts/bookkeeping and transport/logistical support or supplies.
On a small trailer-maintenance operation, it may well be possible for one
experienced man to perform all these functions (sometimes including survey).
Most projects require a variety of personnel, albeit some on a patt-time basis
throughout, or full-time when certain mobilization, operational or concluding
imperatives dictate.

Finally, there are the office and (largely) third-party costs. These include site
offices, services, communications, pilotage, light dues, harbour dues (some-
times waived if the authority has a vested interest in the dredging), cargo
landing charges and docking and berthing fees (again sometimes waived).

The weekly site operational cost of a dredging project is therefore the sum of
the costs for:
(a) dredging plant
(b) support vessels, plant and equipment
(c) survey and position fixing
(d) site management
(e) site offices and third party costs.

Other costs Two postscripts before production are considered. lt is appropriate for allow-
ance for both these costs to be made at or towards the end of the unit rate
calculation.

Royalties
Where charged, royalties generally arise out of the material dredged having
some beneficial further use, and are usually quantified on the same basis as
measurement for the works. They should be added once the unit rate has been
established.

Contract insurances Employers' and third-party (non-marine) insurances, and contractors' all-risk
insurance (where appropriate and obtainable) , are usually paid for on a turn-
over-related declaration basis.

Production In assessing the likely production rates, the estimator will recognize that there
assessment are a number of factors which affect dredging production that are common to
nearly all dredging operations. I t should be appreciated that most dredgers are
uniQue in terms Of their combinations of size, weight, power, seaworthiness
and dredging technique, and are themselves a substantial influence on the
dredging production, most usually in direct proportion to their suitability for
the task.

22
 Costs and production estimating

Figwe 19 At what rate

can the material be loosened
and fi/ted*

Historical data of dredger (and not necessarily the same dredger) performance
in similar (or the same) materials are very important in building up production
estimates. The accurate and objective record of operational activities and
delays, properly interpreted, is likely to be the best predictor of achievable
production. It is essential, for exarrlple, to identify the sailing: dredging: turn-
ing: dumping proportions of a trailer dredgir+g cycle as well as the time lost due
to the different natural influences, or due to plant repairs and breakdowns. The
record assists greatly with subsequent analysis and can provide an accurate and
true assessment of the production actually achieved per effective hour.

The site conditions that affect weekly production can be broadly classified as
those which affect the physical production process itself and those which
affect the working hours available.

The physical production in determined mainly by four site conditions.

(a) Oround/soil conditions. There is no single factor (with the possible
exception of site exposure to weather) that has a greater effect on the
choice of dredger and technique than the ground conditions prevailing on
the site. It is essential that proper and fully extensive site investigations are
carried out for the dredging area, and not just of the pote ntial foundation
conditions for, for example, the associated quay clevelopment! This investi-
gation is necessary to provide suficient accurate information on material
type and disposition. It is vital to establish vertical (and sometimes hciri-
zontal) horizons, or changes of soil type, so that best use may be made of
the dredged a risings, and production can be maximized.
(fi) Dredging face depth and width. As with any excavation, above or below
water, the depth anci wraith of the face to be removeci z ill affect the
excavator's production. In general the smaller the cie ptli ance width of face,
the !ower the production will be. Acc urate pre -coasting liydrograpliic sur-
vey information is essential for the accu rate assessme nt of production,
particularly so tlaat the proportion of paid c4re‹4ginp• to unpaid (over) -
dredging can be estimated.

23
Dredging

(c) Siltation. Siltation or sedinientatic›n during the d redging ciperations can

significantly affect dredging production, or other wise confuse the issue.
(d) Munitions and debrts. Where the presence of old munitions is suspected,
special precau tions, such as welding bars across draghead suction mou ths,
iiiay have to be taken with ctinsequential loss of production. Other debris,
such as wires, ropes and miscellonetius jetsam can have delete rious effects
on produc tion, btath by way of actual stoppage and/or climinislied
proc4ucti‹an.
The availability of working hours is determinect by six main groups of factors.
(n) Operational. Available productive latirirs will be reducecl by any tab a
i4ti illber c3f c3[0er°1 titII4‹Jl ‹4cti$ ities, incl tieding: 144ove144e14t t3f the dredger fr€H44
dredging area to c4recâging area; ni‹ive ment of the dredger within the d redg-
ing area thrtirigh spurt moveme nt, ancheir relocation or sa iling; bun kering
fair ftiel, Yvate r a13d vic ttials, creW clâangc ter perst3I4I4e1 tra13sfer; ITIaii4£e-
1â•4lace (pl<1l4IfieC1 ter txt âer1I'ise) ; re[3•1irS—£9fte14 II iâa$'t3 i0dable t4l4 a14 élU lVlc
basis par tic u lar l}' if qua nt ities ‹4f iibrosivc or roe ky rna terial are lie ing
h•âl4rd leaf ; blOck‹1ges \Vl4ic lâ 111tiSt 19c re111t4ve cl ; tJbst rHe titans $v14iclA FIAUs t bc
Wc3PkC€g Pt3kI14kl ; l4lt3Vc UTC13.1 £314 , €3tf £IF <âlr3rlgS id e c]fecggfi £S, /0Lâfgcs, f3F t3tlfiC r
ancillar ' cr‹aft; ,ind flee t ing/turning of barges during ltiac4ing.

(c) Environmental factors. Prox irnity to hotlsing i iij5 ncccss ita te tise of noise
£cc tlCilâg HICFlStIrCS, £^F U4‹ly p3£cVfi14.1 Ccrttâil3 typCS tIf €dFCclQilâg UT [3Fe-
trea tme nt tech niceties being tisecl a t nigli t or eve n al together. O the r fac tr

rs,

24
 Costs and production estimating

the potential predicted tidal loss for any combination of dredger of gLven
draught and working depth, known existing bed levels, and specified
design levels to be dredged.
(e) Currents. Currents vary in strength and direction and there are many
locations where dredging is restricted or is temporarily prevented al-
together by the existence of strong currents. There is a general paucity of
information available or provided about currents, so local knowledge and
experience are particularly important.
Weather. The imponderable to end all imponderables! Weather losses can
result from: wind, generating physical movement of plant with high mind
block factors, and, more significantly, sea conditions of both short and long
period frequency wave types, both of which may restrict or stop dredging
operations altogether; fog, preventing vessel movement for safety reasons;
and extremes of temperature, particularly cold resulting in icing in, or of,
the plant.

The dredging cycle Inherent in estimating the production of a particular dredger is the concept of
the dredging ‘cycle’. For a trailing suction hopper dredger it is necessary
to establish suction production for the time spent actually dredging (as
opposed to sailing and turning during the loading part of the cycle) in order to
achieve the estimated hopper load. Added to this will be the transport and
disposal part of the cycle. Overall, a production per (effective) cyclic hour can
then be estimated. In combination with an estimate of the number of
achievable effective hours per week, which takes account of natural and
artificial delays (as described earlier), it is then possible to estimate a
production per week.

A cutter suction dredger will alsti have a suction/pump productitin per

effective hour, but its operational cycle will be rather shorter in time terms,
and will need to take account of re turn cu tter swings, spu d steps, anchor
relocation and other non-productive parts of the tiperating time. Prcidu ction
will be contrt›1led by either the rate at which material can be loosened, the
suction ra te, or rhe delivery rate, and the estimator has to determine frtim the
site and material characteristics wh ich part of the process will be c ritical.
Again, in combination wirh an estimate of the achievable effective hours per
week, it is the z p‹›ssihlc co estimate a weekly pruducciutz.

Mechanical dledgers, all with some form cif bucket, will req uire estimates of
appropriate bucket cha in speeds, and swing speed (in the cas‘e tif a buckc t
d reciger) , and of swing—lower—c rowd/close—lift—swing—discharge times (in
the case of grab, backhoe ter ct ippc r dredgers) . Together with an estimate of
the buc ket fill fac tor, itself a reflection primarily tif the dredged mate rial
and
“ drec4ging face cleptli, these will provide a cut or bucket cycle production.
Whe n the cycle prod uction is combined with the estimate of the achievable
effective htiurs per week, a weekly production can be estimo teci.

Before finalizing the dreciging unit rate, it is necessary to consider the method
of nieasureiiient to be used in establishing payment fair the material dredged.
Unless a time -related day work rate is adopted wli ich rcnclers the tinit rate
unnecessary, measu remcn t of dredging works will involve the ca lc ulation of
the qua n tity of material eitl cr as removed] from its in-sitti state, as transpcirted
or as placecI in a fill area. All the methods have their strengths and

25
Dredging

26
Dredging

weaknesses, as discussed later, and the estimator must adjust his said produc-
tion estimate to allow for the method of measurement used.

The question of the amount, if any, of overdredging tolerance which may be

specified as being paid at the same unit rate as the volume of material removed
from above or within the design lines and levels also needs to be considered
by the estimator. On balance, it is probably most appropriate to allow for a
modest amount of paid tole rance dredging if only to acknowledge a reality.
Whether or not some overdredging tolerance is directly paid as measured
quantity, the fact remains that elf estimated overdredging will, in the end, be
paid for through an increased unit rate. There is something to be said for
identifying, where possible, a more truly representative unit rate by mini-
mizing, or at least reducing to sensible proportions, the volume of unpaid
dredging to be accommodated. This is particularly relevant if the unit rate is
to be used to develop other rates for similar or contiguous work.

Dredging tolerances are clearly of relevance to the measurement of in-situ

quantities by pre - and post-dredge surveys comparison, but a similar philo-
sophy to that espoused above may be appropriate in specifying final reclama-
tion area fill levels.

Establishing the The estimator should now have the wherewithal to establish the basic unit
rates rate (or rates) for the work, having divided the estimated weekly cost by the
estimated weekly paid production. This rate may be one of a dozen or more,
where, for example, a standard method of measurement, such as CESMM, is
used. It is also not unusual for a single rate to be requested for dredging many
million cubic metres from over several kilometres of channel, running from
sheltered harbour waters to open and exposed sea, with the material being a
variable mixture of silts, sands, gravels, soft, firm and strong clays, with stone,
cobbles, boulders, rock fragments and weathered and massive rock outcrops,
and with different design depth requirements and varying face or cut widths
or deprhs!

Mobil if ation, site installation and demobilization costs must again be consid-
ered. These are normally costed and priced as lump sums, and should allow
for:

— physic a I mobilization of the dredger itself, either under its own power or by
towing, after be ing made seaworthy
— mobilization of support plant and equipme nt
— pre parat ion for mobiliza tion, including fue1ling, inspection and
certification
tow insurance
— crew costs, including ' ruruie r' or sailing crew
— harbou r dues
— port charges
— pilotage on arrival and port entry
— pre - d redge and post-care dge surveys
— site office installation and set-up costs
— preparatic n costs for a ny rec laination
— any costs associated with payrne nt of impor t dut ies or other taxes or the
provision of bonds or su reties.

26
 Coscs and production estimating

Client

Receive lender

No
Can we do it?

Yes

Contract conditions
ICE, FIDIC, DOE elc
Obtain more detail/
clarification/information
Sufficient information No
lo prepare initial offer?

Yes I

Arrange department
activities

Legal/financial/
Cost estimate Production estimate contractual review

OWer conditions
Site visit

Firsl review

Initial estimate

Yes
Further review
No

Compile offer

Management approval
of offer

Submit offer

27
Dredging

Sigme J 7 The dreJging

c ycle iime for a tiailei-
depends i‹poii 6orfi the
disfonce to the âisposal orea
and roe dredger's speed

In addition, any financing of the works as a result of either delayed or slow

payments may require to be met by appropriate adjustment of the mobilization
payment, effectively treating it as am advance payment.

