Chapter 2

Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution

Important Terms

1. Women’s suffragette movement : A movement to give women the right to vote.

2. Tsar : Russian emperor.

3. Collectivisation: : Under this people collectively cultivate land.
4. Jadidists : Muslim reformers within the Russian Empire.
5. Duma : Russian parliament which was created in1905 for the first time.
6. Kulaks : Rich farmers of Russia.
7. Autonomy : The right to govern themselves.
8. Tsar Nicholas II: : He was an emperor of Russia. The Bolshevik Revolution broke out
during his reign.
9. ‘Greens’ and ‘whites’ : They were the group of people who were against the Bolshevik
Revolution. They started a civil war.

Very Short Answer Questions

1. Categorise the responses that emerged in Europe after the French Revolution. Ans. The
responses that emerged in Europe after the French Revolution can be categorised as
‘conservative’, ‘liberal’ and ‘radical’.

2. What differentiated the ‘liberals’ from the democrats?

Ans. The liberals did not believe in universal franchise and were against the right of women to
vote.

3. List some similarities between ‘liberals’ and ‘radicals’.

Ans. Both liberals and radicals firmly believed in the value of individual effort, labour and
enterprise. They were in favor of privileges based on merit not birth.

4. What was the significance of the Russian Revolution?

Ans. The most significant feature of the Russian Revolution was the establishment of a socialist
state.
 5. Into which two prominent political groups was the Russian Socialist Democratic Labour
Party divided in 1898.
Ans. i. Bolsheviks
ii. Mensheviks.

6. What according to Socialism was the root of all evils in society? Ans.
Socialist regarded private property as the root of all evils in society.

7. What was the basic difference between the cooperatives advocated by Robert Owen and
Louis Blanc?
Ans. While Robert Owen favoured individual initiative in the setting up of cooperatives, Louis
Blanc favoured government intervention in setting up of cooperatives.

8. Name the international body formed to coordinate socialist efforts. Ans. The Second
International was the body formed in 1870, to coordinate socialist efforts throughout Europe.

9. What was the second International?

Ans. Second International was an international body formed in the 1870s. It was set up to
coordinate the efforts and ideas of socialists who were spread throughout Europe.

10. Why were workers associations formed in France, Britain and Germany? Ans. Workers
associations were formed in France, Britain and Germany to fight for better living and working
conditions and to pressurize governments to grant the right to vote to workers.

11. List the names of two workers associations.

Ans. The names of two workers associations are:
i. Labour Party in Britain
ii. Socialist Party in France

12. How did the Socialists succeed in influencing legislation prior to 1914? Ans. Prior to
1914, the socialists were unable to form a government of their own, but were able to influence
legislation through their strong parliamentary representatives.

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13. Where and when was the first Socialist Government formed? Ans. The first Socialist
Government was formed in Russia after the 1917, October Revolution.
 14. What is meant by the term Russian Revolution?
Ans. The Russian Revolution entails fall of monarchy (Tsar) in February 1917 and the events of
October 1917.

15. Name the Tsar in whose reign the Revolution broke out.
Ans. Nicholas II was the Tsar of Russia at the time of the Revolution.

16. In the early 20th century what was the main occupation of the Russian people? Ans. The
main occupation of the vast majority of Russians in the early 20th century was agriculture.

17. What was the main source of export earnings?

Ans. Grain was the main source of export earnings in Russia.

18. What was the basis on which workers were divided in Russia? Ans.
In Russia, workers were divided on the basis of skill.

19. Who among the workers were aristocrats?

Ans. The metal workers considered themselves aristocrats among other workers.

20. What industries were most prone to strikes?

Ans. The metal and textile industry were most prone to strikes.

21. What was the source of power and position of the nobles?
Ans. Services to the Tsar and not local popularity was the source of power and position of the
nobles.

22. How were the peasants in Russia different from other European peasants? Ans. Peasants
of Russia were different from other European peasants because they posted their land
periodically and the commune divided it according to the needs of individual families.

