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Reproduction Notes by PreMed - MCQs world

The document discusses reproduction in both plants and animals, outlining the mechanisms and types of reproduction, including sexual and asexual methods. It highlights key concepts such as the diplo-haploid life cycle in plants, the role of hormones in fruit development, and various modes of asexual reproduction like parthenogenesis and cloning. Additionally, it covers the significance of photoperiodism and vernalization in flowering plants, as well as the differences between external and internal fertilization in animals.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
36 views22 pages

Reproduction Notes by PreMed - MCQs world

The document discusses reproduction in both plants and animals, outlining the mechanisms and types of reproduction, including sexual and asexual methods. It highlights key concepts such as the diplo-haploid life cycle in plants, the role of hormones in fruit development, and various modes of asexual reproduction like parthenogenesis and cloning. Additionally, it covers the significance of photoperiodism and vernalization in flowering plants, as well as the differences between external and internal fertilization in animals.

Uploaded by

syedjalalwork0
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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REPRODUCTION

High Yield Notes


NOTES
NOTES
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction: Human Reproductive
Mechanism of producing new System
generations and maintaining Unique in two ways:
species. 1. It is not functional until a person
Property due to which reaches the stage of puberty.
reproduction differs from all Functional on activation of sex
other functions of animals : Not hormones. All other systems
concerned with survival of an become functional at or shortly
individual. after birth.
Very important for survival of a 2. In males and females, all systems
species or population. are similar but their reproductive
2 types: systems are quite different from
1. Sexual reproduction . each other.
2. Asexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

Involvement of
Only 1 parent is involved. Both parents are involved.
Parents
Gamete Gametes from both parents are
No gamete is required.
formation involved.
Meiosis

Identical to
parents
Type of
Primitive. Evolved.
process
Likelihood of
More likely. Less likely.
genetic disorder
E.G Humans
Bacteria

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Reproduction in Plants
1. Diplo-haplaontic Life Cycle: 3. Parthenocarpy:
Fruit develops without
→2 Types
fertilization
1. Heteromorphic
No seed formation
If both the diploid sporophyte and
Examples:
haploid gametophyte generation
Banana
are vegetatively dissimilar.
Pineapples
2. Isomorphic
Some varieties of grapes and
If both the diploid sporophyte and
oranges
haploid gametophyte generation
Adding auxins to tomatoes
are vegetatively similar.
and pepper --> Artificially
induced parthenocarpy -->
2. Seed Plants
used for commercial
(Spermatophytes): purposes
Reason of widespread: Better Reason Of Occurence: Hormonal
sexual reproduction mechanisms Imbalance-Usually high Auxin
Examples: level in the ovaries.
Modification of flower
Inflorescence for pollination Mnemonics for Remembering
Gamete transfer via pollen Examples of Parthenocarpy:
tubes
Bank of Government Of Punjab
Food storage for developing
Bank= Bananas
embryo
Protection by seed coats
Government= Grapes
Dispersal via help of fruit Of= Oranges
formation (Angiosperms) Punjab= Pineapples
Capable to endure unfavorable
conditions during seed dormancy 4. Seed Dormancy:
Seed germinates when favorable Rest condition-Embryo survives
conditions established during unfavorable condition for
Important land adaptation by long periods
spermatophytes: Growth of embryo ceases or is
Evolution Of Pollen Tube limited
Vehicle for male gametes Advantage: Prevents germination
Safely transfers them to female during warm spells in winters
gametes in ovule
Evolution of pollen tube is 5. Fruit Set and Fruit
parallel to the evolution of seed
Ripening:
Tool of success for seed plants
Definition of fruit set: Retention of
Double Fertilization is an
ovary (ovary later becomes fruit)
important characteristic of
Necessary hormone for fruit set=
Angiosperms.
Auxin
Auxin’s Rich source: Germinating
pollen