Having established basic cost rates for the whole of the works, the estimator
must then revieu' and analyse the estimate to establish, as far as is reasonably
possible, the degree of risk involved in the estimates of:
— costs with the added risk of fluctu a tions in any rates of exchange, differ-
ences between operating costs and payment currencies
— ground/soil conditions and dispositions
— siltation rates
— operational losses
— time lost due to natural phenoine na viz. tides, currents, weather
— measurement anomalies including unpaid overdredging
— enviroruuental factors
— contracts al conflicts
— whether the employer can be relied upon to pay!
Analysis of all these varying aspects will normally resulr in a risk factor. This
is usually expressed as a perce ntage and added to the basic cost unit rate (and,
In part, as appropriate to the (de) mobilization sums) by multiplying the basic
cost unit rate b5' the appropriate factor. An allowance for head -office over-
heads and support, an nude niable cost ivhethe r considering private or public
sector operations, should the n be added to both the revised unit rate and (de) -
mobilization sums. Finally, a small allowance for profit must be added!

Two costs postscripts: royalties, if applicable, can be addecl before or after the
addition of any profit, but account should be ta ke n of any handling costs that
may be necessary in cc›l1ection, collatican ance payment of any royalties; while
insurance is usually expressed as a pcrce ntage and addeci ter the final ‘selling
price' or tendered rates and sums.

This is the the or ' a nd indee‹4 the prac rice of d redging estimating. However, as
a Par tlaian shot, the re after is re rnlnr4ed th a t previous expe rie rice very
ofterr se nsibl5' on tu'ciglis the most sc icntific a net ocadem ic of estimating or
produ c

28
4. Environmental
considerations

Dredging inevitably disturbs the marine environment. Both the excavation

and disposal phases of the operation have the potential to affect all forms of
marine life through both physical impact and the release of possible cont-
aminants. There is an increasing awareness of the need to safeguard the
environment from the adverse effects of human activities. Because dredging is
in effect a very large underwater earrh-moving operation, there is understand-
able concern about its potential for adverse impacts on the environment. With
proper management and control, however, dredging and disposal can be
carried out without adversely affecting the environment. But a balance always
needs to be struck between the cost of protecting that environment and the
benefits obtained by ports, port users and society from dredged channels.

In many countries dredging operations and the associated disposal of dredged

material are subject to a range of statutory and other controls. These atise
from the need to safeguard the marine environment, to prevent interference
with other legitimate sea users, and to enforce the rights of the owners of the
sea-bed. The controls may be divided broadly between those which apply to
the dredging operation and those which are concerned with the disposal of the
dredged material or its re-use in a beneficial manner.

Disposal of dredged material at sea falls within the remit of the London
Convention.* This is a global convention, now ratified by more than seventy
countries, which was set up in the 1970s primarily to regulate the dumping of
noxious substances, such as chemical waste, in the oceans. The disposal of
dredged material is now receiving increasing attention as other forms of waste
disposal at sea are being phased out or very strictly regulated. Other more
local conventions are also in place. One example is the OSPAR Convention3
which derives front the merging of the Oslo Convention for the Prevention of
Marine Pollution by Dumping From Ships and Aircraft4 and the Paris Con-
vention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution front Land-based Sources.’
This deals with the north-east Arlantic and North Sea and is open to
countries which border on these sea areas or who have rivets which discharge
to them.

Within the framework of the international conventions, many countries have

now developed their own contrtils to a‹Jdress the potential environmental

29
Dredging

concerns associatec4 with clredging and disposal activities. In the United

Kingdom the iii‹iin legislation for sea disposal is the look and Environment
Protection Act, 1.985. The issue of licences uncler this legislation in England
and \Vales is the responsibilit} of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and
Fooc4 (MAFF) , in Scotland it is the responsibility of the Scottish Office
Agriculture ancl Fislie ries Depar true nt (SOAF D) and in Northern Ireland, the
Depar tmeia t of the Enviroiiiiient (DoEN I) .

The dredging Dreciging may give rise to impacts both in the short term, i.e. during and
operation immediately after the dreclging process, a nd in the longe r term, chiefly as a
result of changes in the h5'r4 raulic regime res u1ting from altered bathymetry.
The conseq ue nce of t hese inapa cts on the local community, on coastal
proces- ses, on water quality and on marine life a I[ require cons iteration. A
systematic approach at rlie project plambing stage of a dredging project will
help to rrñnimize avoic4able delay to the opc ration. Planning should through
liaison ii'itl ‹ ther users ‹ f the area, co ns ider which i impacts are likely to
result and any possi[a Ie inc as tires for rrñtiga tion. Table 4.1 provides a s hor t
checklist of the pts tential iuapac ts which need ter be considered. The lis t is not
exha us tive bu t is in te nde c4 to prt vicie a basis from wla ich tr approach t he
review.

Table 4. I Potentio/ impacts

f*redging
Issue Concern
Short term
Turbidity: settlement of Blankecing Navigacion
particulates Fisheries (parcicularly
shellfisheries)
Bentham/nacure conservacion
Amenity
Turbidity: water column Bioavailibility of contaminants
Fish movement
Nature conservation
Removal of benthos and Nature conservation
boctom-living species Fish food
Removal of artefacts Disturbance of Loss of archaeological
archaeological sites remains

Direcc interference and Physical presence of Navigation

operational effects dredger/dredging Fishing accivity
equipment Recreational accivity
Oil spill Ameniy
Noise Wildlife
Dusr

Long term
Altered bathymecry Currents Coastal defence
Waves Inter-cidaI/sub-tidal habitacs
Sediment erosion/deposition Nacure conservation
Salinity penetration Fish resources, fisheries
Archaeological sices
Navigation
Amenity

30
 Environmental considerations

Effects on the local human community include those familiar with land-based
operations. Noise nuisance, for example, would include the effects of blasting
or the use of relatively noisy dredging equipment, such as the bucket dredger,
close to residential areas. In this situation mitigation could include the
restriction of activity to daytime and week-day working only, although both
these controls are likely to have major cost impacts for the project.

Within the marine environment, short-term effects arise mainly from the
release end settlement of sediments d uring dredging. This can give rise to
changes in water quality, such as increased turbidity and possible release of
contaminants (rom the sediments as anaerobic (oxygen deficient) sediment is
suspended in aerobic (oxygen rich) water. Contaminants released into solu tion
during dredging or remaining on suspended particulate material can contami-
nate or cause mortality tO aQuatic animals, including fishery resources. Physi-
cal consequences to consider include the subsequent settlement of this
suspended material, which can cause fouling of navigable areas, and blanket-
ing of adjacent areas such as reefs or recreational beaches.
Dredging

The importance of the biological effects resulting front these physical and
chemical changes is related to the degree of contamination of the sediments
and the sensitivity of the area. There may be adjacent shellfish beds whic h
could be blanketed b) sedime nt, or areas of nature conservation interest
where low natural turbidity supports flora and fauna that are adapted to clear
waters. Deposition of sediments in such areas would be grossly detrimental. To
reduce potentially harmful impacts, special dredging techniques, designed to
minimize loss of sedimentary material cluring dredging, may be rectriired. In
areas where currents are not too strong, silt curtains may be used to reduce
sediment dispersal. It may also be appropriate to restrict or prevent overflow
from a dredger's hopper or from the disposal barges.

Where the sedimentary material is contaminated, but dredging is still essential

(for example, in industrial harbours) , the rna in aims should be to avs id spre ad-
ing the contamination, by minimizing clis tur bance to sedime nts and the loss of
sedime ntary mate rial into the warer, and to obtain the dredged material in a
form suitable for disposal or treatment, usually by iiiinimizing the amoun t of
water entra ined with the sediment. Techniques for dealing with contaminated
sediments have been developed and a range of specialist treatrne n ts are now
available.

Long-term effects on the iiiarine environment from dredging are those which
result from changes in the hydraulic regime as a result of t he alterec4 bathy
metry. They include wave refraction and reflection effects, the a1teratio n of
current and sediment transport paths arrd c hanges to siltatio n patterns. Again,
consideration needs to be give n to whether such changes wo u1d have conse-
quences for navigation, coast protection, marine life or amenity. Stib su rfacc
groundwater flows near the coast may also be affected by d redging in the
coastal area.

Disposal at sea Much of the material dredged in coastal areas is replaced in the sea, either at
sites for disposa 1 or ivhe re the mterial may be reloc atec4 for coast ‹ r flood
protection purposes, wildlife habitat creation and either for ms of be neficial
use. Much depe nds upon the nature of the material c4redged, u liic h ma '
include rock, gravel, sand and consolida tech mate rials suc la as Irina ps of hon
lder clay, as well as the fine cohesive sed iinen t wi th which an ' con taminati‹
n is likely to be associated.

A n assessine n t of the effects of disposal will nee‹4 to take into ctinsicle ra

ticiia the characteristics both of the mate rial to be dredgect ance the
poten tial depos it site. It u'ill include co nsicler atio n of the effcc ts of the
cJe posit on navigation, coast p rotec tion, fis hing, fish resources, ‹uue nity',
nat u re co riser va tion a nd the legitimate use of t lie sea fa others. Care fu l
atte n tion rice c4s t‹ be paic4 to the location cif the c4isposal site, and s‹iine
guicl:uace on the c rite ria to be consic4er ccl in t lie selec tion and des ignatioii
c›f su itable sites is give n within the co nve n titans.

Sortie parts of the marine environment are par tic tilar1 ' se us i tive to t lie
deposition of bedtime ntar5' rrra te rial, fair example live cora1 reefs ‹incl other areas
adapted tc› cc›ndi rions of lou' natural tu r bir4it '. In these situatio us, ciisposal :it
sea, even of uncon tarniijatec4 materia1, iiiri} give rise to se vere lalanket ing effec ts
ten I34arine bit)tP1, alâk$ hcnce I3âa)' Hot be a l4 a 0[0 rr3pr ia tG c]ispoSl4l IJâetl4t3n/.

32
 Environmencal considerations

Chemical ancl physical characterization of the sediments is a necessary early

step in considering the sea disposal of dredged material. In estuary and
harbour areas subject to mainte nance dredging, dredged materials are usually
fine grained, and typicall} contain a heterogeneous mixture of contaminants
arising front industrial, agricultural and domestic activities. Capital dredging
in such an area—the extension of a port facility, for example—may require the
dredging of both contaminated surface sediments and less contaminated or
uncontaminated mate rials lying below the surface sediments. Coarser sedi-
ments, typically dredged from sand bars at harbour entrances and outer chan-
nels, are unlikely to be highly cC*ntaminated, and are often more suitable for
beneficial use rather than disposal.

In those countries wher e regulatory controls are in place, the effects of sea
disposal or the use of the material at sea are usually considered by the licens-
ing au thority. The deposit site should be chosen with care, and well char-
acterized. Any licence for sea disposal should carry operational conditions
designed to prevent or, if unavoidable, minimize any adverse effects on the
marine environment. Monitoring may be necessary to determine if the oper-
ational conditions are sufficient to avoid detrimental effects and to ensure
compliance with licence conditions.

InCernational The inte rnational conventions give general guidance on the substances of
controls particular concern in terms of potential harmful impact. Under the London
Convention, the disposal of wastes listed urrder Annex I is prohibited (with
certain exemptions) , while substances listed in Annex II reQuire special care
and a prior special permit. Annex III lists the ge neral provisions to be
considered in establishing the criteria governing the issue of permits for
disposal.