23. What was the source of inspiration for the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party
(RSDWP)?
Ans. The source of inspiration for the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was Marx’s
ideas.
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24. How did the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party (RSDWP) enlist support? Ans.
The RSDWP enlisted support by setting up a newspaper, mobilising workers and organising
strikes.

25. State the reason for the split in the RSDWP.

Ans. The RSDWP split over the question of organisation and policy.

26. Why is International Women’s Day celebrated on February 22nd? Ans. International
Women’s Day is celebrated on February 22nd, as a mark of honour, because on this day in Russia
many women led the way to strikes in factories.

27. Name the ship which played an important role in the assault of the Winter Palace. Ans.
The name of the ship which played an important role in the assault of the Winter Palace was
‘AURORA’.

28. Who were the ‘Reds’?

Ans. The Bolsheviks were called ‘Reds’.

29. Who were called ‘Whites’ and ‘Greens’?

Ans. The pro Tsarists were called ‘Whites’ and socialist revolutionaries were called ‘Greens’.

30. Which two groups fought one another in the civil war that ensued after the October
Revolution?
Ans. The non-Bolsheviks, socialists, liberals and supporters of autocracy backed by foreign
troops, fought the Bolsheviks in the civil war that ensued after the October Revolution.

31. State the reason for loss of popular support for non-Bolsheviks. Ans. The harsh steps
taken by supporters of non-Bolsheviks, against peasants who had seized land was the cause for
loss of popular support for non-Bolsheviks.

32. Who succeeded to power after Lenin?

Ans. Stalin succeeded to power after Lenin.

33. What emergency measure did Stalin introduce?

Ans. Stalin introduced the emergency measure called ‘collectivisation’.

34. Why did Stalin introduce collectivisation?

 Ans. Stalin introduced collectivisation to overcome the problem of acute shortages of grain.
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35. How were the critics of Planned Economy and Collectivisation within the party handled
by Stalin?
Ans. Critics within the party were handled sternly by Stalin. They were charged with conspiracy
against socialism, were imprisoned or sent to labour camps or executed.

Short and Long Answer Questions

1. Who were liberals? What were their political and social views?
Ans.
i. One of the groups which looked to change society were the liberals.
ii. Liberals wanted a nation which tolerated all religions.
iii. They opposed uncontrolled power of dynastic rules and argued for a representative,
elected parliamentary government, subject to laws interpreted by a well-trained
judiciary that was independent of rulers and officials.
iv. However, they were not ‘democrats’. They did not believe in the universal adult
franchise, that is, the right of every citizen to vote. They felt men of property should
have the vote.

2. Describe the views of radicals.

Ans. The following were the viewpoints of the radicals:
i. Radicals wanted a nation in which the government was based on the majority of a
country’s population.
ii. Many supported women’s suffragette movements.
iii. Unlike liberals, they opposed the privileges of great landowners and wealthy factory
owners.
iv. They disliked the concentration of property in the hands of a few, not the existence of
private property.

3. Who were conservatives?

Ans. The conservative had the following viewpoints:
i. In the beginning of the 18th century they were opposed to the idea of change. ii. Later in
the 19th century they accepted that some change was inevitable. iii. At the same time they
believed that the past had to be respected and change had to be brought about through a
slow process.
4. What changes did Industrialization bring to the then society in Russia? Ans. The following
changes were brought to Russian society with the advent of industrialisation: i. The Industrial
Revolution led to changes in social and economic life, new cities came up and new industrialised
regions developed and railways expanded.
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ii. Men, women and children came to factories in search of work.
iii. But, unfortunately, working hours were long and wages were poor. iv. There was
unemployment during the time of low demand for industrial goods. v. As the towns
were growing rapidly, problems like housing and sanitation emerged.
5. What solutions did radicals and liberals find to the problem of the Industrial
society?
Ans. Liberals and radicals made wealth through trade or industrial ventures.The following
solutions were found by the radicals and the liberals to the problems of Industrial
society.
i. They felt that efforts should be made to make the workforce healthy and
educated.
ii. They were opposed to the privileges enjoyed by the old aristocracy. iii. They advocated
the value of individual effort, labour and enterprise. iv. They thought of freedom of
individuals so that poor could labour and those with capital could operate freely. This
would develop the society.
v. It was also sought that the government should be removed through revolution.