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Germinating pollen is also an
important structure for safe
Garner and Allard were able to
classify:
gamete transfer and insurance of Flowering plants = Long day
fertilization plants (LDP) i.e., require long
-It also stimulates the tissues of days for flowering
style and ovary →More auxin Day-neutral plants (DNP) =
produced Flower without influence of
If auxin is absent, Abscission photoperiodism
occurs normally →causes low fruit Further studies showed that
yield actually the length of the dark
Auxin is also produced after period matters→This proved that
fertilization by Ripe seeds and short-day plants = just really long-
ovary →causes fruit development night plants
Developing seeds are a rich Effect on flowering: Only affected
source of hormones/ growth when shoot meristems produce
substances namely floral buds (not leaves or lateral
1.Auxin buds)
2.Gibberellins Effect on Long Day Plants (LDP) &
3.Cytokinins Short Day Plants (SDP) when
-Role: These growth substances are grown in short days but long
mainly associated with development night is interrupted by short light
of embryos and accumulation of food period is given as:
reserves in seed (sometimes in LDP --> Flowering= Takes
pericarp/ fruit wall). place
Fruit Ripening is accompanied by SDP --> Flowering= Prevented
Burst of Climacteric i.e., Cocklebur: It is a Short Day Plant
(respiratory activity which is → It doesn't flower if its long night
associated with ethane is interrupted →But experiments
production → aids in fruit ripening) showed:
Red light: prevents flowering
6.Photoperiodism: Far-Red Light: Reverses effect
Discovery:1920 by Garner and of red light i.e., enhances
Allard → Studied tobacco plant flowering
flowers after they were exposed to Last light treatment
a series of short days determines the response
Phytochrome:
Mnemonics to remember founders of Discovery due to response of
photoperiodism: plants to intensity and quality
Photo with Gary Allison of light
They are blue-light sensitive
Photo = Photoperiodism
protein pigments.
Gary = Garner
Last light treatment
Allison = Allard determines the
phytochrome’s response
Tobacco plant naturally flower in Exist in 2 Forms:
autumn under usual conditions
-Flowering can be induced in them
artificially by short days exposure

PreMed.Pk
NOTES P 660 : 2. LDP:
-Quiescent form of Flowering--> induced by dark
phytochrome periods shorter than a critical
-Absorbs 660nm Red Light length
-Converted to active P 730 Henbane -13hrs
P 730: Under natural conditions it is
-Absorbs far red light at equivalent to days longer than
730nm critical length E.G:
-Converted to P 660 Henbane - 11 hrs
Determination of day or night E.G: Henbane, Snapdragon,
environment of plant →Done by Cabbage, Spring wheat, Spring
presence of type of barley
phytochrome present
Rate of conversion of P 730 to Mnemonics for LDP names:
P660 portrays a "Clock"
Henry Snapped Spiderman’s White
→Measures duration of darkness
Batch Cap
Classification of plants on base of
flowering due to photoperiodism: Henry- Henbane
1. SDP: Snapped- Snapdragon
Flowering--> induced by dark Spiderman- Spring
periods longer than a critical White- Wheat
length Batch- Barley
Cocklebur - 8.5 hrs Cap- Cabbage
Tobacco - 10-11 hrs
E.G: Cocklebur, 3. DNP:
Chrysanthemum, Soyabean, Flowering is Independent of
Tobacco, Strawberry Photoperiodism
Under natural conditions it is E.G: Cucumber, Tomato,
equivalent to days shorter than Garden pea, Maize, Cotton
critical length
Cocklebur - 15.5hrs
Tobacco -13-14 hrs Mnemonics for DNP names:
Cute Mary Cooper Touched Green Peas
Cute- Cucumber
Mnemonics for SDP names: Mary- Maize
Steps Stars Crash Test Course (SSCTC) Cooper- Cotton
Steps- Soyabean Touched- Tomato
Stars- Strawberry Green Peas- Garden Peas
Crash- Cocklebur
Test- Tobacco
Course- Chrysanthemum

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Table Representing Difference Between SDP and LDP:

Short Day Long Day Flowering:


Plants (SDP) Plants (LDP) Role in flowering is played by
factors:
Plant flower when Plant flower when Length of Dark or Light Period
photoperiod is less photoperiod is more Presence or Absence of Light
than critical day than critical day Interconversion of P660 and P
length length 730
Interruption during Flowering is inhibited Initiation of Flowering: Occurs
light period with when interrupted when florigen hormone is
darkness does not during light period produced in leaves due to
inhibiting flowering with darkness stimulation of biological clock in
Long, uninterrupted, Flowering is not plants
continuous dark inhibited if long dark Florigen travels through
period is critical for period is inhibited by phloem to floral buds leading to
flowering flash of light flowering
Flowering is Role of Phytochrome:
Light period is
inhibiting if long dark
critical for Responsible for detection of light
period is inhibited by
flowering. or darkness
flash of light

E.G: Cocklebur, E.G: Henbane,


Chrysanthemum, Snapdragon, Cabbage,
Soyabean, Tobacco, Spring wheat, Spring
Strawberry barley

Red Light:
Red light: Inhibits flowering in SDP ,
Promotes flowering in LDP
Hypothesis formed: P 730 and P 660
interconversion is the plant time
regulator for flowering.
Explanation:
P 730 promotes flowering in
LDP but inhibits in SDP
Since P 730 is mainly present
during day time , so SDP flower
only if nights are long enough
meaning that a large quantity of
P 730 is not completely inactive
during this time so that when
the night ends, there's enough P
730 to promote flowering
New widely accepted belief →P
730 and P 660 interconversion
does not totally govern the plant
time regulator for flowering.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES 7.Vernalisation:
Flowering is stimulated in
biennials and perennial plants by
exposing them to low
temperature = Vernalisation
Shoot apex of mature stem or
embryo of seed receives low
temperature stimulus
Leaves DON'T receive low
temperature stimulus
In some plants:
Either Vernalization is
absolutely required by plants
Or Vernalization aids in
inducing flowering
Explanation: Duration of low
temperature/chilling treatment
that is required varies from 4
days to 3 months.
About 4 degree Celsius is very
effective
Stimulates production of
"VERNALIN" that induces
vernalisation
Later, we found out
Vernalin=Gibberellin.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES
Reproduction in Animals
→2 modes → Asexual Reproduction Drone (males) develop from
and Sexual Reproduction Unfertilized Eggs
Males are Haploid and
Asexual Reproduction(less Produce sperm via mitosis
common): Haploid eggs --> Haploid
offspring
Many modes of asexual reproduction
are: Aphids (Diploid Parthenogenesis)
Parthenogenesis Egg-producing cells of female
Budding (In Hydra) → Undergo modified form of
Multiple fission (In animal-like meiosis →Total Non-
protoctista) Disjunction of chromosomes
Binary Fission occur → Leads to retention of
Identical Twins Diploid number of
Tissue Culturing chromosomes
Diploid Egg become females
Mnemonics To Remember Types of Parthenogenesis accelerates
Asexual Reproduction: the normal reproductive
Penguin Bring Me Fish BITs system
Penguin = Parthenogenesis
Tissue Culturing and Cloning:
Bring = Budding
Plants:
Me Fish = Multiple Fission In plants, the tissue culture
BITs = Binary fission, Identical twins, procedure is given below:
Tissue culturing Addition of Nutrients ,
Cytokinin and Indole Acetic
Parthenogenesis: Acid (IAA) → Stimulates
(Partheno = Without Fertilization cambium tissue to excise from
, Genesis = Origin/Formation of plants
Something) Cambium cells show
Development of egg without continued growth --> New
fertilization E.G: Ants ,Bees, plant forms by differentiation
Wasps New plant is identical to
Honey bees (Haploid parent plant
Parthenogenesis) Advantage: Rapid Propagation of
Queen Bee --> Can lay eggs desired variety or of varieties
which may or may not be which are difficult to propagate
fertilized by cuttings
She stores the male gametes Animals:
in a pouch which is closed off In Animals, Cloning / Sub-
by a valve culturing is done . It is asexual
The eggs may or may not be method of reproduction
fertilized by stores sperms Organisms born from single cell
by Sub-culturing = Clones