Guidelines have been developed for both the London Convention and the
Oslo Convention to aid their interpretation for the disposal of dredged
material. The London Convention guidelines give consideration to the develop-
ment of a dredged mate rial assessment framewor k. The Oslo Commission
6
Guidelines for the Manage ment of Dredged Material were adopted by the
Commission in June 1991. Part A deals with the assessment and management
of dredged material and Part B with the monitoring of dredged material
disposal operations. Guidance is provided on the assessment of the character-
istics and composition of dredged material and on sampling and analysis. The
Guidelines stnte that information should be obtained on gross wet tonnage,
method of dredging and visual sediment characteristics.

In the absence of appreciable pollution sources, dredged material may be

exempted front testing if it meets one of the following criteria.
(n) I t is composed almost excl us ive ly c f sand, gravel or rock.
(b) It is for beac h ntiri rishnie nt or restoration.
(c) The amo u n t is less than 10 000 t/year and there is existing information
on sediment quality.
Where the dredged mate rial r4oes not mee t the above exemptions, further
infor matic n is requirecd. Usually this involves che mical cliaracte rization,
particular Iy for new arisings. The purpose ‹af clieiaiical characterization is to
Dredging

Figure J9 Most
trailer dredgers nre riot
able ro pump material
ashore

effects, particularly the possibility of chronic or acute effects on marine

organisms or on human health. Attention is paid to potential
bioaccumulation in marine organisms, especially in food species. The
technical supplement to the Oslo Commission Guidelines on dredged
material disposal lists the appro- priate determinants for the majority of
sediments. If subsequent analysis of the material shows the presence of what
are termed primary- or secondary-group substances in considerable
quantities, or the presence of substances whose biological effects are not fully
understood, it may be necessary to carry out bio- logical test procedures.
These procedures may include laboratory tests for acute toxicity, chronic
toxicity and bioaccumulation. Such tests can involve considerable time,
which must be allowed for with licence applications.

Disposal to land Disposal of d redged material to land areas norinally used for industrial or
domestic waste disposal is often unacceptable due to the high water content
of the dredged material and to difficulties in transporting it to the site. To
overcome these proble ins, some countries have developed purpose built land-
based disposal areas for dredged material which are accessible by pumping
front wate r-bor ne vessels. A dissdvantage is the requiremenr for large land
areas. The poor settlement characteristics of fine material typical of main-
tenaice dredging requires the creation of large lagoons to permit sufficient
settleine nt prior tti dewatering. The potential for contamination of ground-
neater will be a consideration for the regulatory an thority.

Where sediine nts are contaminatec4 and where sufficie nt sand is present,
treatnie nt of the dredged material inal be undertake n to separate the fine
34
Environmental considerations

35
Dredging

contaminated mate rial from the coarser, less corr tarrñnated element. This
a flows subseque nt dispos al or use of the cle an sand, ance separate disposal of
the contaminated fine sediment. Grossly contaminated sediruen ts may requ ire
contained disposal or clea n up. Solve ia t u'ashing and incineration of the
concentrated contarrñnan t, u ith separate disposal of the cleaned sedime nt,
are other iuethocls available toes a '.

Benefiial reuse Many possible beneficial uses can be found for dredged material, particularly
of dredged for granular sedime nts. Use in the marine e rrvirc›niuent for coast protection,
materia beach nourish me n t or the crcatit n of her ins for reduc tion of u'ave e ne r ,
iaaa} be particularly appropriate given the relative ease of mov cment of
large volu ines of mate rial b sea. Where the drecl ing fci rrats part of a larger
project, consideration shou ld be gis en to the reuse of the dredged material cvi
thin the project, for example as backfill for tre nches or as fill material for lancl
creation. Material such as clay na a be useful locally, for example in sea wall
coi- strtction/maintenance or for local fi11.

Fine par tic u1ate material such as main te nance dredgecl silts and est uarine
muds are more difficult to use on land cl ue to the ir poor engine ering properties
and the time taken to deiva ter, al though techniques r4o ex ist to prod uce top-
soil t 'pe products in appropriate circumstances. These finer materials may,
however, be suitable for use in the murine env iro rinient for the creation of
habitat, such as inte r- tidal use tlanc4, ance there is increasing interest in the
development of appropriate tec lanicjues. Wetland creation or en hancenient
has bee n used extensively in the Un itecl S tatcs for dredged material dispos
al.

Guidance on the be neficial use of d redged material and proced wires for
developing econorrñc and effective u'ays to u tilize dreclged mate rial is provided
b5 the report of the Pe r manen t I n ternational Association of Navigation
Congress (PIANC) Wor king Group 19: Beneficial Uses of Dredged Material.’

34
Summary Adverse environmental impacts from dredging can occur at both the site of
dredging and at the material disposal site. The type and magnitude of those
effects depends on a number of factors, including the location of the
dredging and disposal sites, the physical and chemical nature of the dredged
material and the techniques used for dredging.

Careful selection of dredging equipment and operational method can

ameliorate some adverse effects. Where sea disposal is used it is particularly
important to select the disposal site with care in order to minimize effects on
other legitimate users of the sea.

Chemical and physical characterif ation of the sediments to be dredged is

necessary to determine whether adverse effects on marine organisms or on
human health could occur at disposal. Such characterization of the sediments
at rhe planning stage allows selection of the optimum techniques for dredging
and disposal, the selection of mitigating measures where necessary and the
planning of appropriate monitoring programmes.

lt should always be remembered that dredging cannot take place without a

suitable area to receive the excavated material. Increasing environmental
interest in such areas means that careful consideration must be given to
applications for disposal, and due attention paid to this aspect of the dredging
operation by both clients and contractors.

37
 5. Forms of contract

Dredging work can usually be categorized e it her as capital works or as main-

tenance. Within these two very broad divisions there are a variety of tech-
nic{ues wli ich a cor+ tractor can use to select the working method which best
su its the requirements of the project anti therefore the dredging plant needed
to ccunp fete t lie work.

The wor k to be dc ne is nor rnally the subject of a contract. This can be a main
contract or, as is frequently the case in capital works, a subcontract to a main
c‹›i tractor. Both firms provide a legally e nforceable agreeme nt between the
two parties (eniploye r and contractor or contractor and subcontractor) , set-
ting taut how they u'ill jointly achieve the execution of the works.

This c‹ ntrac t or agreement needs define the allocation of risk between the
parties. I n dredging ivc4rks, identification, allocation and management of large
risks are central issues. Dredging can appear as straightforward excavation
carried out under water; in reality it is often far front simple and must be car-
riers out b5' specialists, using sophisticated and expensive equipme nt. Identi-
fication of rhe risks c4u ring the initial stages of defining contract strategy and
clrafti ug of te ride r doc uinents is therefore cif paramount importance and needs
consic4e rable experience.

The conseque nces of these factors can frequently have a high impact on costs
anal ‹ n the time of contract comple tion. This is faecause t f the high capital
cost of dredging ectuiprrre nt and the high ru nning costs (per u nit of time) of
ope rating this eqn ipriie n t.

The cc›sts of ow nirug ance operating c4rec4ging equipment are largely time
rela test. It is the refore import an t to identify the risks likely to prevent dredging
|nlan t from o[3e ratirig at opt iiii urn effic ienc and coinpleting the task within the
tinge aIll ca tecl. Aft c r t his is ac Itievecl it is possible for the contrac t drafter to
‹Jll‹3c•4te ill the ct3lâ trLIc t res[0k3I4s ibility btlr I34aIA agil4g a14d beariIA g the risks.

Sfinte of these uncc rt:a in rics are cicalt u'itli in gene riil terms in o tlier sec
tions, ot leers ue specific to p ar tic ulur circriinstances. Hruveve r, certain
c›bv ious irn ›o rta n t consicleratious inc luclc:
— t lie plays ic a I ‹a net c1inter tic ccnacl it items at t he site or sites
— IlAetl4t4cls t*f l44c lStIre I44e let ‹Ilâcd acce[Sta Ince c ritL ria (especially Sil Nation a14c

37
Dredging

— dredging tolerances
— environmental and planning constraints
— dredged material losses and ground settlements where a risings are placed
as reclamation.

It follows that the closer rhese (and other job specific) criteria can be defined
at the time of drafting t he bid docu ments, the more manage able and identi-
fiable are the risks—cq u a113', the more realistic and competitive will be tender-
ers' prices. Prec isicon in defining the parameters is not always feasible, which
makes it particularly important that the contract is drafted by persons with an
understanding of the key' factors and infor mation that affect costs and prices.
Re cogni tion of the se s hor tee›in ings, followe d by risk app or tionrne
nt a net rna nagement policies (such as defining ranges of conditions for which
each parry will be responsible) can then be properly introduced into the
CO13 t1'H C t .

Standard forms A1thou•h there are several commonly used standard for ins of contract for con-
of contract ve ntional civil engine ering wor ks, no sue h form has been specifically develop-
ed for dredging. As a consequence it is common practice to use standard forms
Capital works and make var 'ing c4egrees of amend ments to produce a dredging contract.

ICE and FI DIC are pre babl the most u idely used standard forms and the
r4redging amendine n ts generally follow those stated in FIDIC 4tla edition, Part
lI (Application with Guidelines for Preparation of Part II Clauses). The
International Association of Drec4ging Companies (IADC) produced guide-
lines fair FIDIC recomme rided amendruen ts together with additional sample
clauses. The IADC has developed this further and produced a computer
program complete with a fly w chart so that the user can develop, by simply
va uestions, appropriate Part II Conditions of
Par ticular Application for

ICE anv4 FIDIC contain many cCauses »'hich have no particular relevance to
clre edging contracts (e.g. ciesign responsib ility, rempr rar y ivor ks, defects cor-
rec tion, q ua li ty cat mate ria1s, rna inte narice period, u or kmans hip and inspec-
tion) . T leere is sortie mc rit in the argu rue nt tflat s ucli cla uses sliO tllci be
deletec4. N ever the less, rrinny dredging conrrac ts are bascc4 on FID IC/ICE wit h
owl the re1e›'aiit ai»eiidmeia ts statcci in FI DIC Part 11 guide lines.

The re are t the r stankard forms of contr ac t win ich may be rectuired to be
»dop test la a fu n‹4ing age nc ' (e.g. EU coruJ it ions) ‹r iii a prove to be apprt
- p riate, such as one ‹ r more r f the ICE N ew Engineering Con trac Ls (NEC) . In
sficl4 ctlses tlfie for UKs s ât0kIlk/ be re ie Well ta k ilâg ill go ac co t4 nt t He nfiat
ters raise‹4 lie rcin.

38
 Forms of contract

I"4aintenance works
The matters raised under capital works also apply to maintenance. However,
there are some unique aspects which are applicable to maintenance dredging
work. These require special attention as published standard forms of
contract do not make any specific provisions for maintenance dredging.

There are a variety of types of contract for maintenance works. These include
contracts in which:
(a) the contractor is required to provide during a specified period, a dredger
(or dredgers) on demand (payment is normally based on an agreed hourly
work rate)
(b) the contractor is required to maintain an area for a fixed period of time on
the assumption that a minimum volume will be dredged
(c) the contractor is required to maintain a certain area which requires con-
tinuous d redging, payment being made on the basis of unit rate per cu bic
metre
(d) there is a target incentive (bonus/penalty) to dredge a set volume within a
fixed period
(e) the payment is a lump sum for maintaining a specified bed level over a
period of time.