6. Explain the Socialist view on private property?

Ans. The Socialist were against private property because of the following reasons: i. They
believed that private property was the root cause of all social evils. ii. Individuals who
owned property did provide employment but at the same they are much more concerned
with personal gains.
iii. They did not bother about the welfare of people.
iv. Socialist also felt that if society controlled property, more attention would be paid to
collective social interest and concentration of wealth in the hands of a few could be
restricted.

7. Explain the views of different socialists and philosophers regarding the vision of the
future or to transform the society?
Ans. Socialist had different visions of the future:
 i. Robert Owen, a leading English manufacturer and a socialist sought to build a
cooperative community called the New Harmony, in Indiana.
ii. Louis Blanc of France wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and
replace the capitalists.
iii. Karl Marx believed that to free themselves from capitalist exploitation, workers had to
construct radically socialist society, where all the property was socially controlled.
iv. Friedrich Engels was also against capitalism.
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8. What developments took place in Europe in support of socialism? Ans. The following
developments took place in Europe in support of socialism: i. An international body, called the
Second International was formed by socialists to coordinate the efforts of the workers.
Workers’ Associations were formed to fight for better living and working conditions.
ii. Funds were set up to help members in times of distress.
iii. Workers demanded a reduction in working hours and the right to vote. iv. In Germany,
these associations worked closely with the Social Democratic Party(SPD) and helped it win
parliamentary seats.
v. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists formed a Labour party in Britain and a Socialist
Party in France.

9. What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905? Ans. The
following were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905: i. The vast
majority of Russia’s people were agriculturists. About 85% of the Russian empire's population
earned their living from agriculture.
ii. Industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St. Petersburg and
Moscow. Craftsman undertook much of the production, but large factories existed
alongside craft workshops.
iii. Many factories were set up in the 1890s, when Russia's railway network was extended
and foreign investment in industry increased. Coal production doubled and iron and
steel output quadruped.
iv. Workers were a divided social group. Some had strong links with the villages from
which they came. Others had settled in cities permanently.
v. Women made up 31% of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than
men (between half and three-quarters of a man's wage).
vi. In the countryside, peasants cultivated most of the land but the nobility, the crown and
the Orthodox Church owned large properties.
vii. Politically, Russia was an autocracy. Unlike other European countries, The Tsar was not
subject to a Parliament. All political parties were illegal in Russia. Liberals in Russia
 campaigned to end this state of affairs.

10. How were the peasants of Russia different from the rest of Europe? Ans.
i. Russia's people were agriculturists. About 85% of the Russian empire’s population
earned their living from agriculture. This proportion was higher than in most
European countries. For instance, in France and Germany the proportion was between
40% and 50%.
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ii. In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. They had no
respect for them, whereas in other parts of Europe, the nobles were respected. iii. Russian
farmers pooled their land together periodically, and their Commune
divided it according to the needs of the individual families. This never happened in
other parts of Europe.

11. Trace the development of socialism in Russia.

Ans. By the mid19th century in Europe, socialism was a well-known body of ideas that attracted
widespread attention.
i. Formation of Russian Social Democratic Workers Party: The Russian Social
Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s
ideas. However, because of government policing, it had to operate as an illegal
organisation. It set up a newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes.
ii. Formation of Socialist Revolutionary Party: Socialist were active in the countryside
through the late 19th century. They formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900.
This party struggled for peasants rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles
be transferred to peasants.
iii. Division of the party: The party was divided over the strategy of organisation. Vladimir
Lenin (who led the Bolshevik group) thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist
Russia the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of
its members. Others (Mensheviks) thought that the party should be open to all (as in
Germany).
iv. Formation of government: After the Russian revolution of 1917 the first Socialist
government was formed in 1917.