PreMed.Pk
NOTES The procedure includes following
steps:
Sexual reproduction
(common):
a. Nucleus is removed from a
somatic cell -Involves production and union of
b. Egg is introduced to it ( gametes
Nucleus of egg is destroyed by -Also involves meiosis and genetic
UV rays ) recombination
c. Egg is transfused with the -Developed a more complex life from
nucleus. This diploid somatic isogametes to heterogametic stage
cell develops into new -Leads to differentiation of gender
Organism is genetical similar to -Some organisms are Unisexual →
parent whose nucleus is Have one sex
contributed -Others are Hermaphrodite /Bisexual -
Prize bulls and Race horses may -> Have both sexes
be cloned for desirable traits -Advance Mode of sexual
It is immoral to use humans for reproduction has
cloning Unisexuality in animals
Cloned cells → Used to study (Tapeworm and Earthworm are
effects of certain drugs, antibodies bisexual)
and hormones on cells --> useful to Bisexuality in plants
study cosmetics and -In sexual reproduction , there are 2
pharmaceutical products on types of fertilization:
cloned cells instead of using lab External: In this case, fertilization
animals. as well as development of
Advantages: offspring occurs externally. E.g:
Offspring genetically identical Fish
to parents Internal: It includes further 3
Offspring behaves similar to Types:
offspring 1. Oviparous Animals:
Disadvantages: If fertilization internal and
If there is outbreak of disease, it development is external i.e.,
affects all the clones egg is produced and laid
Degree of environmental which later hatches. Sperms
influence on the clones are lodged in the female body.
development is unknown E.g: Reptiles & Birds
Mnemonics: ORB i.e., O=
Identical Twins: Oviparous ; R= Reptiles ; B=
Process includes an embryo (when Birds
2 celled stage is achieved) → Two 2. Viviparous Animals:
blastomeres separate from each If fertilization as well as
other → They behave as 2 development of offspring
independent zygotes occurs inside the mother and
Have similar genetic makeup later , offspring is given birth.
Produced mitotically / asexually E.g: Humans
Share either same or separated Mnemonics: HaVe i.e., H=
placenta Humans ; V= Viviparous
Both of them have been fertilized
by the same sperm

PreMed.Pk
NOTES 3.Ovoviviparous:
If fertilization and
development of offspring
occurs inside the mother but
in a shelled egg which is laid
by the mother and from
which the offspring hatches.
E.g Duckbill platypus and
Spiny AntEater
Mnemonics: OlD Spain i.e., O=
Ovoviviparous ; D= Duckbill ;
Sp= Spiny ant-eater

PreMed.Pk
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NOTES
Reproduction In Males
Made from the Mesoderm - Vas Deferens/ Sperm Duct/ Ductus
2 Types : Male Reproductive System Deferens:
and Female Reproductive System Epididymis opens into sperm
Male Reproductive System: duct which is the main duct of
4 Parts male reproductive system
Gonads: Joins with duct of seminal
A pair of testes lie outside body- lie vesicle , leading to formation of
in scrotum which is smooth muscle Short Ejaculatory Duct
Here, spermatogenesis occurs, Ejaculatory Duct:
Most efficient around 35 degree It is the shortest and smallest
1 Testis has 250-300 lobules And 1 duct
lobule has 1-4 seminiferous tubules Urethra:
1 Testis has 1-10 Rete Testis It is unpaired, shared terminal
Sperms reach Rete Testis after duct of reproductive and urinary
passing seminiferous tubule system
Vasa Efferentia transfer sperm to It empties into glans penis
Epididymis It is the terminal portion of Male
Sperm Mother Cell / Reproductive System
Spermatogonia is produced by the Accessory Glands:
germinal epithelium which is Comprise of 3 glands
further activated by FSH Seminal Vesicle/Gland (Paired
Accessory Ducts: Gland)
4 ducts Produces seminal vesicle fluid -
Epididymis: A thick, viscous, alkaline fluid of
It is paired. It Transports and pH 7.2 to 7.4
Stores sperms. It contains :
1 pair of testis has 2 epididymis a. Ascorbic Acid :
Coiled on outer surface of testes Concentrated in the seminal
- Almost 6 meters (20 ft) when fluid
uncoiled it has 3 parts: Head , Protects sperm from Free
Body and Tail Radical Damage
a. Head Or Caput Preserves DNA's integrity
Stores sperm b. Fructose
Concentration of sperm begins Major Source of Sperm's Energy
here c. Vesiculase
Sperms are non-motile when Coagulating enzyme
they reach head of epididymis Enhances sperm motility and its
b. Body Or Corpus fertilizing power
Sperms start to gain motility Maximum secretion in Semen
here production --> Done by Seminal
c. Tail Or Caput vesicle (60 to 65 %)
Sperms are stored here for a few Present at junction of sperm
days duct and ejaculatory duct