Amendments to Two types of amendments to the standard conditions are required:

standard
(a) those necessary' to allocate risk more appropriately between the parties
conditions (ICE
(b) those which deal with specific matters, including the peculiarities of the
or FIDIC) method of working and/or the site.
Among the most important of the former are clauses relating to conditions on
site. Most major dredging claims involve a dispute on whether or not physical
conditions could have been foreseen. Ideally, the potential problem should be
handled by the contract setting out a range of ground reference conditions

39
Dredging

(from geotechnical information available) beyond z'hich the employer takes

the risk. Such reference conditions should provide the tenderer with the infor-
mation from which the type and size of dredger most appropriate for the
particular project can be decided. In addition, the tenderers are quite clear
that their prices include for encountering any physical condition within the
reference conditions and each tenderer is on an equal footing. Neve rtheless, a
significant number of dredging contracts rely on the standard foreseen/
unforeseen division of risks.

Other important matters to be considered are responsibility for delays due to

weather, other shipping, obstructions such as wrecks and explosives and other
contractors. Environmental controls must be clearly specified, including limi-
tations on working hours or methods. Responsibility for obtaining licences and
approvals must be stated.

Types of Payment methods are closely allied to the allocation of risk and responsibility.
payment Costs in dredging are incurred on a time basis (the hourly ownership costs of
large dredgers are high) whereas output is often measured by other means,
mainly some unit of volume or mass.

In a fixed price contract the employer and the contractor agree a fixed sum for
the execution of the works. The major reason for electing this type of contract
is normally as a result of employe rs requiring confidence in the final price in
order to finalize their annual budgets. To achieve an absolute level of con-
fidence, all the risks, foreseen and unforeseen, would need to rest with the
contractor. The major disadvantages of this type of contract are that the
perceived risks may not be encountered and so the employer pays more than
would be payable u nder either a time -related or remeasurement contract, or
the contractor encounters unforeseen risks for which exceptional costs are
incurred which significantly affect the contractor's ability to complete the
works in accordance with the terms of the contract.

Time -related payments can also be made. During the execution of the contract,
the main expenditure of the contractor is time related. There is some merit in
the argument that the payments should reflect that expenditure. This form of
contract may be useful for some types of maintenance dredging, where accurate
measurement of the dredged quantities is difficult, and for some forms of capital
dredging, where the types and quantities of materials to be dredged cannot be
precisely defined. The major disadvantage is that without special provisions in a
time -related contract there is no apparent incentive for the contractor to
optimize the efficiency of the dredging operation as payment is made for all the
time the dredger is on site. Special provisions could include that no payment is
made when the dredger is ivor king inefficiently (to be defined b ' a set of
reference conditions in the contract) due to no fault of the employer.

The most common method of payment is based on measurement of the w'ork

undertaken. Before developing a me asurement contras t, it is necessary to
decide whether the works are dredging, reclamation, or both, and can prac ti-
cally be measured. A purely dredging contract is one in which rhe dredged
mate rials are disposec4 either on or off the site, but any resulting stoc k pile or
reclamation is not a requirement of the can tract. A purel reclamation
contract is one in ivhic h the c‹rs tract requirement is to provide a specifier4

40
Forms of contract

41
 Forms of contract

reclamation or stockpile. The materials to provide such reclamation or

stockpile may be obtained by dredging bu t there would be no contractual
requirement to dredge to produce a set bed profile. It would not be unusual for
a reclamation contract to specify the limits within which the dredging could
take place, but it is also common to make the source of suitable fill material
entirely the contractor's responsibility.

For dredging contracts, measurement may be made in the cut, in the fill or in
the transport phase. Usually the method of measurement adopted for dredging
contracts is the measurement of the volume of the void created between the
pre -dredged existing surface and the final surface and within the limits of
dredging and tolerances shown on the drawings and in the contract. This
method is the simplest and most accurate to measure but it does not include
the total volume actually dredged. This is because the dredger cannot
excavate exactly to the lines and levels shown on the drawings due to the
physical and climatic conditions. As a consequence, the contractor needs to
make some allowance in the tender price for the costs of this overdredging.
The advantage to the employer is that the contractor's rates for dredging allow
for the risks associated with overdredging and so there is some confidence
regarding the final contract price.

Measurements by volume of materials in the hopper, or by the instruments

which record fluid densities and flow rates on board the dredger, may not be
very accurate. For maintenance works, in which the depth of campaign cut
may be relatively small, hopper measurement may, however, be the only
practical possibility.

If the measurement is to be made in the fill, the contractor in finalizing the

tender price has to take into account the following.
— The underlying strata may settle and thus the volume placed in the fill will
exceed the volume measured.
— The correlation between the quantity dredged and the quantity placed in
fill is often difficult to deteimine.
The tender price will be directly related to the period of time that the dredger
is to be present on site, which in turn is directly related to the quantity of
material to be dredged. Therefore, for contracts measured in the fill, it is
important for the contractor to estimate the quantity of materials to be dredg-
ed in order to achieve the fill requirements. This correlation between dredged
and fill quantities is difficult to determine. The capabilities and characteristics
of the specific dredger need to be taken into account along with the types and
mixtures of materials to be dredged, the losses of materials at the dredger/
hopper and during transportation and placement, and bulking and consolid-
ation of materials during transportation and placement. The disadvantage of
this method of measurement is that the contractor's tender price is based on
estimates of settlement of the underlying strata during filling and the correl-
ation between the dredging and fill quantities. Those estimates will probably
be conservative, which will be reflected in the price. The advantage of
measuring in the fill is that the employer is only seen to be paying for the work
that is required, i.e. an area filled to a specified level.

For rec laniation contracts, the vol ume measured should be the net volume of
the reclamation/stockpile provided, i.e. the volume between the prereclamation

4I
Dredging

surface and the final surface subject to any limits shown on the drawings.
Many contracts require the contractor to carry out dredging works (e.g. to
provide a channel or harbour) and, using the dredged materials, to provide a
specified reclamation. Where the contract provides for measurement and pay-
ment of the volume dredged but not the volume reclaimed, the contractor
would have little incentive to maximize the quantity of materials retained
from dredging. There may be substantial losses of suitable reclamation, due,
for example, to overflowing of the hopper.

In this situation there may be insufficient dredged material to complete the

reclamation and the employer is left with the choice of accepting an incom-
plete reclamation and disputing that the contractor has fully discharged the
(reclamation) obligations under the contract, or completing the reclamation
by obtaining and paying for additional material from another source.

This type of contract should provide for separate measurements and payment
for the volume of the void created by the dredging, and the volume placed in
reclamation. To encourage the contractor to make the best use of the
materials to be dredged, the reclamation rate should be deemed to allow for
obtaining suitable materials from any source.

Great care should be taken in specifying the measurement procedure for

dredging and reclamation work, and the operation must be undertaken and
supervised by those who recognize the vital importance of the measurement in
determining payment. Remember that a surveyor can move more material in
a morning than a dredger can in a week!

Figure 22 Side-casting cats over a low- cosi Ronni oJ dredging i} the location is nñtahle

42
 Forms of contract

Insurance In construction contracts, the works are insured against damage from any
cause, except from a few such as war or rebellion. The works in construction
contracts (e.g. buildings and bridges) , if dauiaged, could be extremely expen-
sive to replace. Dredging works are somewhat different in that the contract
requirement is to produce a void in the bed of a river or the sea. Thus the
probability of occurrence of damage and the consequential costs of remedial
works are small.

Of much greater importance is insurance relating to the dredging plant and

equ ipment, and to r hird -party risks. Adequate cover for the removal of dredg-
ers that may sink and block a vital shipping channe1 is essential, while a
moment's carelessness by a dredger's crew could cause mass ive direct and in-
direct losses to a tanker jetty or similar structure.

Tendering There are three stages in the tendering procedure, namely:

procedure
— prequalification
- issue of tender documents and administration of the tender
— receipt and rev iew of tenders.
For most projects it is advisable to carry out a check of the qualifications and
experience of the contractors prior to inviting any to submit a bid. This check
is normally undertaken by placing an advertisemen t in the trade journals and
inviting contractors to request a prequalification questionnaire with a view to
prequ alify for an invitation to submit a tender. The questionnaire will require
the contractor to submit details of previous experience and present resources
(both equipment and financial) and, based on the details submitted, those
contractors with adequate resources and experience would prequalify. There is
some merit in restricting the competition to at least three but no more than
six prequalified tenderers. With up to six, tenderers are unlikely to decline to
submit a tender on the grounds that the competition is too great.

The alternative is to have as open invitation to bid, i.e. from a ny contractor,

in whic h case the bids may include one or more from contractors without
adequate resources or experience to execu te the works. I n theory, this proce-
dure (open bid) should produce the most competitive price. However, some
preferred contractors may consider that this procedure will provide too many
tenderers and thereby reduce the ir chance of u.'inning so significantly that
they' are not prepared to inc ur the considerable expense associa tell with
preparing a tender. A fur ther disadvantage of this procedure is rha t there is no
initial contro1 ter eliniiuate unsuitable contractors from submitting a tender.
The lowest tender may be submit ted b ' a tenderer who is not capable cif
executing the work satisfactori1 '. Consequently, if such a bid is re jected d ue to
the contractor's inadequate qualifications, the n the contractor will have
incurred unnecessarily costs in pre paring the te nder. In ge neral it is considered
prefer able for d redging contracts to res rric t the invitation to te nder to
appropriate ly experiencer4 contractors.

Regard less of the type of tenc4er proccdur e cloosen, t he lowest price may not
necessarily be the ink st advantageous for the employer. It is impor tant, and
incieec4 w14e re EU rules appl ' it is a re‹pi ire me nt, to next ib, te ride re rs of
the c riteria by which the te rioters w ill be juclged. If factors othe r than price are
ro [ae ta kev in ter accou ia t when eva1u ating tende rs, e.g. the proposed met
hod c›f

43
Oredging

allowing for any siltation that may arise during the dredging, they should be
clearly stated.

Summary It is important to recognize that, unlike many branches of civil engineering,

dredging contract costs are dependent on only a few rates (or even a single
rate). This, in combination with the allocation of risks mentioned earlier,
inevitably means that the 'swings and roundabouts' effect that occurs in
conventional work (where some erroneously low rates are compensated for by
other high ones) does not operate. This places added importance on clarify in
the bid documentation and in the tender adjudication and contract award
procedures.

Dredging is different from many other types of civil engineering and the
differences must be recognized in the contract and contract procedures. Many
things can go wrong in dredging, and there is no real substitute for experience.

44
Forms of contract

43
 6. Design and site
investigation

The design of a dredging project must ensure that, once completed, the works
will function as intended, and that the construction cost is acceptable to the
client. The function of many typical dredging projects is to enable ships to sail
to and front a harbour whenever required and in safe ty. Good design involves
a large array of considerations and requires an understanding of the geological,
gecatechnical, hydraulic, bathynietric and environmental conditions at differ-
ent sites. The appropriate information can be obtained only from a thorough
programme tit site investigations.

Design criteria: The desigia of a navigation channel, harbour or berthing area requires
dredging consideration to be given to the water depths and the breadth, alignment and
requirements side slopes of the area to be en larged. The objectives are to achieve safe
for navigation passage of vessels and safe berthing. Water depths are dependent on the tidal
characteristics of the site and the particular require ments of the different types
of sly ipping. Ferries, for example, neeci to run to a timetable rather than when
t ides allow', and design r4cpths must therefore be available at all times. Con-
taiier vessels usually require grea ter flexibility in sailing t irises than bulk cargo
vessels.