12. How did Social democrats disagree with Socialist Revolutionaries? Ans. Social
Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries in the following ways: i. Social Democrats
believed workers to be the main force of revolution whereas Socialist Revolutionary argued that
peasants would be the revolutionary class. ii. Social Democrats wanted benefits for the workers
 and control on the factors of production. Socialist Revolutionaries on the other hand demanded
land to the peasants.
iii. Social Democrats felt that peasants were not a united group as they were rich and poor
and many owned large tracts of land. Socialist Revolutionaries favoured peasants as
natural socialists.

13. What was the difference between Bolshevik and the Menshevik group. Ans.
Bolsheviks
i. Vladimir Lenin was the leader of the party.
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ii. Lenin thought that in a repressive society like the Tsarist Russia the party should be
disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members. iii. They wanted to
transform Russian society through revolution.

Mensheviks
i. Alexander Kerensky was the leader of the party.
ii. This party was liberal and open to all.
iii. They wanted to transform the society through education and reforms among the
workers.

14. Describe the events that led to the 1905 Revolution of Russia. OR
Write a note on the Bloody Sunday incident.
Ans.
i. The year 1904 was a particularly bad one for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods
rose so quickly that the real wages declined by 20%.
ii. When four members of the Assembly of Russian workers were dismissed at the Putilov
Iron Works, the workers became agitated.
iii. In January 1905, a large number of peaceful workers led by Father Gapon reached the
Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to the Tsar.
iv. The workers were attacked by the police and the Cossacks. Over 100 workers were
killed and about 300 wounded. Since the incident took place on Sunday, it is known
as ‘Bloody Sunday’.
Consequences: Tsar under pressure from the masses was forced to announce his
manifesto which led to the formation of Duma.

15. Describe the steps taken by Tsar Nicholas II after the revolution to maintain his
authority.
 Ans. The following steps were taken by Tsar Nicholas II after the Russian Revolution to
maintain his authority:
i. Under pressure he allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma.
ii. Most committees and unions were declared illegal. Severe restrictions were placed on
political activity.
iii. Later he dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and re- elected a second Duma within
3 months.
iv. The voting laws were changed.
v. The third Duma was packed with conservatives and tried to keep liberals and
revolutionaries out of the Duma.
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16. ’The First World War is considered one of the major factors responsible for the Russian
Revolution of 1917.’Justify by giving examples.
Ans.
i. Russia became a part of the First World War in 1914. In the beginning, the war was
popular. The Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. This led to
weakened support within Russia. Anti-German sentiments among the Russians were
on an increase St Petersburg, a German name was renamed as Petrograd.
ii. In the First World War Russia lost more than 7 million soldiers. So there was discontent
among the masses.
iii. The war led to the destruction of crops, homes and industries. So over 3 million people
became refugees.
iv. The war also had a severe impact on industry. Russia had few industries and that too
were cut off from suppliers of industrial goods by German control of the Baltic Sea.
Industrial equipment begins to disintegrate, railway lines begin to break down.
v. Able-bodied men were called up to the war that resulted in labour shortages and
shutdown of small workshops.
vi. Grains were sent to feed the army which led to food shortage in cities. Riots at bread
shops were common.

17. State the main events leading to the February revolution and how this Revolution was
able to bring down the monarchy in Russia.
OR
Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?
Ans. The workers’ quarters and factories were located on the right Bank of the river Neva. On
the left Bank were the fashionable areas, the winter Palace and official buildings, including
 the palace where the Duma met.
i. In the winter of 1917, Petrograd was grim. There was food shortage in the workers’
quarters.
ii. 22nd February: a lockout took place at a factory. Workers of 50 other factories joined in
sympathy. Women also led and participated in the strikes. This came to be called the
International Women’s Day. Demonstrating workers cross from the factory quarters to
the centre of the capital-Nevskii Prospekt.
iii. The government imposed a curfew as the quarters of the fashionable area and official
buildings were surrounded by workers.
iv. On the 24th and 25th, the government called out the cavalry and police to keep an eye on
them.
v. On 25th February, the government suspended the Duma and politicians spoke against this
measure. The people were out with force once again.
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vi. On 27th, the police headquarters were ransacked.
vii. Cavalry was called out again however it refused to fire on demonstrators. viii. An officer
was shot at the barracks of a regiment and other regiments mutinied, voting to join the
striking workers gathered to form a soviet or council. This was the Petrograd Soviet.
ix. A delegation went to meet the Tsar, military commanders advised him to abdicate. x.
The Tsar abdicated on 2nd March.
xi. A Provincial Government was formed by the Soviet and Duma leaders to run the
country.
xii. The people involved were the parliamentarians, workers, women workers, soldiers and
military commanders.