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Prostate Gland (Unpaired Gland)
Produces Slightly Acidic fluid
Pathway of sperm:
SEVEN UP
Contains : Seminiferous tubules
a. Citrate Epididymis
Source of nutrients Vas deferens/ Sperm duct
b. Many enzymes especially Ejaculatory duct
Hyaluronidase Nothing
It enables sperm to penetrate
and enter sperm Urethra
It is hydrolytic enzyme Penis
Neutralizes sperm and vaginal
acidity-Prolongs sperms life Spermatogenesis:
Prostate adds 20-30%
secretion in sperm production
Present below bladder
Cowper's (Bulbourethral) Gland
(Paired Gland)
Responsible for pre-ejaculatory
fluid production
Secretes:
a. Mucous →Helps in lubrication
b. Alkaline Fluid →Poured into
urethra to neutralize acidity of
urine in urethra Spermatogenesis starts with
Present at junction of mitosis of spermatogonia's stem
ejaculatory duct and urethra cells
4. Copulatory Organ: Sperm = Mature male gametes/
One organ - Penis →Rich in Spermatozoa
blood vessels →Erection occurs Forms from germ cells of
due to blood pressure germinal epithelium of
Semen seminiferous tubules of testis
White sticky substance →Mixture Sequence :
of sperms and secretions of Spermatogonia→Primary
accessory glands Spermatocyte→Secondary
Liquid substance in it has 3 Spermatocyte→Spermatid→Sperm
advantages s
Provides nutrients to sperm Spermatogonia:
Protects sperm 2n- divide rapidly by mitosis
Acts as a transport medium for It is outermost germinal cells
sperms which make epithelial walls of
Contains Prostaglandins seminiferous tubules-0 just
→Decrease viscosity of mucous below basal lamina
which guards the cervix of female Produces:
uterus And stimulates reverse a. Type A Daughter cells
peristalsis in uterus hence, it Remain at basement
facilitates sperm movement membrane & maintain germ
through female reproductive tract cell line
b. Type B Daughter cells

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Divide by mitosis and
differentiate into Primary
Hormonal secretions of Hypothalamus
and Pituitary
Spermatocytes Control spermatogenesis
Primary spermatocytes: Hypothalamus releases GnRH /
Undergoes Meiosis 1 and GnRF →It controls release of the
becomes secondary anterior lobe of pituitary's
spermatocyte (ADENOPHYSIS) Gonadotropins
Secondary spermatocytes: FSH and LH.
Undergoes Meiosis 2 and Sperm
becomes spermatid Very small cells
Spermatids: 3 Parts:
Matures into sperm 1. Head :
Round, Non motile Has no nucleus
Sperms: Acrosome is at its top
Motile, Active Acrosome has hydrolytic
Spermatids shed its cytoplasm enzymes especially
and after elongation and forms Hyaluronidase--> enables sperm
tail to become sperm to penetrate and enters egg
Sertoli cells (2n) 2. Short Neck:
Elongated cells- Also called Nurse Has a pair of centrioles which
cells or Mother cells forms axial filament
Present in Seminiferous tubules / 3. Middle piece:
Rubular compartments of testis Has many mitochondria- spirally
Secrets fluid which protects sperm, arranged around axial filament
gives it liquid medium and 4. Tail:
nourishes sperm when it is in Has an Arrangement of
seminiferous tubules microtubules in the form of
FSH acts on these cells → INHIBIN is (9+2)
produced- Controls
spermatogenesis at normal rate and
also inhibits synthesis and release of
FSH from pituitary. Hence, it
Negatively Regulates FSH secretion.
Leydig Cells (2n)
Present in the interstitial spaces
They release Testosterone when
LH/ICSH acts on them
Testosterone causes growth of
germinal epithelium --> for
successful sperm production and
also helps in sperm maturation
Testosterone is also responsible for
secondary sexual characters during
puberty
It also inhibits LH and FSH
production in Anterior Pituitary -->
Negative feedback