Designing c hanne1s and I e rt hs, and therefore dcfining the dredging task,
recJu ires consic4e ration of the following fac tors.
— M aximurn r4taught of vesse1s t‹a be acctiniinodated
— Length tif tidal windtiw with in which vessels of the niaximm draught are
requ irer4 tc› be accepted at the port. Where the ship is to pass through a
lock the levc l of the lock sill dete rmincs the length of tidal window
— N inmfaer of vessels to tae ac coiiimodated on any tide. This will dete rmine
wlietlic r a one -Eva ' channe1, a t wo ;'ay channe l or a clianne1 with passing
places is recpi irccl; i e. the wid th of the channel

Depth The chs wire I dep th tha r is re‹i iired ar a por t to prcrv ide t lie tier a1 winciow
considerations for 'ship accet tarice', based on a spec ific max iruurn cm:iugh t of vessel, is depe n-
k$e14t II}0tJ1A ‹1 v•Arie ty tIf ship clâllrllc teris tics mI4kt eIâv ir€ll4 l44einta l it3flue laces, bt3tl3

45
Dredging

singly and acting in combination. The following aspects need to be considered.

— Channel length and ship speed (both over the ground and through the
water)
— Vessel under-keel clear ance
— Variation in water le vels created b}' the wind, waves and tides in the loca-
tion of the channel or port
— Rate of siltation and so maintenance dredging strategy
— Survey inacc uracy
— Allowance for dredging tolerance (overdredge) .
Channel length and ship speed determine the time of traverse from deep water
to the berthing area. The traverse time in turn defines the time that the ship
is required to enter the dredged channel for a specified arrival window at the
berth. In many areas, especially in estuaries, rhe strength and direction of any
current will also need Lo be taken into account. Both arrivals and departures
will need to be studied to determine the critical case, and due account taken
of the shape of the tidal curve and the rate of rise and fall during the time of
expected passage.

C.D.
M:ught’-------—---------------——----------
p Allowance tor variations created
@ ,,’ -] by winds, waves and tides
Vessel under-keel clearance
lo ensure manoeuvrability
— Allowance for survey inaccuracy

_ _ _ _ _ _ _ — Siltation bufter
_
Dredging tolerance

Vessel speed must also be considered in ter rns of the effect on the sinkage and
trim of the vessel. This effect, k noivn as squat, is especially common in narrow
channels «'ith limited under-keel cle arance.

A rui u iirrum unc4er keel clearance is required ter allow effective manoeuv ring
of a ship. This is aga in defined b ' the wid th a nd depth of the channel and, to
some exte nt, by the flow of water past the vessel. I t is common to use as a first
es timate an average alue of abou t 1O% of the vessel draught u'ith an absolu te
minimum of 0.5 ru. I n some ports a minimu m under-keel c Iearance is se t based
on the maximum clraught txt vessel t‹ be accorrnnodated, a typical value be ing
1.0 m.

The re may he various env ironme ntal conditions in a c ha nnel tha t ca u iiiodify
the water levels from those predicted Groin astronomical effects. These include
long-ter m va riaticin of tide levels, clv anges ca used b ' baro me t ric fl uc t u
ations (gi ing posit ive a nd mega tive su roes) and local winc4 conditions (u
hich can ca use water levels to be inc reasec4 or reef uced) . Wind ma ' also
generate waves i ith wave tae igla t ance pe rioc4 that affe ct the he ave, roll ance
pitc li of the vessel. A ktI Pt he£ fF1CtO£ iS a U}' ff fiS14 $’£tte1 ill pU t $'1A iC1â, Cltl fil4g
flt3c3dS, F11a3' PaiSC \t*8 teF

46
47
 Design and site investigation

levels and, more importantly, may reduce salinity and density and thus
increase vessel draught.

It is important that the magnitude, frequency and duration of all these effects
are established. It is unlikely that at any one time all the above variants will
act in concert to cause a significant reduction in depth, as simple addition of
all the possible changes to the water level would then result in a very
conservative additional allowance in the dredged depth. It is therefore
desirable that the probabilities of occurrence of the above variants, both singly
and in combination, are considered before deciding on the appropriate safety
factor. Often this is established by the depth required to reduce the risk of a
ship touching the bottom to below a predefined probability. The acceptable
probability can be agreed through discussions with pilots, harbour-masters,
insurers and by model testing.

The approximate rate of siltation must be established in any channel design

and the strategy for removal of the sediment ascertained. These determine the
additional depth allowance required as a siltation buffer (Fig. 23). A contin-
uous dredging strategy will reduce the size of siltation buffer, but requires
frequent operation of a dredger. Is the cost of maintenance dredging by a
dredger dedicated to the channel justified by the saving in dredging capital
cost i Much will depend upon the variability in siltation rate throughout the
year. It is therefore important at the outset of the design process to consider
the method of channel maintenance.

The measurement of depth, and issues such as definition of the level of the
water surface and the ’bottom’, are discussed in Chapter 7. For many reasons
depth measurement cannot be regarded as a precise activity and therefore the
possible inaccuracies must be recognized in determining design depths. Nor is
dredging a precise activity in most common circumstances. The accuracy of
horizontal and vertical control, while continually improving, is less than can
be achieved on land, and to ensure the minimum depth required is achieved
some degree of tolerance needs to be allowed in the depth design. This will
depend upon individual site conditions, the type of dredger and the nature of
the material to be dredged. Cost will also enter the equation. Very precise
dredging can be achieved, but is generally expensive because of the additional
time and/or specialist equipment required. Is high accuracy a cost-effective
option?

From all of the foregoing it is seen that the determination of a dredging design
depth for navigation purposes can be quire complex. How much time, effort
and cost is put into the determination by the designer must be balanced by the
value to be c Stained from refining the acceptable under-keel clearance, and
the risks involved with a vessel touching the bottom. A small cargo vessel
touching a mud bcittom on a rising tide is not an unusual occurrence in many
inintir ports anci poses very little risk to the vessel, the port or the marine
environment. An oil tanker touching rock could be a major disaster.

De pth riuist be related to a da tuin. For dreciging work it is normal to use Chart
Datuiii onet not land or Ord nance Datum. As the level of Chart Da £U111 IS flOt
cc›nstant on every part of the coast, it is essential to state the relationship
between Char t Datum and the land datum for the dredging site. Many costly
errors have resultec4 lrtrn confusion betwee n datums.

47
Dredging

Width
The required width of channel affects the volume of both capital and mainte-
considerations
nance dredging. The design plan dimensions are dependent on consideration
of the following factors.
— Maximum vessel dimensions, means of propulsion and steerage
— One -way or two-way traffic
— Depth of base of channel below surrounding bed level
— Channel curvature and sinuosity
— Winds, waves and tidal currents.
In most studies the width requirements are expressed in terms of vessel beam
widths. The most significant factor in determining the width of channel to be
dredged is whether two-way traffic is required. This will be affected by the type
and frequency of traffic to be accommodated at the port and, to a certain
extent, by the number of berths available. For two-way traffic, breadth is
required for the two design vessels, plus allowances for manoeuvrability, for
separation between the vessels and for the respective banks or slopes (Fig. 2d)
. Guidance on the appropriate widths of channels is given in reference 10. The
exact width requirements will generally tend towards a maximum for locations
with a persistence of side winds, high channel curvature and sinuosity, and a
minimum for shott straight channels in unconfined waters used by vessels with
high manoeuvring ability. Again, discussion with pilots and harbour-masters
will help to determine the width requirements, while the use of computer-
controlled simulators is developing rapidly.

Two-way traffic

One-way traffic

BB - 48

48
 Design and site investigation

Side slopes
Underwater channels are no more likely to have vertical sides than are
cuttings or embankments on land. the calculation of what might be a stable
side slope is, however, more difficult for underwater, especially in locations
subject to wave action, strong currents and sediment movement. A balance
also needs to be reached be tween what is stable in the long term, and what
can be practically and economically achieved during dredging. Table 6.1 shows
suggested angles for side slopes for use as a general design guide, but it must
be noted that considerable variations can occur.

T€lble 6. I Typical side slopes %r various soil types (or underwater s/opes ( rom
re(erence I I)

Soil type Side slope angle

Still water Active water

Rock Nearly vertical Nearly vertical

Sciff clay 45° ( I: I ) 45° ( I.' I)
35° ( I: I.4) 40° (I : I.2)
Sandy clay 25° ( I:2. I) 15” ( I:3.7)
Coarse sand 20° ( I:2.7) IO° ( I:5.7)
Fine sand 15° (I :3.7) 5° ( I : I I .4)
Mud and silt IO°— I° ( I:5.7— I:57) 5° or less ( I: I I.4 or less)

Berth pockets
A berth pocket needs to be deep enough to ensure a ship of the maximum
draught remains afloat at the lowest predicted water levels. Again consider-
ation of a siltation buffer is required but in most cases the under-keel clear-
ance can be reduced. The length of the berth pocket should be greater than
that of the longest vessel to allow for some manoeuvrability. Likewise the
width should be greater than the maximum ship's beam. Because the berth is
often dredged several metres below the navigation channel, the side slopes
should be cut as steep as the in-situ material will allow in order to minimize
the volume to be dredged, commensurate with hydraulic stability.

Site I t has been shown in Chapter 3 that the feasibility of a dredging project, the
investigation cost of dredging and the time to complete the project are very dependent upon
the production achieved by the dredger. The production in turn depends on
the nature of the material to be dredged and on the environmental conditions
at the site. Obtaining reliable information about both requires adequate inves-
tigation of the site. The objective of the site investigation is thus to provide
information to assist in the ove rall design of the dredging project, to assist the
contractor to determine the dredging plant to be used and to ide ntifv
operational constraints. The investigation is also needed to allow the appro-
priate licenses to be obtained and to satisfy environmental considerations.

The basic infor ination requ ire me nts for the above considerations are:
— cliaracterization of the mate rial to be dredged
— determination of the total volume of ciredging and the proportion of the
varic us material types, inc hiding allowances for overd redging
— the hydrograpli of the dredging and disposal loc ations.
Three main types of site irivcs tigation arc reqn ired to provide the above
in ft rmation.

49
Dredging

— Bathymetric surveys to determine bed levels

— Geotechnical site investigation to determine the nature of the material
— Environmental surveys to identify factors which may affect the dredging
and disposal or the completed works.
The detailed requirements are dependent on the scope of the dredging works.

Increased environmental awareness means that data may also be needed for
use as input to numerical and physical modelling studies of the area. Although
the three types of survey are distinctly different they should be carried out
with reference to each other. Feedback from the surveys, particularly after the
geotechnical investigation, may result in modification to the overall dredging
design or may identify areas where additional information is required.

Bathyrnetric survey
Bathymetric surveys are usually undertaken by echo-sounder, although tradi-
tional leads and plates still have uses in small areas or very soft material. The
echo-sounder may record digitally for computerized plotting, but careful
analysis of the echo-trace is still essential, particularly in predominantly slack
water areas with fine sediments. A flat uniform surface to the trace may indi-
cate a layer of low density sediment. In such cases it is prudent to carry out
check measurements with a lead line or dual frequency echo-sounder. II may
also be necessary to use one of the different types of density meters. These can
provide a density profile and are particularly useful in areas where a layer of
low density mud, or fluid mud, may overlie more consolidated material.