18. Who was Lenin? What was ‘April theses’?

Ans. Lenin was one of the most important leaders of the Bolshevik Party. It was he who led the
Russian revolution of 1917. He was exiled for taking part in the 1905 revolution. i. He
declared that the war should be brought to a close.
ii. Land should be transferred to the peasants.
iii. Banks should be nationalised.
These three demands were Lenin’s ‘April theses’. He also argued that the Bolshevik
Party renamed itself the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims.

19. Why did ‘the Kerenskii government’ in Russia fall?

 Ans. The Kerenskii government became unpopular in Russia because of the following reasons:
i. Lenin: In April 1917 the Bolshevik leader Lenin returned to Russia from his exile. He
put forward the ‘April Theses’ due to which he got full support from the Russian
workers. Supporters in the army, factories and peasants were brought together under
one umbrella under his leadership.
ii. Trade unions and other organisations: After the February Revolution workers were
free to form associations and unions. So trade unions grew in number. iii. Conflict between
Bolsheviks and the government: Regular conflicts between the Bolsheviks and the
government weakened the government. Bolsheviks were supported by Soviet, army and
factory workers.
iv. Non-fulfillment of demands: The provisional government failed to meet any of the
demands of the workers and the common people.
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20. Which events led to the October revolution of 1917 in Russia? Ans. A conflict between the
Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin felt that the Provisional Government
would set up a dictatorship.
i. 16th October 1917 — Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party to agree
to a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by
the Soviet under Leon Trotskii to organise the seizure.
ii. Uprising began on 24th October. Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to summon troops.
iii. Military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers.
Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone and telegraph offices and
protect the Winter Palace.
iv. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered to seize government offices
and arrest the ministers.
v. The ‘Aurora’ ship shelled the Winter Palace. Other ships took over strategic points. vi. By
night the city had been taken over and ministers had surrendered. vii. All Russian Congress of
Soviets in Petrograd approved the Bolshevik action. viii. Heavy fighting in Moscow — by
December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow– Petrograd area.
ix. The people involved were Lenin, the Bolsheviks, and troops (pro-government).

21. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the
October Revolution?
Ans.
i. Nationalisation of Industries: Industries and banks were nationalised by November
1917, Government took over ownership and management.
 ii. No private property: The land was declared as a social property and peasants were
allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
iii. Partition of large houses: In the cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large
houses according to family requirements.
iv. Titles banned: Old titles of the aristocracy were banned.
v. New uniforms: New uniforms were designed for the army and officials. vi. Party
renamed : Bolshevik Party was renamed as the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)
vii. Peace: Immediately after coming to power, Lenin announced his decision to withdraw
from the First World War. He made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk. Negative:
i. Russia became a one party state. Trade unions were kept under party control. The secret
police (called the Cheka first, and later OGPU and NKVD) punished those who
criticized the Bolsheviks.
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ii. The steps taken by Bolsheviks led to the Civil War which increased the suffering of
common people.