PreMed.Pk
NOTES
Reproduction In Females
Female Reproductive System: 1. Perimetrium
The reproductive role of the It is the outermost thin covering
female is far more complex - Its 2 layer of the uterus.
main functions are: 2. Myometrium
To produce gametes. It is the middle thick muscular layer
To nurture a developing embryo composed of bundles of smooth
for a period of approximately nine muscle →contracts rhythmically
months. during childbirth
4 Parts are involved in female 3. Endometrium
reproductive system It is the inner spongy lining of the
1. Gonads: uterus.
Ovaries are female gonads - On fertilization, the young is
produce ova and release implanted here and its development
hormones. also occurs here
Each ovary is held in place within 4. Vagina/ Birth Canal:
the peritoneal cavity by several A thin-walled long tube- extends from
ligaments i.e., fimbriae. the cervix to the outside of the body.
Many tiny sac-like structures in It gives a passageway for childbirth and
ovaries called follicles → each for menstrual flow.
consist of an immature egg The urethra is embedded in its anterior
(oocyte). At puberty, one of the wall.
ripening follicles ejects its oocyte Cervix - A narrow entrance to the uterus
from the ovary each month. This from the vagina, normally blocked by a
event is called ovulation. plug of mucus.
2. Oviducts/ Fallopian Tube: Main functions of the uterus is to
They are initial part of the female receive, conceive and provide
duct system → receive the nourishment of a fertilized ovum
ovulated oocyte Uterine wall has three layers:
They are the area where
Oogenesis:
fertilization occurs
It transfers developing ovum
from ovary towards the uterus.
3. Uterus/ Womb:
A hollow, muscular organ, shaped
like an inverted pear.
The uterus has three portions: the
fundus, the body and the cervix.
The oviducts join the uterus just
below the fundus
The opening of the cervix leads to
the vaginal canal.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Gametogenesis in the female is Menstrual Cycle:
known as oogenesis → linked In females, oogenesis is a cyclic
with formation of ova/egg. activity as compared to male.
Oogenesis starts before birth Menstrual cycle involves changes in
when oogonia divides the structure and function of the
mitotically → produces primary whole reproductive system of
oocytes enclosed in groups of females. This cycle is completed in
follicle cells. approximately 28 days (average of
Primary oocytes undergo 21-35 days).
meiosis-I but are arrested at The process of ovulation and
prophase-I. menstruation occur at puberty.
At puberty, primary oocyte Start of the menstrual cycle is
finishes meiosis-I → forms called menarche.
haploid secondary oocyte and Its complete stop or end is called
first polar body. menopause.
Secondary oocytes undergo
meiosis-II but are arrested in The events of the menstrual cycle
metaphase-II and until involve the ovaries (ovarian cycle)
fertilization occurs, the oocyte and the uterus (uterine cycle).
stays as it is. Events of the menstrual cycle are
If fertilization occurs, then the regulated by pituitary
secondary oocyte forms ovum gonadotropins.
and 2nd polar body. At this Based upon changes and
point, meiosis II is completed in hormonal regulation, the
the oviduct → yields one large menstrual cycle is divided into
ovum and a tiny second polar three phases:
body. Menstrual Phase (DAY 1-5):
The unequal cytoplasmic Here, the uterus sheds all but
divisions that occur during the deepest part of its
oogenesis ensure that a endometrium. The thick,
fertilized egg has ample hormone-dependent functional
nutrients for its six to seven day layer of the endometrium
journey to the uterus. Without detaches from the uterine wall,
nutrient-containing cytoplasm, a process that is accompanied
the polar bodies degenerate by bleeding for 3-5 days.
and die. The detached tissue and blood
In human females, only one pass out through the vagina as
ovum is usually discharged the menstrual flow.