As previously mentioned, bathymetric surveying is not a precise form of

measurement. A detailed specification and methodology for the survey should
therefore be drawn up. This should include details of the extent of the survey
and the method of horizontal and vertical control, the frequency of checks,
the type and frequency of the echo-sounder and the required line spacing. The
datum to be used must also be clearly specified.

Geotechnical Before any on-site investigation is undertaken a literature review should be

investigation carried out to determine the background geology of the area. In the UK such
information can be found from the publications of the Institute of Geological
Sciences and the British Geological Survey, for example, and from previous
dredging work. With such information, the scope of the site survey can be
assessed.

The data produced by the soils investigation have a direct bearing on all stages
of dredging works, from the initial design through to the disposal of the
material. lnsufficient good quality information often causes time delays, with
considerable financial implications throughou t the work programme. It is
the refore impe rative that a well rlefined stails investigation is undertaken at
the outset.

The objective of the soils investigation is to characterize the material in order

to dete rmine the follow ing.
— Overall dredgeability—a term used to indicate how easily the material can
be loosened, lifted, transported and relocated, and the effect in terms of
wear anal tear on the dredging ectuipinent

50
 Design and site investigation

Figure 25 Towing grab

samples a|\owe the fiiroQerties
oJ rfie superficial bed
mo, Wof 1o de idenii/ied

— Respective volumes of the different types of material to be dredged

— Suitability for different forms of disposal and for beneficial use.
The geotechnical investigation is made up of three elements:
(a) geophysical survey
(b) geotechnical survey
(c) in-situ and laboratory testing.
Not all need be undertaken before every dredging contract, especially for
projects where the risk of something going wrong is likely to be small in cost
terms.

The geophysical survey (seismic profiling) is a method of indicating the depth

to sub-bottom strata, and identifying laye r levels and thicknesses of different
sediments and rock. The method gives a spatial representation rather than
point data of the strata to be dredged, bu t does not provide information on the
characteristics of the material. In large dredge areas a geophysical survey can
help reduce the number of samples or in-situ tests required and assist in
overall strata interpretation. Because the thickness of individual layers can be
calculated from the seismic profile, after calibration front point information,
the volumes of different types of material to be dredged can be established.

A geophysical survey is essential in areas where it is uncertain whether any-

thing has been buried below the seabed, e.g. cables, pipelines or even old war-
time structures, and can be backed up in such cases by magnetometer and
side -scan sonar sweeps. Information about obstructions such as wrecks and
boulders is vital to a dredging contractor in planning and costing a project.

A geotechnical survey is essential for all dredging work. Detailed measure-

ments of the layers of material below the seabed at one or more point sites can

S
I
Dredging

be undertaken both in-situ and after collection of samples. The data, along
with the results of laboratory tests, characterize the material to be dredged and
give the information required by the dredging contractor to estimate costs,
determine the most suitable plant and generally plan the dredging campaign.
The accuracy of these estimates is very dependent upon the quality and
quantity of the geotechnical survey.

There are three main types of geotechnical surve for dredging purposes.
Boreholes are generally the most expensive but are usually necessary where
the thickness of the material to be dredged is greater than 2 or 3 m. The
method allows for in-situ testing of soil properties and the recovery of a core
and of ‘undisturbed’ samples that can be tested irr the laboratory.

Vibrocores are used in place of boreholes where the material thickness is

relatively small. In many cases, particularly in loose material, the length of
core recovered will be less than the overall penetration. As with boreholes,
in- situ testing can be undertaken and cores can be removed for later laboratory
analysis.

The cone penetrometer is an in-situ measuring device which does not

recover a sample for laboratory testing. Sensors measure the cone end
resistance and the surrounding sleeve friction, along with the pore water
pressure, as the cone is pushed at constant speed into the bed. The resul ting
ratios are then interpreted against calibration data to a How' a description of the
profile and an estimate of shear strengths and relative densities wirh depth.
Because interpretation is carried out against a calibration it cannot be
guaranteed that the test conditions conform with the calibration conriititans
and that results are not repeatable. Cone penetrometer information should
not be used alone but in conjunction with bore hole ancl vibrocore
information.

I n- situ and laboratory testing is important for all dredging projects to

characterize the soils and rock to be dredged. A standard method for classifi
cation was proposed by the Permanent International Association of Navig-
ation Congresses (PIANC) in 1984.'’ As much information as possible slaou ld
be obtained from in-situ testing, therefore undisturbed samples of sufficient
quantity for laboratory testing should be carefully recovered.

The primary soil properties that are important for all phases of the d redging
process are obtained fr‹am the in-situ tes ts and measurements se t out below.
The me thods of testing on site and in the laboratory are described in BS 13.7.7
( 1990)

Soil compactness. Priiiiarily used in silt to gravel size frac tious, the tcsL
also provic4es inval tiable informa tion front clays and peaty organic mate-
rials. The standard penet ratio n test (SPT) is widely used for ctirre1at ion
with dredging rates.
(6) Shear strength. In- situ ineasu rements are ijjade in clays and, to a lesser
extent, in peaty organ ie mate rial.
( ) In-situ dens ity (bulk density) . In a geotec liniciiI investigation this is
normally c4e termine cl in the laborato r5'. In- sit u measu reiiie n ts can be
iiiac4c using raditiac tive ance electrical methoc4s. The in situ density aitem ts
the work ability of soil in ternos of the po teiat iaI for c4isru pticra of any cohes
ivit}' anal the r€ft3re ‹lffec IS the stlitabilit} of tlâc lâ4ateriPll for cdreUlgilAg b}' stlc
tit0lâ
52
Design and site invescigation

S3
Dredging

methods. In maintenance dredging contracts the bulk density of the mate-

rial to be removed is an important costing consideration as it can signifi-
cantly affect the rate of production of a dredger.
In-situ density is influenced by particle mineralogy, site and shape and
the hydrodynamic environment. For regular maintenance dredging, in-situ
density measu re me nts and bed sample analyses may provide sufficient
data to determine the dredging plan t required.
(d) Soil permeability. The per me abili ty of the soil is impor tant for
dete r mining its suitability for suction techniques, not only in terms of rais-
ing the soil but also for the disposal process, particularly whe n pumping is
required.
() Soil sampling and description. The method of soil sampling, description
and handling is very important if laboratory tests are to provide accurate
representative infor rn ation for conside ration in the design of the
dredging
process. Environmental considerations requ ire tha t some representative
samples are kept refrigerated or even frozen. These samples will need to be
analysed for a range of conta rrñnants, depe nd ing on the requirements of
the regulatory agencies. While qu ality tests will not prov ide information
for the dredging process, they are esse ntial in predicting potential e nviron-
mental impact a nd in agreeing a disposal site and methodology.
Laborator ' testing is usuall} unclertaken to the requirements given in BS 1377
and BS 5930, refere nces 13 and 14. Particle size distribution is one of the most
important tests. Care is required to make sure any samples are representative,
especially in ensuring that both large sizes and fines are not under-represen-
ted. In-situ density is most significant in predominantly' silt and clay material
but can be useful in sandy and peaty organic soils. The in-situ density helps
determine the type of d redging plant and production, particularly during the
loading phase.

Compactness is impor tanr for c4etermining the dredging plant required to

remove the mate rial. It is best measured in-situ bu t for silts and clays can be

54
 Design and site invescigation

confirmed by laborator)' me asurement. Moisture con te nt, plasticity and shear

strength are most significant to the dredging process when clay, and to a lesser
extent silt, t 'pe materials are to be dredged, The soil plasticity' determines how
easily a cohesive soil can be broken into its particulate forin and so how easil '
the material can be transported by hydraulic processes. The shear strength of
cohesive soils deter whines the resistance of the naatetial to c ut ting forces.

Other laborator} tests include the dete ririinatio n of particle shape and density,
par ticu larl for sands and gravels. These properties influence the wa ' part ie les
move through pipes and thus the flow and use ar rates. In maintenance ‹Dredge
areas the organic content of the inateria I to be remov ed may be impor ta nt to
the ciredging process. Where a high perce ntage of organic ma terial exists the
sediments are likely to contain inetha ne gas. In S uCh cases a degass ing faci1it '
ma be required on a hydraulic dredger in order to achieve satisfactor
production.

For rock dredging a different set of laboratory tesrs are requircc4 on core earn
ples. Rock dredging is a liighl)' specialist area and expert adv ice needs to be
taken in both planning and interpreting any site investigation where rock is
likely to exist.

Environmental Once the t 'pes and volumes of material to be dredged and the likely method
surveys of dredging have been es tablished the eriviron mental coiadit io us at the
drecâg- ing and disposal sites rice d to be considered. Aspects such as tidal
heights and flows, wave, current and wind records, marine and other bio-data,
and ge neral weather conditions may need to be investigated. Specific field
sure e3's or me asurements may be requ ired to de termine these hydrograpliic
conditio us, but in some areas mtich of the requ ired information ma a1ready
exist—it is then just a matte r of fincling it! A desk study shorild be undertaken
u'itla the aim of purclias ing, collec ting and collating all necessary infor ma
tion.

The impor tance of careful design and adequ ate site in›'estigation cannot be
over emphasized. The lat ter is especially v ita1. Most disp u tes in dredging arise
beea use of disagre eine nt over the qu an tity of mate rial ac tuall ' c4reclged as
compared wit h that the contractor estimated for. Site investigation for dredg-
ing is not easy. the require rue nts are c4iffcrent from those for corivcnti‹ rial
constr uc tion on land. A good inves tigation is one which is basecl upon proper
professio rial u nc4erstanding of the needs of both the p rojec t c4csiqne r and the
contractor.

S3
Dredging

56
 7. Supervision and
measurement

Previous chapters have described the various factors that must be eiamined
before dredging can commence. The approach of the contractor to the execu-
tion of the work, and the types of eQuipment which could be used, have also
been considered. This chapter seeks to explain how the client and the
engineer can best supervise the work with the aim of achieving ‘on-time, on-
budget’ completion.

Risk It should now be clear that dredging can be a high-risk, highly capital inten-
management sive, dynamic activity which is sensitive to outside influences and is sometimes
difficult to measure and control. Every dredging project will contain a variety
of uncertain factors which should be addressed as being risks. The client may
well have preferred to achieve a fixed and firm price—i.e. to transfer all risk
to the contractor. There may be a fear that if an attempt is made to share the
risk the client may be unable to exercise sufficient control over the contractor
and will eventually pay an unreasonable price for that share of the risk when
the contractor's possible claims are settled.

On the other hand, the client should have considered that contractors will
price for any risk accepted by them, and if all risk is to be borne by the
contractor then tender prices can be expected to be correspondingly high.
There is always the possibility that one or more bidders will—either by
accide nt or design—under-price a risk. While such an offer may at first sight
appear to be attractive, a contract finalized on the basis of such an inequality
is very likely ter result in bad feeling, conflict and—in all probability—sub-
stonciard performance. The client will therefore r›nly have achieved advan-
tageous teriders and be in a position to achieve the efficient execution of the
works i( a careful risk management exercise has been carried out during the
design ance document preparation phase.

A risk mauagemeu t exercise comprises the following sreps.

— Iclentifica tion tit risk elent ents srich as weather, waves, subsoil, inte r-
meek iate siltat ion, consolir4ation, settlement, lice uses, equipnient break-
dt3H'I3s t)T txt 2CF S 4ipQillg
— Qu an tific at ion of the risk elements in terms of money (niaxiniti in and
ruin iiiitim)

55
Dredging

— Determination of a way to measure factors influencing the risk elements

— Determination of ways to control or influence the risk elements
— Decision on who will be responsible for which risk element
— Preparation of a clear description of the risk and how these are dealt with
in the contract, i.e. who is responsible for which risks.