22. What conditions led to the Russian civil war in 1918- 1920?
OR
Discuss the civil war that took place in Russia after the October Revolution and its
consequences.
Ans.
i. Impact of land redistribution policy on soldiers: When the Bolsheviks ordered land
redistribution, the Russian Army began to break up. Soldiers, mostly peasants, wished
to go home for the redistribution and deserted.
ii. Opposition from Greens and Whites: Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and
supporters of autocracy condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their leaders moved to
South Russia and organised Troops to fight the Bolsheviks (the reds). During 1918
and 1919, the greens (pro-Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire.
iii. Outside forces: The Greens and Whites were backed by French, American, British and
Japanese troops. All these forces were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia.
iv. Use of Force: In many parts, Bolshevik of colonies brutally massacred local nationalists
in the name of defending socialism. In this situation, many were confused about what
the Bolshevik government represented.
Consequences:
i. The civil war created confusion about the Bolsheviks way of working. ii. It
made the Bolsheviks quite unpopular.
 iii. Non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy.
iv. Nomadism was harshly discouraged. The Bolsheviks failed to win over different
nationalities.

23. Mention the important steps taken by Lenin to improve the agriculture and economy of
Russia.
Ans. The following steps were taken by Lenin to improve agriculture and the economy of Russia.
i. Most of the industries and banks were nationalised.
ii. He ordered land redistribution and permitted peasants to cultivate the land. iii.
Centralised planning was introduced. Five year plans were made.
iv. The government fixed all prices during the first two year plans.
v. Communes were set up and income was divided according to the principles of the
cooperative Commission.

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24. What steps were taken to improve the condition of factory workers and peasants in
Russia after the Civil War?
Ans. The following steps were taken to improve the conditions of factory workers in Russia after
the Civil War:
i. Various Industries were set up like in Magnitogorsk city.
ii. Extended schooling system developed so that factory workers could also accept
universities.
iii. Creches were established in factories for the children of women workers. iv. Cheap Public
Health Care was provided. Model living quarters were built up for workers.
v. Lenin ordered land redistribution and permitted peasants to cultivate the land. vi.
Communes were set up and income was divided according to the problems of the
cooperative Commission.

25. Explain the Collectivisation policy of Stalin.

Ans.
i. The collectivisation Policy was introduced by Stalin who came to power after the death
of Lenin.
ii. It was argued that grain shortage was partly due to the small size of the holding. iii. To
develop modern farms, and run them along industrial lines with machinery, it was necessary
to eliminate ‘kulaks’, take away land from peasants, and establish state- controlled large
farms.
 iv. From 1929, the government forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms
(kolkhoz).Peasants worked on the land, and the kolkhoz profit was shared. v. Enraged
peasants resisted the authorities, and destroyed their livestock. Between 1929 and 1931, the
number of cattle fell by one-third.
vi. Stalin’s government allowed some independent cultivation, but treated such cultivators
unsympathetically.
vii. In spite of collectivisation, production did not increase immediately.

26. Explain the global influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR. Ans. The
following was the global influence of Russian Revolution and the USSR: i. In many
countries, communist parties were formed on the line of Russia. ii. It gave the world a
new economic system known as socialism.
iii. The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to follow their experiment. It inspired a
number of freedom movements in other countries.
iv. Many non-Russian from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples
of the East and the Bolshevik founded the Comintern. Some even received education in
the USSR’s Communist University of the workers of the East.
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v. By the time the Second World War broke, socialism had acquired a global face. vi.
Though by the end of the 20th century, the image of the USSR as a socialist country
declined, yet its socialist ideas were respected and rethought in many ways suiting
individual interests.

27. Write a few lines to show what you know about:

i. Kulaks
ii. The Duma
iii. Women workers between 1900 and 1930
Ans. Kulaks
Wealthy peasants who Stalin believed were hoarding the grains to gain more profit. When the
towns faced acute shortage of grains, Kulaks were thought to be responsible for it. Stalin thought it
was necessary to eliminate them, so that farms could be modernized.

The Duma
In 1905, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma. The Tsar
dismissed the first Duma within 75 days and re-elected the second Duma within three months.
The Tsar did not want anyone to question his authority or undermine and reduce his powers. The
Tsar changed the voting laws and packed the Third Duma with conservative politicians. Liberals
and revolutionaries were kept out.

Women workers between 1900 and 1930

Their wages were less than the wages of men.
They formed 31% of the factory workforce