from the ovary at one time = At the beginning of this stage,
Ovulation. ovarian hormones are at their
lowest normal levels and
gonadotropins start to rise. The
FSH level begins to rise.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Proliferative Phase (DAY 6-14): Secretory/Post-Ovulatory Phase
Initially, FSH stimulates only (Days 15-28):
one follicle ,causing it to In this phase, the endometrium
develop. Other follicles stop prepares for implantation of an
growth and disintegrate embryo
(follicle atresia). The dominant The progesterone level rises
follicle in the ovary continues to from the corpus luteum and it
mature and becomes a mature acts on the endometrium →
follicle (Graffian or vesicular causes the blood vessels to
follicle), in which oogenesis extend and convert the
occurs. functional layer to a glandular
FSH also stimulates the secretory layer.
Graffian follicle to secrete The uterine glands enlarge and
estrogen which further governs begin secreting nutritious
the vascularization of glycogen into the uterine cavity.
endometrial lining of uterine If fertilization has not occurred,
wall the corpus luteum begins to
Estrogen has negative degenerate towards the end of
feedback upon FSH, therefore, the secretory phase due to
as the concentration of decline in LH blood levels.
estrogen rises the level of FSH Progesterone level falls,
falls. This is a signal for the depriving the endometrium of
anterior pituitary to release LH. hormonal support → endometrial
At the end of the proliferative cells die, causing menstruation
stage (day 14), LH causes to initiate on 28 days.
ovulation which takes less than
five minutes. LH also converts
the ruptured follicle to a
yellowish glandular mass called
corpus luteum.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES
Disorders of the
Reproduction System
Infertility = the failure to achieve Alternatively, the ovaries may not
pregnancy. be producing estrogen or
Causes of Male Infertility: progesterone normally, means
The common causes of male that ovaries face physical
infertility are: damage.
Azoospermia Blocked Oviduct
Azoospermia is the state of having This occurs due to the diseases
no sperms. It causes about 5% of causing blockage of fallopian
male infertility. tube.
May be caused if sperm ducts are It may be caused due to
blocked due to infection, injury. infections
gonorrhea and T.B. Uterus Damage
The blockage may be congenital. This type of infertility is caused by
Oligospermia problems with the uterus.
Sperm count below 20 million/ml In this case, the problem is not
= Oligospermia. getting pregnant but the
More than 90% of male infertility retention or maintaining the
is due to low sperm count. pregnancy and preventing
Sperm Deformities miscarriage.
Change in shape of sperms = Fibroids are benign (non-
sperm deformities. cancerous) tumors that grow
It is normal for a small amount of from the walls of the uterus→ they
sperm to be abnormal → e.g: can cause infertility.
having two tails, no head or Cervical Mucus Defect
abnormal shape. During ovulation, mucus in the
Autoimmune Disorder cervix becomes thinner for sperm
Sometimes, infertility is due to an to swim through.
immune response by the male to If there is a problem with the
its own sperms. mucus, it can make it harder to
Antibodies→attack the sperm, conceive.
causing reduced sperm count. Endometriosis
A condition where small pieces of
Causes of Female Infertility:
the endometrium begin to grow
The common causes of female
in other places like the ovaries.
infertility are:
It can cause infertility because the
Failure to Ovulate
new growths form adhesions
In some females, the
(sticky areas of tissue) or cysts
hypothalamus or pituitary gland
(fluid-filled sacs) that can block or
fails to produce hormones
distort the pelvis-making it
normally → this causes either lack
difficult for an egg to get released
of FSH which leads to no
and get implanted into the
development of any follicle or lack
uterus.
of LH affects the release of egg.