It is not unusual that some twenty to thirty risk elements may be identified in
a dredging project. One example is the soil to be dredged. Quite often con-
tracts read: “the contractor is responsible for the soil conditions". This sen-
tence contains a key to chaos, endless discussions in the field, and arbitrations
and court cases. Indeed, in many countries jurisprudence has ruled that if a
contractor could not reasonably foresee a certain phenomenon or occurrence
and has taken the normal precautions to prevent it from occurring, that con-
tractor cannot be held responsible for its occurrence and consequences.
Hence the disclaimer in the contract is ultimately of nca val die to the client.

Risk manage me nt is an excellent discipline for achieving better understanding

of the project at hand. A carefu lly conducted review on the above basis should
provide a method to obtain optimum value for money for the owner, a clear
contract for the contractor and a straightforward job for the supervising
engineer. The review should be carried out before tender documents are
issued, and key elements reconsidered orrce tenders have been received.

Supervision Once a contract has been awarded, the supervising engineer will wish to
become acquainted with the duties and responsibilities of the position. These
Duties and will comprise both the general obligations arising from the conditions of
responsibilities of a contract (for instance in the FIDIC form of contract, the duties and respon-
supervising
sibilities of the engineer are mentioned in some eighty-five instances) and the
engineer specific obligations arising from the various other documents which are
embraced by the contract.

Once familiar cvi th the duties a nd responsibilities, the e ngineer's next task is
to ensure that all parties to the contract are aware ‹ f their obligations. More
par ticularly, the limits of the e ngineer's authority must be established and the
cir cumstances u nder which the client's approval must be sought stated.

The following comments on ke ' aspects of a supe rvising engineer's task seek
to avoid being tied to any specific form of contract. While many of the
disciplines are common to other for rns of construction, the unusual nature of
the dredging task means that the emphasis is placed upon particular, if not
u nictue, aspects of supe rvision.

Basically, the responsibilit ' of the engineer in a dredging project is to con trol
and check:
— cpuality
— quantity
— budget
— progra mine.
De pending on the type c f cont ract, the focus of ac tivity will be on true or more
‹ f the above nspec ts. For exa mple, in a fixcc4 ance fir iii In nip suin con t ract the
activ ities of the e ngineer will conce n tra te on rlae q u ality anal prt grant rite

S6
7
 Supervision and measurement

control and less on quantity and budget. But irr a reme asurable contract the
emphasis is on quantities.

The e ngineer must be careful when interfering in matters that contractually

are the responsibility of the contractor. Because the contractor has very high
fixed costs, any issue raised by the engineer that causes delay will result in
the contractor—perhaps understandably—seeking to demonstrate that the
engineer has in fact given an instruction and that compensation is due. On
the other hand, the engineer's role should not be restricted to that of an
observer but should be (inter) active as soon as potential problems for the
contractor or any other part ' involved in the project are identified.

In practice it has proven useful to initiate technical work mee tings and project
progress meetings—the first between engineer and contractor and the second
including the client. The minutes of the meetings should be signed by the
engineer and the contractor for proper project (progress) control.

The agreement on contemporary records between the engineer and the con-
tractor is of particular importance. Taking place mainly below water, dredging
xxork provides little opportunity for photographic records which may, in other
circumstances, provide irrefutable reference in the event of a dispute. It is
therefore vital that surveys, time or production records and any other docu-
ments which could be relevant in finalizing the contract, be agreed between
the contractor and the engineer as work proceeds.

Qualify control One of the recent developine nts in dredging contracts is the requirement for
qua1it ' assurance according to, for instance, ISO 9000 standards. Quality
assurance can be defined as “a11 those planned and systematic actions necessary
to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given
requirements for quality”. Before the actual srar t of the work the contractor has
to submit a project plan including a detailed description on how it is intended
to carr} out the u ork, and the proposed method for quantity and quality
contrcil. The effect cif the use of ISO 9000 is disputed. Some contractors claim
it on15' costs rrioney, sorrre clients claim they can now do without the supervision
I y the enginec r. As usual, the tr u th u'ill be somewhere in the middle.

Quality' assurance s houlcJ not becouie a battle of forms. When used with
prcuaer care it will i ncreasc the quality' r f the work and, very likely, the effici-
ency' of the contrac tor's pe rfor mance. The role of the engineer might change
somewhat to a more adiiiinistrative function. It should certainly help to ensure
the systematic proc4uc tion of agreed records which can only help in rhe
finalization of the uccou nt ance the settle ment of any claims.

RemoCe supervision As in other sectors c›f civil e ngine ering, the dredging industr y finds the need
to accommoc4 ate rapicl claanges. A c ti rre n t example is the way in which com-
pu ters anal rru»aitciivs are taking over the control of the dredging process. The
se nsors t Isa t are usec4 for this rncanitoring intake it possible ro transfer data on
the c4redging paroccss inmner4 iatc ly ance con tin no usly either to on-board loggers
or to re inote lttea tions. As a consectue rice it is not a livays necessary for the
super 'ising engine e r to have an inspec tor on board the drecJge r at all times.
Re wan te supe rvis ion h:as left the fic tion age i4net become realit !

57
Dredging

' ' »+ o
1’
‘ •'* JzJt . ' '" ". -
H ‘. ‘

' ¿• ,.

Figure 2Z The u'£eelJiouse

Of O m0der digbly OutOmOted
trailer dredger nd every
instrument wells o story

¥"tethods of In a dredging project there are various aspects of the works that need to be
measurement measured. In general, not only must the end result be measured but also the
progress of the works must be monitored. It has already been seen how
different forms of agreement vary the emphasis, but the parameters essential
to measurement of the works are:
— time
— quantity
— end of line product.

Measurements of
In principle, the three ways of measuring quantities are:'5
quantity
— at the dredging site
— in the means of conveyance
— at the disposal site.

Measurements at the dredging site. Measuring at the dredging site is possibly

the method most frequently used. By calculating the difference between the
pre - and post-dredge surveys (known generally as the 'in' and 'out' surveys)
and the design level, the dredged quantity can be assessed. Elements that may
have an impact on the accuracy are:
— accuracy of the tide recorder ar+d its location relative to the dredging site
— accuracy of depth measurements (frequency of rhe echo-sounder)
— accuracy of the horizontal positioning s ›stem
— occurrence of intermediate siltation or erosion.
A fairly accurate picture of the actual depth available in soft silty bed
materials, also called the 'nautical bottom', can be obtained through con-
tinuous density measurements. The nautical bottom is often defined as the
depth at which the density of the material is 1 200 kg/ni’. Nautical bottom

S8
 Supervision and measurement

Figure 28 Bat li ymetiic

surveys ore essential for both
quality control and quantity
calculation

requirements are port dependent, however, because the geotechnical para-

meters of the silk will also influence the behaviour of vessels navigating
through it.

It should be appreciated that the accuracy with which bed levels can be
determined under water is less than that of land based survey work. A reason-
able value of accuracy for normal echo-sounding would be in the order of
0.1—0.2 m. Depending on the thickness of the layer to be dredged and the
contractual definition of tolerances, this order of accuracy may represent a
substantial percentage of the volume to be dredged. The supervising engineer
shou ld be mindful that the profit of the contractor can be enhanced, achieved
or lost during the pre - and post-dredge surveys.

Measurements in the means o{ conueyonce. These measurements can take

place in the pipeline, in the hopper of a traile r dredger or in the barge.
Measurement in the pipeline is achieved by devices that measure the con-
centration and the velocity of the mixture in the pipeline. Special precautions
are required to ensu re the accuracy of the translation of readings into cubic
metres in-situ material, and to allow for the overflow losses in a hopper
dredger.

The measurements in the hopper of a trailer dredger or barge can be by means

of the half-sphe re and centrifuge method, hopper-pressure method or the
tonnes dry solids (TDS) system. The former involves me asurement of an
agreed density level in the hopper and the taking of samples of the overlying
mixture. The TDS system involves the weight of the material in the hopper
being determined by measuring the draft of the loaded vessel and the empty
vessel. The measurement system can be computerized completely and remote
super vision becomes a realistic oprion. Both the half-sphe re and TDS mea-
surement systems nre esse ntially methods of iueasureine nt for payment, rather
than absolute iiieastires of material dredged.

9
Dredging

Eig‹re 29 Hon'.many
cubic metres in the hopper?

l"leasurement of Thegeneral expression ‘ rrieasureme nr of rhe qua lity' encompasses a variety of

quality topics. Firstly, it cove rs rhe assessiue nt of tli• ‹i ality of the works as a whole.
Is the final resu lt in accorda rice w itli the requ ireintents specified in the con-
tPaCt PDFtiCtIlaw aS DCC tS tt8 bC C£ânS idCPCk] aFC tl2C FfiqU iFeEJ dCQtl4 ‹413c Sl£lpeS,

60
 Supervision and measurement

including specified tolerances, and for reclamation or beach nourishment

projects the quality of the fill material. No matter how the contract is
structured, these aspects need to be verified on behalf of the client. While it
is frequently of little importance to the client if the contractor overdredges, in
some circumstances this could have very serious consequences—for example
if a quay wall or breakwater is rendered unstable.

Measurement of quality also concerns the production process. Quality in this

respect mostly relates to possible secondary effects of the works. These may
include turbidity at the borrow or reclamation site exceeding specified limits,
interference with third parties (shipping or other contractors) and hindrance
to the public. One other reason to measure the quality is to support the learn-
ing process that can be advantageous for future dredging projects.

The qualit)' aspects of the dredging process will be mostly covered by the
contractor's quality control system.

I"fieasuremenC of
Where all or part of the woWks are undertaken on a time related basis, the need
time
for close monitoring by the engineer becomes particularly important. It is
relatively straightforward for records to be maintained of actual hours spent in
undertaking useful work, and for the engineer to consider whether any
rectuests by the contractor for payment aga inst certain unproductive hours
(weather delays, obst ruc tie ns, ruov ing out of shipping channels) are admissible
under the contract. What is more difficult, and essentially subjective, is to
assess whet he r the equ ipme nt is being used to maximum effect in the time it
is work ing. There can be no substitute for experience. It is not sensible for an
enginee r with little or no relevant experience of dredging to attempt to
su per vise a time - based d re dging con trac t.

Dredging The bas ie s 'ste ins for monitoring the dredging task are the pr sition fixing
instrumentation 0Ind the de pth me asu re rite nt systems. Cleese two syste nos prov ide
information about the ac tual sit u ation prior to, d ri ring and after the
drcciging ‹ape rations
:ind are the key elaments useel for planning and monitoring of the works.
Positio n fixing

I I3 the mcs r sim plc ftir in, the p‹ si tion of t)ie su rver' 1a unc la or the d redge r is
c]etc r rrñned by ir easu ring the ‹4 istanccs front the pos irion to at least two
klAk3w lA pt3iIâts, klskially f41A the lanky. Tt) redYlce tche tilâle week ed fV)r
pr€3cessing a wc] tt inc rease the ac cu t tic ', sa te Hi tes, elec t rtin ics and a u to
ination play an import a n t role in rite cieveloprnent : c4 use tif position iixing
systems. A wide r‹â Use £3f pc3Sitit)14 6§'s te Flys t4re •1vI1il,J[3le t9Pt t He FH•ârke t,
and tlccII ra c ies ill thfi t4rklc r Ok Alec i FHC ters ‹4l4c1 e 'e r1 cell tillle t rcs arfi 1ât3w
Depth p€Jssible.
measurements

6I
Dredging

Figure 30 Horitontnl
positioning eguiQmen‹ and
echo-sounder onboard a
sured launch

When measuring the depth with an echo-sounder the frequency of the

acoustic signal must be specified and checked. A high frequency of about
210 kHz will reflect off any relatively low density material present, which may
or may not be of interest. A lower frequency will penetrate through this
material and record a firmer bottom. If the material is sand this problem does
not arise.

Care must be taken to check the tide gauge. The whole dredging project is
controlled by the tide gauge and any error in its installation or subsequent
movement can have serious consequences in terms of either not achieving the
required level or excess dredging. Levelling in of the tide gauge is not a job for
the most junior engineer!

Other
Because dredging is highly capital intensive, the dredging industry has devel-
instrumentation
oped sophisticated instrumentation to allow detailed monitoring of the dredg-
ing process and to increase the efficiency. Information that is commonly
monitored on board a dredger includes the location of the dredger, draghead,
cutter head or bucket in x, y and ¿ coordinates, the mixture flow and density
in a hydraulic dredger, the dredger's sailing speed and the power used. The
engineer should be familiar with this instrumentation and what it records.

Knowledge about dredging can only be accumu lated, by individuals or an

organization, through reviewing the results of practical experience. Monitor-
ing is therefore a major source of information for future projects and is also of
importance with respect to potential claims from the contractor or the client.
Whenever there is a discussion or a dispute between the client and the
contractor, there is always need for coirpre hensive data about the dredging
process and actual conditions encountered at the site. It has been emphasized

62
 Supervision and measurement

Figuxe 5.1 Modem

Io rig every aspect of the

dredging process

at the beginning of this chapter that the data should be agreed between the
engineer and the contractor at the time it is obtained—otherwise resolution
of the discussion or dispute becomes difficult if not impossible.

Causes of claims The particular characteristics of dredging and reclamation works—working

and disputes and under water, weather, dynamic, around the clock work, capital intensive—
how to handle render dredging contracts sensitive to claims. The possibility of a claim from
them a contractor should not be feared, but should be carefully anticipated and
con- trolled within the contract as part of the risk management. The budget
for the contract should also allow for the possibilities of claims.

Claims from contractors on dredging works generally concern additional

pay- ment or extension of time pursuant to the clauses of the contract, rather
than events arising outside the terms of the contract. Examples of the bases
for claims by a contractor include:
— act ua1 su b-soil c‹enditions encountered differ from the information in the
soil investigations; this may cause lower production rates and higher wear
and tear of equipment
— the method of measurement leaves opening for claims—for example the
type of echo-sou nder used, the wea ther conditions and the tint ing of the
surveys
— the contractor encou rite rs u nexpec ted obstacles when execu t rug the works
— the contrac tor encounters se vere adverse physical conditions, other than
those that ctiu ld be reastinably expecte‹i
— there are unexpected price increases caused by circumstances outsicâe the
contractor's cont ro1, e.g. cievaluation
— the contractor suffcrs operational cielays causcc4 by othe r shipping ac tivi-
ties or by outside parties such as cus t‹4ins
— there is ciainage causec4 by the dredging act ivit ies—e.g. a revetinent
collapses (the questitin the n arises as to wind is responsible for the
chesign?)
— therc is in terrued iate siltation w itla in the area that has alreacly been

63
Dredging

64
 Supervision and measurement

dredged by the contractor, either from unexpected natural causes or from

other nearby activities
— the contractor or the client is not able to obtain the required permits or
licences in time.
Generally there will be provisions in the contract that allow additional
payments to the contractor under certain circumstances. One example is a
fuel price adjustment clause that will allow variation of the contract price in
case the fuel price increases or decreases in the course of the project.

The key to the fair settlements of claims is close monitoring by both parties of
the dredging process and the factors that may influence the process. The data
derived from the monitoring may then form the acceptable basis of the claim
settlement. Was the information provided to the contras tor wrong, or was the
information not adequately interpreted by the contractor's estimator?

The FIDIC contract, for example, describes in detail the procedures to be

followed in the event of claims by the contractor and the settlement of any
subsequent disputes. In principle, disputes are settled by means of arbitration.
The FIDIC contract calls for all possible efforts to settle disputes amicably
before going into arbitration.

Summary Knowledge about dredging can only be gained effectively through practical
experience. The dredging industry is small and highly specialized. For this
reason the number of institutes that provide formal training in the theory and
practice of dredging is very limited. Although there are some institutes that
train the operational staff of dredgers, there is no special training in dredging
technology for engineers or project managers. Knowledge is thus mainly
gained in house or through some specialized short courses, and by attending
conferences. A result of this narrow accumulation of knowledge has ine›'itably
been that those outside the industry regard it as a closed area of expertise—
dredging has gained an aura of mystique.

This design and practice guide has been compiled by a group of people reps
resenting all parties typically involved in dredging activity. A primary aim has
been to assist rhose with little or no relevant knowledge to uncierstand the
dredging process sufficiently to start to dispel this mystique. I t has to be reef
ognized, however, that dredging is such a broad and complex activity that one
brief volume can never act as more than an introcltiction for the reader to this
fascinating area of engine ering activity.

65
References

1. Bouw \i G. O§ernting cost standards for construction equipment. CIP Gege-

vens Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague (published biennially) .
2. Firm act o( the Inter-go'uernmental Conference on the Convention on the
Dumping of Wnstes at 3en, London, i 3 November 1972. (Cmnd 5169)
HMSO, London, 1972.
3. Oslo and Purrs Conventions for the PreverNion of Marine Pollution. Final
Declaration of Ministerial Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions,
Paris, 21-22 September 1992. Oslo and Paris Commission, London, 1992.
4. Convention for the prevention of marine pollution hy ditmQing from ships and
aircraft, Oslo, 15 Febiuary 1972. (Cmnd 4984) HMSO, London, 1972.
5. hon mention for the 9reeention o{ marine pollui ion Jrom land-based sources,
Paris, 4 ]une 1974. (Cmnd 5803) HMSO, London, 1975.
6. Oslo rind Purrs Conventions {or the Pie'uet tion o( Murine Pollution. Os lo
Com- mission Guidelines for the Management of Dredged Mate rial. Annex 1,
Fifteenth Meeting of the Oslo and Paris Commissions, Berlin, 14—19 ) une
1993.
7. PFElFFER J s. P E., ct at. Beneficial uses of dredged material. A practical guide.
Report of Working Group 19, Permanent International Association of
Navigation Congresses, Brussels, 1992.
8. THOMPSON I! arid PERRY J. Engineering construction risks. Thomas Telford,
London, 1992.
9. IADC. Users guide to the Ltd edition oJ FIDIC. International Association of
Dredging Companies, The Hague, 1990.
10. PIANC-IAPH. Approach channels—preliminary guidelines. First report of
the joint PIANC-IAPH Working Group II—30, PIANC, Brussels, 1995.
1 1 . BRITISH STANDARDS 1NSTITUTION. B tit ish standard code of pract ice BS 63#9:
Part 5: 199 I , Maritime Structures—Code of practice for dredging and land
ieclamation. BS I, London, 1991.
1 2. ANON. CIassi{icntiOn Of soils end rocks to be dredged. Permanent Inter-
na tional Association of Navigation Congresses, PIANC Report of a Work-
ing Group of the Permanent Tec hnical Committee II, Supplement to
PIANC Bulletin No. 47, 1984.
13. Bsiiisu SUN r AKL›s lNSiiruiiou. British stnndord code o{ 9rnctice BS 13ZZ:
Part i —9: 1990, Methods of test {or soils lot civil engineering purposes.
BSi, Londtan, 1990.
14. BRITISH SizenAitL3s Ixsirruiiox. Btit isli star doid code of ioct ice BS 5930:
198 1, Code oJ practice for sire invest igation s. BSI, Londo n, 1981.
15. ANON. The meass sement af âiedgeâ qus tititres for the calc mation ol po yment.
Central Dredging Asso ciation Report 91/01, Delft, 199 1.

65
 Appendix. Sources of
further information

Books BAY R. N. Dredging—a handbook for engineers. Edward Arnold, London, 1979.
HERBICH }. B. Handbook o{ dredging engineering. McGraw Hill, 1992.
UNITED N Across ESCAP Dredging Jor nnvigniion—a handbook for port and
waterway authorities. United Nations, New York, 1991.
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION Or PosiS AND H ARBOURS. Dredging lot development.
IAPH, Tokyo, japan, 1991.
BRITISH STANDARDS INSTITu Tion. B$ 63 49, Part 5. Recommendations Jor the
dredging o} wnterwo2s rind for land reclamation. BSI, London, l99t .
INSTITUTION OF CI VIr ENGINEERS. Mnintenance dredging. Thomas Telford,
London, 1987.
INSTITUTION Or CiviL Encircrss. CnQital dredging. Thomas Telford, London,
1991.
INTERNATIONAL ARITIM E ORGANIZATION . The London dumping convention. IMO,
London, 1991.
Aquntic Polfution and Dredging in the European Community. Delwe1, The Hague,
1990.
WOsLn BANK. Eneironmentol Considerations {or Port and Harbour Deee IoQments.
World Bank Technical Paper 126, Washington, USA, 1990.
J"'gagazines Dredging ‹if Port Con stiuc tion
Dock U Harbour Auiiiority
Ports and Deedping
Port Engineering Management
Terra et A qua
Wr›rld Dredging
Conference Proceeclings of Worlet Dredging Congresses, I—XIV (for address sec CEDA
Proceedings belciw) .

Organizations Ce ntral Dreciging Assoc iation (CEDA)

with dredging PO Box 3168
interests 2601 DD Delft
The Net he rluncis
(UK Section c/t, ICE) .

Worlci Dredging Association (WO DA) as CEDA.

66
 Appendix

I n ter naticin al As c›ciatitin gif Dr edgin Companies (I AD()

Der init eg 2 1
2585 }V The Hague
The Ne the r I,i nds

Per rna ne n t I n te r nation a1 Assoc iatioti of Na 'igatici n you gresses (P lAN U)

WTC—Tr ur 3—26" é rage
Boulci ard Simon Bolivar 30
B 1210 Brusse1s
Belgirnai
(UK Sec tion c/o ICE) .

67
Design and practice guides, produced by the Institution of
Civil Engineers, provide an introduction to key subjects of
interest to engineers. They include discussion of the most
important issues, an outline of the main principles involved,
checklists, and guidance on authoritative and up-to-date
sources of more detailed information. They are suitable for
practising civil engineers who have limited experience in a
particular area and for more experienced engineers who
require an overview of the subject.

Dredging is not only vital to maritime navigation, and

therefore to international commerce, but also plays an
important role in offshore engineering, the obtaining of
aggregates for the construction industry, and in coastal
defence works.
This guide highlights the particular problems of excavating
from underwater sites and describes the methods and
equipment developed to overcome them. All the stages of
dredging are considered, from project design specification
and site investigation, through production estimation and
contractual issues, to supervision and management of the
actual dredging works.
While the principles involved may be familiar to engineers
from other fields, the specialist equipment and methods and
the particular environmental and economic considerations
described will be of great interest ro those wishing to expand
rheir professional knowledge of civil engineering issues.

JSBn 0-Z277-2049-X

Thomas Telford
7807 2' 7204 98