PreMed.Pk
NOTES Treatment of Infertility:
Environmental factors like
smoking, obesity and stress
cause infertility and its treatment
is aimed at removing or
reducing its responsible factors.
Treatments like surgery ,
hormone treatments, in vitro
fertilization etc are available for
infertile people.
In Vitro Fertilization (IVF):
IVF = fertilization outside of the
female body.
IVF is the most effective type of
assisted reproductive
technology- often used when a
female’s fallopian tubes are
blocked or when a man
produces very few sperm.
It is commonly known as test
tube baby technique → involves
fertilization of one or more eggs
outside the body and then
transferring the fertilized eggs
(pre- embryos) back into the
uterus .

PreMed.Pk
NOTES
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED
DISEASES
2 major types: Bacterial and Viral Viral Cause → Mainly 2 Examples
cause Genital Herpes:
Bacterial Cause → Mainly 2 Caused by Herpes Simplex Type
Examples: 2 --> RNA Virus
Gonorrhea: Effects on:
CONTROVERSIAL POINT CNS
PTB: By Gram Positive bacteria Eye Joints
Every other reading material: By Infection of genitalia
Gram Negative bacteria Genital ulcers and sores
Neisseria gonorrhoeae Burning sensation during
urination and ejaculation
Infant's eyes damage and
CNS is affected in pregnant
women
Treatment is done by Interferons
(Antiviral Proteins) and vaccines
AIDS:
CLARIFICATION OF GRAM STAIN OF Caused by Human
BACTERIA GONORRHOEAE IMAGE Immunodeficiency Virus -->
ssRNA
Effects on: Symptoms in the 3 Stages:
Mucous membrane of Asymptomatic Carrier Stage:
urinogenital duct Fever
Eyes joints Chills
Serious eye infection to infant Aches
if they pass thru infected Swollen lymph
birth canal Itchy rash
Highly contagious via sex AIDS Related Complex
Can be treated with Antibiotics Swollen lymph glands
Syphilis:
Caused by Spirochete
Treponema palladium
Effect on:
Reproductive organs
Eye bone joints
CNS
Heart
Skin
Major source of dissemination =
Sexual Contact
Can be treated using Antibiotics

PreMed.Pk
NOTES 1. Asymptomatic Carrier Stage:
Fever
ALL IMPORTANT SIDE BOXES OF
THIS CHAPTER:
Chills Realize the effects of endocrine
Aches disrupting contaminants on the
Swollen lymph reproductive abilities.
Itchy rash Some chemicals, both natural and man-
2. AIDS Related Complex made, can interfere with endocrine
Swollen lymph glands glands and their hormones or where the
Neck, Armpit, Groin hormones act - the target tissues, These
Night sweats chemicals are called endocrine disrupting
Flu contaminants (EDCs) e.g., DDT. The
Persistent cough presence of EDCs in our environment
Depression raises risk of some human reproductive
Persistent diarrhea disorders and some cancers which could
Memory loss be related to disturbance of the endocrine
3. Full Bloom AIDS system. EDCs can act in a number of
Severe weight loss ways in different parts of the body, they
Weakness due to persistent may: (a) reduce the production of
diarrhea hormones in endocrine glands (b) affect
At least 1 opportunistic the release of hormones from endocrine
infection glands,(c) copy or counteract the action
of hormones at target tissues, or (d)
AIDS Treatment involves: speed up the metabolism of hormones
AntiRetroviral Therapy (ART) and so reduce their action.
Highly Active ART (HAART)
Other medicines like
Gynaecology is the speciality of
Sumarin, Azidothymidine
(AZT)
medicine concemed with dysfunction
and diseases of the female
reproductive system. Obstetrics is the
speciality dealing with pregnancy and
childbirth. A physician specialises in
both obstetrics and gynaecology.

Oestrous cycle is a reproductive cycle


found in all female mammals except
human being. In this cycle, the
estrogen production prepares the
uterus for conception partly and
also follicle develops ova. At this
stage, female needs a physical
stimulus of mating for ovulation. She
exhibits the desire for mating or is
said to be on "heat".

PreMed.Pk
MSQC WORLD WITH AHSAN

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